Research note

Integrated agricultural
development in highaltitude tribal areas
A participatory watershed
programme in the East Indian
Himalaya
Anup Das, G.C. Munda, N.S. Azad Thakur,
B. Lal, P.K. Ghosh, S.V. Ngachan,
K.M. Bujarbaruah, R.K. Yadav, B.K. Mahapatra,
S.K. Das and K.K. Dutta
Abstract: A high-altitude (> 1,500 m asl) integrated participatory watershed
development programme was implemented between 2004 and 2008 in the West
Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, North-Eastern Indian Himalaya. The aim was to assess
and refine practices for integrating crop, fish and livestock production systems. Soil
and water conservation measures, with the active participation of local inhabitants,
included the construction and renovation of ponds, jalkunds (micro rainwaterharvesting structures) and bench and half-moon terraces. Impact analysis revealed
that 4.3 million litres of water were harvested and enhanced potato and rice crop
productivity by 30% to 40% and 45% to 50% respectively. Farmers are now able to
earn net incomes of around $56.8 and $8.9 per month from community dairy units
and fish ponds respectively.
Keywords: watershed development; participatory research; improved technology;
livelihood; Indian Himalaya
The authors are with the ICAR Research Complex for the NEH Region, Umiam-793 103,
Meghalaya, India. Corresponding author: Anup Das, e-mail: anup_icar@yahoo.com.

Rural livelihoods in rainfed agriculture

Rainfed agriculture in India extends over 97 million
hectares and supports about 40% of the human population
and 65% of the livestock population (Singh et al, 2000).
Greater emphasis should therefore be given to increasing
production from rainfed areas. In developing countries,

rainfed grain yields typically average 1.5 t/ha,

compared with 3.1 t/ha for irrigated yields (Rosegrant et
al, 2002). Upgrading rainfed agriculture requires
implementing technologies that are adapted to local
biophysical and socio-cultural conditions, coupled with
institutional and behavioural changes (Duivenbooden et
al, 2000).

Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 42, No 2, 2013, pp 141144 doi: 10.5367/oa.2013.0129

141

High-altitude integrated agricultural development

The north-eastern region of India lies in the foothills of

the Eastern Himalaya, occupying an area of about 26.2
million hectares with a population in excess of 45 million,
representing about 8% and 3.9% of the countrys area and
population respectively. About a third of the region
(28.3%) has an elevation greater than 1,200 m and is
termed high-altitude. The net cultivated area is about
four million hectares, over three-quarters (80%) of which
is also rainfed. The region is known for its high annual
rainfall (2,450 mm/annum) with most being lost to run-off.
Water availability for domestic use, crop production and
animal husbandry is limited during the dry season
(November to March), but sometimes residents of hill
areas also suffer water shortage during the rainy season.
Rainwater harvesting and recycling could increase productivity and support diversification by growing
higher-value crops integrated with pisciculture and
livestock. Sustainable rural development through
conservation of land and water resources provides a
solution for alleviating poverty and improving the
livelihoods of the rural poor through integrated
watershed development. Agriculture plays a key role in
the economic development of the rural poor and in
poverty reduction (Irz and Roe, 2000), with evidence that
every 1% increase in agricultural yield translates into a 0.6
to 1.2% decrease in the percentage of absolute poor
(Thirtle et al, 2002). Hence, a participatory integrated
watershed development programme was implemented in
the high-altitude tribal areas in Meghalaya to assess the
technologies developed by research institutes for use in
farmers fields and to introduce an improved integrated
package of practices for cropping, fishing and livestock.

Methodology
The study was undertaken between 2004 and 2008 at
Mawlangkhar, West Khasi Hills district (25 32 14.6 N
and 910 21 55.5 E) of Meghalaya. The climate here is
temperate sub-alpine. The watershed covers about 20
hectares with 50 households (five members/family). The
area receives > 2,500 mm of rainfall per annum; but even
then water availability can be a problem during the winter
months (November to March) due to the lack of water
conservation efforts.
The socioeconomic conditions and problems related to
agriculture were analysed through participatory rural
appraisal (PRA). The PRA exercise revealed that
agriculture was the main source of livelihood, with about
90% engaged in the activity. Monocropping, the use of
local varieties, negligible use of fertilizers and lack of
irrigation facilities were identified as being the major
constraints affecting productivity and farm income. Soil
erosion, soil acidity, poor soil fertility and undulating
terrains further exacerbated the situation. Pigs are the
most common livestock, but their productivity is low due
to the quality of local breeds and poor management
practices. Ricepotato and maizepotato are the common
cropping systems. Low temperatures, stray animals and
the lack of irrigation facilities limit the scope for double
cropping during the winter season. The major problems
were identified through the PRA approach, with low
productivity and poor soil health ranked as being most
important by the farmers.

