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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF THESIS / POSTGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT
Authors full name :

USMAN TASIU ABDURRAHMAN

Date of birth

6TH MARCH 1986

Title

APPLICATION OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS FOR

MEASURING FREE-FLOW SPEED ON ROADWAYS

Academic Session :

2013/2014

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

CONFIDENTIAL

(Contains confidential information under the Official Secret

Act 1972)*

RESTRICTED

(Contains restricted information as specified by the

OPEN ACCESS

organization where research was done)*

I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access
(full text)

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose
of research only.
3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by:

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

A03842721

ASSOC. PROF. DR. OTHMAN CHE PUAN

(NEW IC NO./PASSPORT NO.)

NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date: 28TH MAY 2014

Date: 28TH MAY 2014

NOTES:

If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

I hereby declare that I have read this project report and in my opinion
this project report is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of
degree of Master of Engineering (Civil Transportation and Highway)

Signature

Name

ASSOC. PROF. DR. OTHMAN CHE PUAN

Date

28th May 2014

APPLICATION OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS FOR

MEASURING FREE-FLOW SPEED ON ROADWAYS

USMAN TASIU ABDURRAHMAN

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil Transportation and Highway)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2014

ii

DECLARATION

I declare that this project reportentitled Application of direct and indirect

methods for measuring free flow speed on roadways is the result of my own
research except as cited in the references. Thisreporthas not been accepted for any
degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature

Name

USMAN TASIU ABDURRAHMAN

Date

28th May 2014

iii

I dearly dedicate this piece to my beloved Mum,

Hajia Ummulkhair Bint Sheikh Tijjani Usman;
and Dad, Alhaji Tasiu Abdurrahman.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises are due to Allah. Peace and blessings upon His messenger, the
best Human ever, Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu alaihi wasallam.

I wholeheartedly acknowledge an immense guide from my supervisor:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Othman Che Puan, who spared time, energy and resources for the
realization this research.

Kudos to my family, lecturers, friends and colleagues, for the day-to-day

support, that actively contributed to my success. A colossal appreciation goes to
Engr. Mahadi Lawan Yakubu and Engr. Muttaka Naiya Ibrahim for the enormous
effort towards the successful completion of this work.

Vote of thanks to the Kano state Government Nigeria, under the leadership
of Engr. (Dr.) Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso for the financial platform provided for this
program.

ABSTRACT

Free flow speed (FFS) is the drivers desired speed on roadways at low
traffic volume and with the absence of traffic control devices. The determination of
FFS is a fundamental step in the analysis of two-lane highways. FFS can either be
determined using field measurements or estimated using existing empirical models.
Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual (MHCM) provides a model for estimating
FFS based on base-free-flow-speed (BFFS), roadways geometric features and
proportion of motorcycles in the traffic stream. This model was compared against
observed FFS obtained using Moving Car Observer (MCO) method which was in
accordance with the suggested two-way flow rate below 200 veh/h, by the Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM). Mean speeds were observed at higher flow rates and
adjusted accordingly using a model provided by the HCM. Moving car observer
method was used for collecting the relevant data related to travel time, speed, flow
rate and traffic composition, by using a video recording instrumented test vehicle.
The roadway geometric features were measured manually. Field measurements
were carried out on ten directional segments of rural two-lane highways in Johor,
Malaysia. Field data obtained were analyzed to estimate FFS on each segment.
Statistical analyses indicate that there is a statistically significant difference between
the FFS observed using MCO method and the estimated FFS using MHCM method.
Such a finding suggests that there is a need to review the validity of the model
provided in the MHCM for accuracy of the analyses.

vi

ABSTRAK

Laju aliran bebas (FFS) adalah kelajuan yang diingini oleh pemandu ketika
memandu dalam keadaan aliran lalu lintas rendah dan jalan raya tanpa peranti
kawalan lalu lintas. Penentuan FFS adalah langkah asas dalam analisis jalan raya
dua lorong. FFS boleh ditentukan menggunakan ukuran di lapangan atau model
empirical sediada. Manual Kapasiti Lebuhraya Malaysia (MHCM) menyediakan
model empirical untuk menghitung FFS berdasarkan laju aliran bebas asas (BFFS),
ciri-ciri geometri jalan dan jumlah motorsikal dalam aliran lalu lintas. Model ini
dibandingkan dengan data FFS yang dicerap menggunakan Kaedah Pemerhati
Bergerak (MCO) yang disukat ketika aliran rendah, iaita kurang dari 200 kend/jam.
Purata laju ketika aliran tinggi juga dicerap dan diselaraskan mengikut model HCM.
Kaedah pemerhati bergerak digunakan untuk mencerap data yang relevan dengan
masa perjalanan, laju, kadar alir dan komposisi lalu lintas menggunakan kenderaan
yang dilengkapi dengan kamera video rakaman. Geometri jalan disukat secara
manual. Cerapan data lapangan dilakukan bagi sepuluh segmen jalan mengikut arah
lalu lintas bagi jalan rural dua lorong di Johor, Malaysia. Data lapangan yang
diperolehi dianalisis untuk menganggarkan FFS pada setiap segmen. Analisis
statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan statistik yang signifikan antara
FFS cerapan dengan menggunakan kaedah MCO dan FFS yang dianggarkan
menggunakan kaedah MHCM.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

