Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1History:The first attempt to create solid objects using photopolymers using a laser
took place in the late 1960s at Battelle Memorial Institute. The experiment
involved intersecting two laser beams of differing wave length in the middle
of a vat of resin, attempting to polymerize (solidify) the material at the point
of intersection. In the early 1970s, Formigraphic Engine Co. used the duallaser approach in the first commercial laser-prototyping project, a process it
called photochemical machining. In the late 1970s, Dynell Electronics Corp.
was assigned a series of patents on solid photography.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEREOLITHOGRAPHYHideo Kodama of the Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute
(Nagoya, Japan) was among the first to invent the single-beam laser curing
approach, according to several sources. In October 1980, Kodama published
a paper titled Three-Dimensional Data Display by Automatic Preparation of
a Three-Dimensional Model that outlined his work in detail. His
experiments consisted of projecting UV rays using a Toshiba mercury lamp
and a photosensitive resin called Tevistar.
In August 1982, Alan Herbert of 3M Graphic Technologies Sector
Laboratory published a paper titled Solid Object Generation in the Journal of
Applied Photographic Engineering. In this paper, Herbert described a system
that directs an Argon Ion laser beam onto the surface of photopolymer by
means of a mirror system attached to an x-y pen plotter device. With the
system, Herbert was able to create several small, basic shapes. In August
1984, Charles Hull, co-founder and chief technical officer of 3D Systems (at
that time, in Valencia, California), applied for a U.S. patent titled Apparatus
for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography, which
was granted in March 1986.
Osaka Prefectural Industrial Research Institute
In 1984, Yoji Marutani of the Osaka Prefectural Industrial Research Institute
(OPIRI), also referred to as the Osaka Institute of Industrial Technology,
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developed and demonstrated a stereolithography process. Its not clear whether his
work was connected with Kodamas early work, although theres a very good
chance that Marutani at least studied Kodamas May 1980 patent application and
his October 1980 and November 1981 technical papers. Its also possible that
Marutani obtained a copy of Herberts 1982 paper, but its doubtful that Marutani
knew about Hulls and Andres work in 1984.OPIRI was later commercialized.

1.2 Commercial History

Additive manufacturing first emerged in 1987 with stereo lithography (SL) from
3D Systems, a process that solidifies thin layers of ultraviolet (UV) light sensitive
liquid polymer using a laser.
In 1988,3D Systems and Ciba-Geigy partnered in SL materials development and
commercialized the first-generation SLAs. After 3D Systems commercialized SL
in the U.S., Japans NTT Data CMET and Sony/D-MEC commercialized versions
of stereo lithography in 1988 and 1989, respectively. In 1990 Electro Optical
Systems (EOS) of Germany sold its first Stereo lithography system.
In 1991, three AM technologies were commercialized, including fused
deposition modeling (FDM) from Stratasys , solid ground curing (SGC) from
Cubital, and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) from Helisys. Selective laser
sintering (SLS) from DTM (now a part of 3D Systems) and the Soli form stereo
lithography system from Teijin Seiki became available in 1992. In 1993, Soligen
commercialized direct shell production casting (DSPC). Using an inkjet
mechanism, DSPC deposited liquid binder onto ceramic powder to form shells for
use in the investment-casting process. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) invented and patented the process that Soligen used. 1994 was a year of
many new additive-manufacturing system introductions. Model Maker from
Solidscape (then called Sanders Prototype) became available, as did new systems
from Japanese and European companies. In 1996, Stratasys introduced the Genisys
machine, which used an extrusion process similar to FDM but based on technology
developed at IBMs Watson Research Center. In 1998, Beijing Yinhua Laser Rapid
Prototypes Making & Mould Technology Co., Ltd. stepped up the promotion of its
products. In March 1999, 3D Systems introduced a faster and less expensive
version of Actua 2100 called Thermo Jet.
April 2000 was a month full of new
technology introductions. Objet Geometries of Israel announced Quadra, a 3D
inkjet printer that deposited and hardened photopolymer using 1,536 nozzles and a
UV light source. In early 2002, Stratasys introduced its Dimension product at a
price of $29,900. The Dimension machine, which deposits ABS plastic, is based on
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the former Prodigy product. In February 2003, Z Corp. introduced its ZPrinter 310
system. The product, then priced at $29,900, uses technology similar to the
companys other powder based 3D printers. At EuroMold 2004, EOS introduced
the EOSINT P 385, a plastic material system capable of thinner layers than were
possible with its predecessor.
In April 2005, 3D Systems unveiled the Sinter station Pro, a large-frame laser
sintering machine with part breakout, powder handling, and recycling. In February
2006, 3D Systems announced its In Vision DP (dental professional) system that
includes an In Vision 3D printer and 3D scanner for the dental market. In January
2007, 3D Systems announced the V-Flash 3D printer. It uses film transfer and
flash-imaging technology. In January 2010, Stratasys and HP signed an agreement
for Stratasys to manufacture an exclusive line of HP-branded 3D printers. In March
2010, Stratasys extended its SMART supports capability to its entire line of
Dimension and Fortus machines, allowing for build time reductions of up to 14%
and reduction in support material by 40%.