142

Systematic efforts towards soil and water conservation,

along with integrated development of agriculture,
horticulture, livestock and pisciculture were
implemented, with bench terraces and half-moon
terraces constructed on unutilized hill slopes to bring
additional areas into cultivation. The soil was a red
laterite and highly leached, with low available nitrogen
(295 20 kg/ha), very low phosphorus (2.5 0.45 kg/ha)
and high potassium (345 50 kg/ha). The average soil
organic carbon and pH were 1.59% and 4.89 respectively.
Half-moon terraces were used for growing fruit trees
(peach, pear and plum). Maize, potato and upland rice
were grown on the bench terraces. The seed materials,
animal breeds and machinery were distributed to
farmers via the Dorbar Shnong [village panchayat or
assembly].

Results and discussion

Water harvesting
Two new ponds (49 m 26 m 1.8 m and 20 m 20 m
1.0 m) were designed and constructed on community land
that had previously remained barren and unutilized.
These provided a total storage capacity of 2.69 million
litres and were used for pisciculture and irrigation
between November and March for potato and carrot
cultivation. Two other ponds (approximately 20 m 20 m)
belonging to the farmers were renovated to provide
further storage of 1.20 million litres. The construction and
renovation of these ponds helped create local employment
and active farmer participation.
The main pond in the watershed had the following
components: (i) a dyke made of stones and soil, (ii) stone
pitching on the dyke slopes for stabilization, (iii) retaining
wall/toe wall made of stone, sand and cement (iv) pitching on the top of the dyke with grass blocks, (v) polythene
lining along the inner side of the dyke to limit seepage,
(vi) two drainage pipes with valves to release water for
gravity irrigation, (vii) a spillway to drain excess water,
(viii) an emergency spillway to drain excess water during
floods, and (ix) two diversion channels around the pond
to reduce/control heavy rains. The harvested water is now
used for dairying, fisheries and irrigation to support the
increased area under cultivation. Total expenditure for the
two new ponds was $4,000 (giving harvested water costs
of about $1.57 per 1,000 l). Considering a 75% capacity
harvesting of water, pond lifespans of 20 years and
maintenance costs of 5% per year ($212.8/year), around 40
million litres will be harvested. After 20 years, this would
amount to harvested water costs of around $0.21 per 1,000
litres.
In addition, 15 jalkunds [micro rainwater-harvesting
structures] (5 m 4 m 1.5 m) were constructed in the
watershed; these small structures can store 30,000 litres.
The inner surface of the jalkunds was plastered with clay
mud and cow dung slurry, then cushioned with pine
needles to support the lining material. LDPE agri-film
(250 ) was used for lining the jalkund. The water stored in
the jalkund was for domestic use, livestock and irrigating
important crops. The cost for each jalkund was $127.6,
giving an average cost of storing water of $1.49 per 1,000 l,
assuming a three-year lifespan. Impact analysis revealed

Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 42, No 2

High-altitude integrated agricultural development

Table 1. Performance of rice varieties at high altitude (average data based on four years).
Variety
Megha-1
Megha-2
RCPL 1-10C
Sahsarang 1
Local variety (Bahkhawlih)
Critical difference (p = 0.05)

Tillers/hill

Panicles/hill

Grains/panicle

Ripening ratio
(%)

Grain yield
(t/ha)

% increase over
control

7.6
7.4
8.2
10.4
6.8
0.82

6.8
6.3
7.5
5.8
5.5
0.57

144.5
140.2
148.2
131.6
112.5
10.5

82.4
82.0
83.5
60.7
67.5
5.6

3.2
3.4
3.2
2.1
2.2
0.43

45.4
54.5
45.2

that stored water in a jalkund could support 200 tomato

plants and four to five piglets between November and
April.

Introduction of high-yielding rice, vegetables and fruits

Rice yields were low because of the use of low-yielding
local varieties and poor agronomic practices (high seed
rates, random planting, broadcasting, no fertilizer or
manure, poor weed management). Transplanting 25-day
seedlings with 34 seedlings/hill, in contrast to the current
farmer practice of random transplanting of older
seedlings (3040 days), was proposed. A low dose of NPK
(40:30:20 kg/ha) in combination with the practice of
applying farmyard manure (FYM) at 5 t/ha was also
implemented. The results showed that Megha-2 rice
recorded the highest yield (3.4 t/ha), followed by Megha-1
rice (3.2 t/ha) and RCPL 1-10C (3.2 t/ha), compared with
only 2.2 t/ha from the local variety Bahkhawlih (Table 1).
Potato is an important crop in the region, and is
cultivated in upland areas as well as in lowland rice
fallow. But productivity is low due to cultivation of local
varieties. Higher-yielding varieties (Kufri jyoti and Kufri
giriraj) were therefore provided to 25 farmers each year
between 2005 and 2008. On average, harvested tuber
yields were 30 to 40% higher (1213 t/ha) compared with
local varieties. Larger and more uniform high-yielding
tubers were the main attributes for acceptance by the
farmers. High-yielding varieties/hybrids of vegetables
were also introduced. Two tomato hybrids (Avinash-2 and
Rocky) and one variety (Manikhamnu) were also
introduced. The highest yield was recorded in Avinash-2
(25.0 t/ha), followed by Rocky (21.5 t/ha) and
Manikhamnu (18.9 t/ha). On-farm trials of sweet potato
were conducted with five varieties: Gouri, Kokrajahr
Local, Meghalaya Local, Sree Bhadra and Sonipat. The
highest yield (30 t/ha) was recorded with an earlymaturing variety (Sree Bhadra).
Local peach and pear plants were low-yielding and
poor in quality. Two peach varieties (Shan-e-Punjab and
TA 170) were therefore introduced in 2005. The yield and
size of fruit were significantly higher than those of local
peaches; feedback from farmers suggested that up to $10.6
per plant could be achieved from selling the fruit. Two
passion fruit varieties (Kaveri hybrid and Meghalaya
local) were also introduced.