DECLARATION

ii

DEDICATION

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iv

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vii

LIST OF TABLES

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

xvi

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

1.2 Background

1.3 Statement of the problem

1.4 Aim and Objectives

1.5 Scope and Limitation

1.6 Significance of the Study

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

2.2 Speed

2.2.1 Time mean speed

viii
2.2.2 Space mean speed

2.3 Road Segments

2.4 Two-Lane highways

10

2.4.1 Classification of Two-Lane Highways

2.5 Level of Service

11
12

2.5.1 LOS for Two-Lane Highways

13

2.5.2 LOS for Multilane Highways

14

2.6 Speed and travel time Studies

15

2.6.1 License plate method

16

2.6.2 Test vehicle method

17

2.6.2.1 Driving techniques

17

2.6.2.2 Manual Data Collection

19

2.6.2.3 Automatic Data Collection

19

2.6.3 Vehicle Signature Matching Method

20

2.6.4 Transit Speed and Delay Study

21

2.6.5 Platoon Matching Method

21

2.6.5.1 Direct Observation Method

22

2.6.5.2 Aerial Surveys

22

2.6.6 Box-Cox Method

2.6.7 Other Speed and Travel Time Study
Methods
2.7 Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual
2.7.1 Free-Flow Speed Determination Using
MHCM
2.8 Factors affecting free-flow speed

22
23
23
25
28

2.8.1 Lane width

28

2.8.2 Shoulder width

28

2.8.3 Access points

29

2.8.4 No-Passing Zones

29

2.9 Moving Car Observer Method

30

2.1 Conclusion

34

ix
3

METHODOLOGY

35

3.1 Overview

35

3.2 General Framework of the Methodology

36

3.3 Site Selection

37

3.3.1 Study Site Locations

3.4 Data Requirements

40

3.4.1 Geometric Features

41

3.4.2 Traffic Data

41

3.4.3 Instrumentation

42

3.5 Site Data Collection

42

3.5.1 Field Measurements

43

3.5.2 Field Observations

43

3.5.3 Traffic Data Collection

44

3.5.3.1 Video VBox Setting

46

3.5.3.2 Test Runs

45

3.6 Data Extraction

46

3.7 Data Analysis

47

3.7.1 Phase 1 Data Analysis

3.7.1.1 Malaysian Highway Capacity
Manual Method
3.7.1.2 Moving Car Observer Method
3.7.2 Phase 2 Data Analysis
3.7.2.1 Malaysian Highway Capacity
Manual Model
3.7.2.2 Highway Capacity Manual
Adjustment Model

37

48
48
49
50
50

51

3.8 Conclusion

52

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

53

4.1 Overview

53

4.2 Phase 1: MCO Application

53

4.2.1 Geometry of the Segments

54

4.2.2 Moving Car Observer Method

55

x
4.2.3 Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual
Method
4.2.4 Comparison of FFS estimates from
MCO and MHCM Approaches

57

4.2.4.1 Regression Analysis

59

4.2.4.2 Statistical T-Test

61

4.3 Phase 2: Models Comparison

61

4.3.1 Geometry of the Segments

62

4.3.2 HCM Adjustment Model

62

4.3.3 MHCM Estimation Model

64

4.3.4 Comparison of the HCM and MHCM

Estimation Models

56

65

4.4 Conclusion

68

CONCLUSION

69

5.1 Overview

69

5.2 Research Findings

70

5.3 Recommendations for Future Research

71

5.4 Concluding Remarks

72

REFERENCES

73

BIBLIOGRAPHY

75

APPENDICES

77

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO

TITLE

PAGE

2.1

LOS Criteria for Class I two-lane highways (TRB, 2000)

14

2.2

LOS Criteria for Class II two-lane highways (TRB, 2000)

14

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

Level of Service Criteria for Multilane Highways (TRB,

2000)
Free-flow speed reduction for lane width and paved
shoulder width (HPU, 2011)
Free-flow speed reduction for access points density (HPU,
2011)
Free-flow speed reduction based on proportion of
motocycles (HPU, 2011)