1.3 Manufacturing Systems

Four major types of manufacturing processes are typically considered1) Forming- It is probably one of the oldest form. In forming process
something is smashed into desired shape. For example forging, rolling,
extrusion and drawing.

2) Joining process- In joining process two substances are joined to produce

desired shapes. Well known processes are like welding, soldering and
brazing.

3) Removal processes or subtractive machining- In this process metal is

removed to get the desired shape. We start with a lump of material, cut it
away, cut it away .cut it away until the desired shape is obtained.

4) Additive manufacturing- In this process we start with some form of material

and we keep adding to it layer by layer typically to create a desired shape.It
starts with a powder and laser cause them to bond together.

Chapter 2

Most Prevalent Processes in AM

2.1 Stereolithography
Process-Thin layer of UV sensitive liquid polymers are solidified
through the use of laser.
Basic Principle- Stereolithography is a photopolymerisation
process, where under exposure of UV radiation small molecules
(monomers) in a resin form larger molecules. Three main photopolymer
system used in it are acrylate, epoxy resin and vinyl ether.

Figure 2.1 Stereolithography: (1) at the start of the process, in which the
initial layer is added to the platform; and (2) after several layers have
been added so that the part geometry gradually takes form.

2.1.1Part Built Time

Time to complete a single layer :

where Ti = time to complete layer i; Ai = area of layer i; v = average

scanning speed of the laser beam at the surface; D = diameter of the
spot size, assumed circular; and Td = delay time between layers to
reposition the worktable
Once the Ti values have been determined for all layers, then the build
cycle time is:

where Tc = SLA build cycle time; and nl = number of layers used to

approximate the part
Time to build a part ranges from one hour for small parts of simple
geometry up to several dozen hours for complex parts.
Benefits
No milling or masking steps needed.

Can be highly accurate

Only one material needed for build and support

Downsides
Requires post curing of material

Long term curing can lead to warping

Can have brittle parts with a tacky surface

Support structures are often needed

Material is toxic and light sensitive

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2.2 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

ProcessHeated thermoplastics are extruded through nozzles , extruded
material hardens as it cools.
Basic PrincipleProcess starts with a 3D CAD model sliced into thin layers in Z-axis.
These sliced layers are used to drive an extrusion head of FDM machine.
The building material, in the form of a thin solid filament, is fed from a
spool to a movable head controlled by servomotors. Second filament is
fed from adjacent nozzle for support material, used to give support for
overhanged or cantilever features. The filament reaches the liquifier
head, melts it and then extruded through a nozzle onto the part surface.
After covering the whole cross section build platform descends by one
layer thickness to lay down the next layer. Process repeats itself until full
3D part is formed. The temperature of machine chamber is precisely
controlled below the melting point of the material so that only little
amount of heat is required to melt the filament and on the other hand
part need to be kept cool enough so that the molten material solidifies
upon contact.

Fig 2.2
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Benefits Can use standard engineering thermoplastics such as ABS.

Can use multiple materials (One for bulid, one for support)
Can produce water tight parts
Parts are hardened very quickly
Downsides Poor layer uniformity
Delamination of extruded layers can be problematic
Parts can have a rather coarse surface finish

2.3 3D Printing
Process- Molten/liquid plastics printed along with wax support structure.
Basic Principle3DP also known as 3D printing works on FDM principle as a layered
manufacturing process. 3DP offers prototypes with thermoplastic
Polyester material. A thin bead of molten plastic is extruded through the
computer controlled nozzle, which is deposited on a layer-by-layer basis
to construct a prototype directly from 3D CAD data. The technology is
commonly applied to initial conceptual design.

Fig 2.3
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Benefits Can be fast

Can do very fine details
Relatively clean/ office friendly
Downsides Can be expensive
Removal of wax
Support structure material necessary

2.4 Sintering
ProcessLasers used to selectively sinter/fuse layers of powdered materials.
Basic Principle- SLS process produces parts directly from 3D CAD
model; layer by layer similar to SLA but rather than liquid resin powder
is used. The CO2 Laser provides a concentrated heating beam which is
traced over the tightly compacted layer of fine heat-fusible powder. The
temperature in the entire chamber is maintained little below the melting
point of the powder. So laser slightly raises the temperature to cause
sintering, means welding without melting. For next level, piston moves
down along with the formed object and powder is spread with a roller
for next layer. Process repeats until full object is formed.

Fig 2.4
Benefits Can be very strong
Can use nylons, elastomers , metals (e.g. Ti and stainless steel)
Powder support material easy to remove
Can create hard/dense part
Downsides Powdery , rough, porous surface
Can be very expensive

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Chapter 3
Design Analysis and Comparisions
3.1 Stereolithographic design
Dimensional parameters: Each layer in SLA is 0.076 mm to 0.50 mm (0.003 in to 0.020
in.) thick
Thinner layers provide better resolution and more intricate
shapes; but processing time is longer
Starting materials are liquid monomers
Polymerization occurs on exposure to UV light produced by
laser scanning beam
Scanning speeds ~ 500 to 2500 mm/s
RenShape SL 7560 Description
SL 7560 is durable SLA material that simulates ABS - like parts,
provides good combination of durability and rigidity.
Use of this material Suitable for Durable and rigid parts with having outstanding
appearance
Excellent for RTV patterns and functional applications.
Excellent side wall finish and fine features and good temperature
performance.
Somos WaterClear 10120:
Description
Somos WaterClear 10120 is a high-speed liquid photo-polymer that
produces strong, rigid and durable parts with optical clarity.
Use of this material
This material is especially useful in applications requiring optical
clarity such as fluid flow analysis, stress analysis or transparent show
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models where internal features need to be displayed. Other application

where strong and durable products without the brittleness.

3.2 Fused Deposition Modeling Design

How the FDM process works
First, a part model is created in a STL file with AutoCad or another
design program..
The model needs to be imported into Stratasys software, Insight.
The software slices the .stl file into horizontal layers mathematically,
generating the required supports.
Insight creates tool paths required for the extrusion head.
The system draws cross-sectional layers one at a time in the X, Y, and
Z coordinate by using a heated material extrusion process.
How the parts built
Import the .stl file of part model into Stratasys software, Insight,
which slices the model into horizontal layers.
The supports are created if they are needed and the tool paths for the
extrusion head are planned.
ABS material feeds into the temperature-controlled FDM extrusion
head, where it is heated to a semi-liquid state.
The head extrudes and deposits the material in 0.254mm layers onto a
fixtureless base, one layer at a time in X and Y coordinates first.
When the layer is finished, the head moves in Z direction to the next
layer.
Each layer is extruded with precision, and the layers are bonded and
solidified.
The designed object becomes a solid three-dimensional part.

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Material :-

Tough,Durable and accurate parts for functional testing.

When functionality is more important than surface finish.
Cost:The cost to create a part on FDM depends on the time and materials used
to create the part. Since FDM builds upon layers, complexity is less of
an issue on cost and rather it is the work to create mass that consumes
resources. Therefore, creating bigger parts becomes costly using FDM.
Small parts can be created for under $50, with larger parts costing more.
Time:Like cost, the time it takes to create a part using FDM depends on the
size of the part. Each layer created requires time to set before the next
layer can be placed on top and the process to continue. So it can be seen
that dimensionally longer parts with mass will take more time to create
rather than smaller, hollow parts. The range in tame it takes to create
these parts will vary from a couple of hours to multiple days.

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3.3 3D PRINTING
3DP also known as 3D printing, this Printer allows to try new design
iterations quickly and cheaply. The printer uses durable polyester
material. These concept models will provide considerable functional
strength and can be drilled, tapped, and sanded. These Polyester parts
are little flexible and can also be used for limited snap fitting features.
Materials:-

Use of this material:Durable parts for limited testing and it is suitable for parts where little
flexibility is needed.

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3.4 Sintering
SLS system provides a wide variety of material choices enable us to
create functional prototypes, direct tooling, and patterns - even final
parts. Being able to use polymers, glass-filled nylon, metal and
composites give a lot of flexibility to quickly produce one or many
components without the typical delays associated with traditional
manufacturing methods.
Materials:Material Class - Thermoplastic
Use of this material
DuraForm PA material is ideal for parts with superior surface quality,
fine details and functional features such as living hinges and snap fit
connections. Plus DuraForm PA material can be used for modeling and
testing surgical devices and can be sterilized with an autoclave.
DuraForm GF material's increased stiffness, heat resistance and
mechanical integrity make it perfect material for extreme testing
conditions, e.g. DuraForm connector with snap fits, hinges and locking
cams recently withstood temperature up to 100C and an electrical
charge of 460 Amps.
Benefits
Durable parts without tooling
Heat and chemical resistant, Machinable, weldable and has excellent
surface quality High feature definition and detail, High durability and
stability

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3.5 Comparisions

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Brief about all the technologiesSLA- Excellent surface finish suitable for presentation, master models
and light functional testing.
FDM- Good combination of strength and surface finish at affordable
price and lead time.
3DP- Suitable for general purpose parts for initial design stage with a
quick delivery
SLS- Range of materials available, soft like rubber to strong like metal.
SLS Nylon suitable for snap and living hinge features
CNC- Use when mechanical properties cannot be compromised with any
additive RP process.