15

26

27

27

4.1

Roadways Geometry

54

4.2

Free Flow Speed Using Moving Car Observer Method

55

4.3

Free Flow Speed Using MHCM Method

57

4.4

Comparison of Estimated FFSs

58

4.5

Geometry of the Roadways

62

4.6

FFS Using HCM Adjustment Model

63

xii
4.7

FFS Using MHCM Estimation Model

64

4.8

Comparison of FFS Estimation Models

65

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

2.1

Speed Classes

2.2

Moving-Observer Method

31

3.1

Methodology Flowchart

36

3.2

Video VBox Components

44

4.1

Comparison between FFSMCO and FFSMHCM

59

4.2

Relationship between FFSMCO and FFSMHCM

60

4.3

Comparison between FFSHCM and FFSMHCM

67

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/SYMBOLS

ANOVA

Analysis of Variance

APD

Access Points Density

ATS

Average Travel Speed

BFFS

Base Free Flow Speed

CAM

Camera

DMI

Distance Measuring Instrument

ER

Passenger-car equivalent for RVs

ET

Passenger-car equivalent for trucks

fAPD

Adjustment for access points density

fLS

Adjustment for lane width and shoulder width

fm

Adjustment for motorcycles

FDOT

Florida Department of Transportation

FFS

Free Flow Speed

FFSm

Mean Free Flow Speed

fHV

Heavy-vehicle adjustment factor

GPS

Global Positioning System

HCM

Highway Capacity Manual

HPU

Highway Planning Unit

ITE

Institute of Transportation Engineers

Km/h

Kilometre per Hour

KST-UTR

Kampung Sungai Tiram-to-Ulu Tiram

KUL-KTG

Kulai-to-Kota Tinggi

LOS

Level of Service

Lw

Lane Width

MCO

Moving Car Observer

xv
MHCM

Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual

MRS-END

Mersing-to-Endau

NB

Northbound

PCE

Passenger Car Equivalent

PMc

Proportion of Motorcycles

PNT-KKP

Pontian-to-Kukup

PR

Proportion of recreational vehicles

Pt

Proportion of Trucks

PTSF

Percent Time Spent Following

Average Directional Flow Rate

REN KUL -

Renggam-to-Kulai

RV

Recreational Vehicle

SB

Southbound

SFM

Mean traffic speed

SHw

Shoulder Width

SPSS

Statistical Product and Service Solutions

Mean travel time

TRB

Transportation Research Board

UAV

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

VBox

Video Box

Vf

Observed Flow rate

WIM

Weight in Motion

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

Traffic Volume Extraction Form

78

Raw Data for Six Directional Segments

80

Regression Analyses Output

84

Paired Sample T-Test Output

89

Raw Data for Four Directional Segments

92

Passenger Car Equivalents (PCE)

95

Speed Reduction Tables (HPU, 2011)

97

Statistical T-Test Output

99

Google Images of the Study Routes

102

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Overview

Speed refers to a measure of the rate of motion. It is a distance travelled per

unit time spent travelling. Speed is a fundamental measure of traffic performance of
road segments. Vehicles on road travels at absolutely different speeds, no single
speed can be assigned to the whole vehicles on traffic stream. Speed can be
presented in a number of ways such as in the form of spot speed, travel speed,
running speed and free-flow speed.

Free-flow speed (FFS) refers to an average speed of vehicles on road

segments not close to an intersection under conditions of low vehicular density
(Roess et al. 2004). It is a significant variable used in estimating the expected
operating conditions of highways, and it is only possible when the traffic volume on
the road segment is below capacity. A key step in analyzing capacity and level of
service for uninterrupted flow condition is the determination of free-flow speed.
FFS together with demand flow rates are used in determining average travel speed
of roadway facility. FFS is also used to determine urban street class, to estimate
running time for roadway segments, and to analyze capacity and level of service

2
for uninterrupted flow conditions (HPU, 2011). In addition, FFS is an important
factor used to analyze the performance of highways.

Free-flow speed being the desired speed of drivers, at low volume situation
and with absence of traffic control devices, is affected by a number of factors, such
as number of lanes, lane widths, lateral clearance, access point density, geometric
design and visibility. Other factors with little influence include speed limit, level of
enforcement, horizontal and vertical alignment, weather and lighting conditions
(TRB, 2000).

1.2

Background

For two-lane highways, free-flow speed is measured or determined at twoway flow of 200veh/h or less. In cases where the two-way flow is above 200veh/h,
volume adjustment has to be made to the FFS. However, the magnitude of free-flow
speed depends on the physical characteristics of the highway. According to the
American highway capacity manual (HCM) (TRB, 2000), FFS will be lower on
sections of highway with restricted horizontal and/or vertical alignment and it tends
to be lower when posted speed limits are lower.

FFS is also considered as the theoretical flow of vehicle on road segment

when density on the road is zero. That is when there are no vehicles present on the
road. This speed can generally be determined in two methods, i.e. field
measurement and estimation. There are a number of ways for determining the FFS
using field measurement procedure, among which is the Malaysian highway
capacity manual (MHCM) method. Under this study, Moving Car Observer (MCO)
Method was checked for its applicability on Free-flow speed measurements.

3
Moving car observer method was originally proposed by Wardrop and
Charlesworth (1954) as a way of estimating journey time and average flow of traffic
travelling in either direction on road segment. The method is based on the
measurements made by the moving observer (in a vehicle) through the traffic. The
observer is expected to travel in a test car in the direction of the stream considered
(with flow) and be recording the number of vehicles overtaken and the number of
vehicles passed. A run is also made against the flow (from the other direction),
counting the number of opposing vehicles met during the run. In both runs, the
journey time of the test car is recorded (Wright, 1973). These measurements are
then used in computing speed-flow relationships for the road segment. Multiple
runs are always encouraged for accuracy.

Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual (MHCM) (2011 version) being a

product of the Highway Planning Unit (HPU) of the ministry of works, Malaysia, is
the second version of the Malaysian highway capacity manual, i.e. after the 2006
version. The manual was organized as a result of laborious empirical studies carried
out to establish related capacity values and relationships best representing the
highway situations in Malaysia. The manual provide a model for the determination
of free-flow speed on two-lane highways based on the base free-flow speed and
some adjustments with regard to the traffic and roadway conditions. The adjustment
factors considered in the manual are the lane width and shoulder width, access point
density and the proportion on motorcycles in the traffic.

The base free flow speed is a speed that reflects the alignment of the facility
and the character of the traffic. It is determined based on speed data, design speed
of the facility, posted speed limits and local knowledge of operating condition on
similar facilities to the roadway under consideration.

4
1.3

Statement of the problem

It is not uncommon to find out two or more different approaches to same

entity yielding entirely or relatively different results or outcomes, even when
measured on the same facility and during the same period. In which case, a study
will then be needed to find out how are those approaches related to one another, and
how reliable are their outcomes in relation to one another. This is because; different
approaches for computing same entity sometimes fail to comply with one another.

Considering the importance of free-flow speed in traffic engineering, it is

therefore necessary to determine the free flow speed on roads as accurate as
possible. This study therefore focused on the determination of free flow speed using
two approaches, i.e. the Malaysian highway capacity manual method and the
moving car observer method. Each of the two methods has a different approach and
procedure for the determination of the free flow speed, using different factors. The
study compared results obtained from the two approaches, figure out the
applicability of the moving car observer method used, in relation to the Malaysian
highway capacity manual method, and then a conclusion was drawn in form of
relationship between the two approaches. Free flow speed estimation models (with
varying inputs) were also compared.

1.4

Aim and Objectives

This study is aimed at determining free-flow speed on two-lane highways

using Malaysian highway capacity manual method making base with observed freeflow speed using moving car observer method.

5
The study is based on the following objectives

i.

To estimate and compare free flow speeds on selected two-lane highways

using the Malaysian highway capacity manual method and the moving car
observer method.

ii.

To estimate and compare free flow speeds using HCM adjustment model
and MHCM estimation model.

1.5

Scope and Limitation

This study focused on free flow speed determination along six selected
directional segments on two-lane highways in Johor Bahru, Malaysia - using the
Malaysian highway capacity manual method and the moving car observer method.
Four more directional segments (on two-lane highways as well) were considered for
free flow speed estimation using HCM adjustment model and MHCM estimation
model. Roads with different traffic conditions were considered.

1.6

Significance of the Study

The Malaysian highway capacity manual method of computing free flow

speed is quite different from the moving car observer method. The MHCM
approach focuses mainly on the geometric features of the road in addition to base
free flow speed (BFFS).

6
Moving car observer method is a method depending on data taken while in
motion on that very road. The speed computed by this method is as a result of
multiple runs performed, taking along the statistics of the vehicles in motion on that
road segment with regard to the direction of movement and relative to the
movement of the test vehicle.

The different directions taken by these two approaches in finding out

roadway conditions, might yield different results or otherwise when conducted on
the same facility (road segment). To know whether these two approaches can prove
the reliability of one another or not, a comparison study needs to be conducted
using the two approaches on the same facility. This study highlighted how the two
approaches relate to one another in terms of free flow speed on two-lane highways.

For a similar reason, FFS estimation models need such comparative task; as
such MHCM FFS estimation model was compared against HCM FFS adjustment
model, at the end of this study.