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Chapter 4
4. AM Applications
4.1 Aerospace
The aerospace industry desires parts that are lightweight and
strong and sometimes electrically conductive. They are seeking
a standard set of AM materials, as well as a design manual for
the materials and processes, but neither are currently available.
Furthermore, they require material and process standards that
ensure part quality and consistency across machines and builds.
Turbine blades made by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
from EOS (a German manufacturer of laser sintering/melting
systems) have found their way onto test rigs. Morris Tech
believes that a variety of metal parts made by additive
manufacturing will initially make their way onto flying aircraft
in 2-3 years and will become common in 10 years.
4.2 Surgery and dental
The market for the production of dental products using AM is
on the verge of explosive growth. Already many dental labs are
using DMLS from EOS and other direct metal AM processes for
the production of copings for crowns and bridges. EOS has
reported that the dental business is currently its fastest growing
area of AM for production applications

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Fig 4.1
4.3 Automotive and Motorsports
The opportunity to use AM to manufacture parts for vehicles is
substantial. Production runs of high-end, specialty cars are
relatively small. Consequently, these products are candidates for
using AM for part production. Already, companies such as
Bentley and Rover have shown that it is feasible and have used
AM for small, complex parts. Likewise, the motorsports
industry (both cars and motorcycles) will benefit greatly from
improved helmet design brought about from AM. This includes
aftermarket products that are custom, semicustom,
and standard.
4.4 Cellular Design
The ability to put material only where it is desired could have
a profound impact on how parts are designed and
manufacturing. Cellular materials are examples of materials
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that are structured as repeated cells; their geometry enables a

high degree of optimization which provides the opportunity
for designers to control readily the distribution of material in a
part. These materials can achieve high stiffness or strength per
unit mass and can provide good energy absorption
characteristics and good thermal and acoustic insulation
properties
4.5 Regenerative turbines
The complexity of the modified blade profiles would normally
necessitate the use of expensive computer numerically
controlled machining with five-axis capability. With an impeller
less than 75mm in diameter with a maximum blade thickness of
1.3 mm, a rapid manufacturing technique enabled production of
complex blade profiles that are dimensionally accurate and
structurally robust enough for testing.

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Chapter 5
AM and Environment
They use excessive material as they are designed for processes such as
machining and molding. Moreover, they are made in geographically
disparate locations, often dictated by the location of tooling in low labor
cost economies. There are a number of clear, potential benefits to the
adoption of AM for part production, which could be driven by the
sustainability agenda. These include:
1). More efficient use of raw materials in powder/liquid form by
displacing machining which uses solid billets
2). Displacing of energy-inefficient manufacturing processes such as
casting and CNC machining with eradication of cutting fluids and chips
3). Ability to eliminate fixed asset tooling, allowing for manufacture at
any geographic location such as next to the customer, reducing
transportation costs within the supply chain and associated carbon
emissions
4). Lighter weight parts, which when used in transport products such as
aircraft increase fuel efficiency and reduce carbon emissions
5. Ability to manufacture optimally designed components that are in
themselves more efficient than conventionally manufactured
components by incorporating conformal cooling and heating channels,
gas flow paths, etc.

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CONCLUSION
Additive manufacturing (AM) technology has been researched
and developed for more than 20 years. Rather than removing
materials, AM processes make three-dimensional parts directly
from CAD models by adding materials layer by layer, offering
the beneficial ability to build parts with geometric and material
complexities that could not be produced by subtractive
manufacturing processes. Through intensive research over the
past two decades, significant progress has been made in the
development and commercialization of new and innovative
AM processes, as well as numerous practical applications in
aerospace, automotive, biomedical, energy and other fields.

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REFERENCES
Jane Chu, Sarah Engelbrecht, Gregory Graf, David W. Rosen, (2010) "A
comparison of synthesis methods for cellular structures with application
to additive manufacturing", Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 16 Iss: 4,
pp.275 283
Francis J. Quail, Thomas Scanlon and Matthew Strickland(2010)
Development of a regenerative pump impeller using rapid
manufacturing techniques ,Rapid Prototyping Journal Volume 16
Number 5 2010 pp 337344
Tomaz Brajlih, Bogdan Valentan, Joze Balic, Igor Drstvensek, (2011)
"Speed and accuracy evaluation of additive manufacturing machines",
Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 17 Iss: 1, pp.64 75
http://wohlersassociates.com/terms.html
http://additivemanufacturing.com/
http://www.ge.com/stories/additive-manufacturing
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/71023917/ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING-AND-THE-ENVIRONMENT
http://www.arptech.com.au/slshelp.htm

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