Fish farming
Composite fish culture involving surface feeders (Catla,

Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 42, No 2

silver carp and puntius/java punti), column feeders (Grass

carp and rohu) and bottom feeders (mrigal, common carp
and gonius) was introduced into both the community
pond and individual farmers ponds. The stocking density
was 1 fingerling/m2. Initially, the research institute
supplied fish feed concentrate and trained farmers in
improved feeding (feed trays, quantity and timing of
feeding) and other practices to enhance productivity.
Farmers also used locally available materials such as cow
dung, rice bran and banana leaves as fish feed. Grass carp
attained a maximum weight of 510 52.5 g per fish,
followed by catla (485 50.6 g/fish) and common carp
(445 46.4 g/fish). Common carp was found to be the
most popular due to its self-breeding, attaining a good
weight and taste. The ponds now provide regular fish
catches and provide income for the villagers ($1.70
2.13/kg and on average earning $106.4 from the
community pond each year).

Livestock integration
The pig is a common household animal in tribal
communities, with almost every family maintaining 12
local breeds. Five units (each comprising two female and
one male) of new strains of pigs (75% Hampshire and 25%
Meghalaya local inheritance) were provided to farmers. In
two farrowings, these pigs delivered 16 piglets in one
year, allowing farmers to sell three-month-old piglets at
$25.5 per piglet. In three years, one farmer could
potentially rear 72 piglets from one unit (2 sows + 1 boar).
In contrast, the local pig variety delivered 11 piglets with
a value of $21.3 per piglet in two farrowings. Between
$188.6 and 302.8 per year was earned from these new
piggery units. The rearing cost per piglet up to marketing
age was estimated to be $10.6 per piglet, excluding the
cost of family labour. The most suitable composition for
pigfeed using available ingredients included maize or rice
bran, rice polish, mustard and groundnut oilcake, vitamin
and mineral mixtures and common salt. The improved
performance of new pig breeds for hill farming compared
with the local breed (Khasi) was also reported by
Bujarbaruah et al (2006).
A dairy unit (one crossbred Jersey with a calf) was
maintained in the watershed to provide milk and manure.
The cowshed on the bank of the main water-harvesting
pond was designed so that the washings from the cow
unit were diverted into the fish pond to promote the
growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton. The aim was
to introduce the concept of an integrated farming system

143

High-altitude integrated agricultural development

so that resources were effectively utilized and costs of

cultivation reduced. The dairy component would also
generate additional employment and farm income.
Improved feeding practices involved using concentrates
(broken rice, rice bran, oilcakes), roughage and locally
available materials. The unit provided 810 litres of milk
per day. On average, $1.90 per day and $56.8 per month
was earned (net profit) from the dairy unit. Vermicompost and FYM were made next to the cowshed using
dung, straw and weed biomass and then applied to the
field crops and vegetables. This created an effective
recycling of biomass/nutrients in the integrated farming
system.

Farmer participation
An important aspect of the watershed development
programme was active involvement and participation
from locals, including women, at all the stages of the
programme. Community participation from project
inception was ensured through involvement of the local
Dorbar Shnong [village panchayat], youth clubs and direct
interaction with farmers through farm visits. Following
project development, the management of water resources,
terraces and cattle units was handed over to the Dorbar
Shnong. Creation of common resources and people
participation was identified as one of the key factors in its
success (Yadav et al, 2006). Community watershed
development programmes have potential as growth
engines for sustainable development in high-altitude
areas. However, the major challenges are the scaling-up of
such programmes to larger areas (Kerr et al, 2002). Most
farming-related problems require a participatory
approach by farmers involved in technology
development, testing and dissemination. The adoption of
this new approach in rainfed agriculture has shown that,
with proper management of natural resources, system
productivity can be enhanced and poverty reduced
without causing degradation of natural resources.
Mawlangkhar village constitutes a successful model for
agricultural development in the high-altitude district of
Meghalaya, India. The productivity of crops including

144

rice, potato, maize and vegetables has increased

substantially and farm income has increased by 25%. The
water-harvesting ponds store a significant quantity of
water and have become an asset for the village. To
support development and improve the livelihoods of
small farmers, such activities need to be replicated in
other similar agroecosystems.

References
Bujarbaruah, K.M., Das, A., Bardoloi, R.K., Naskar, S., and
Kumaresan, A. (2006), Why and How of Pig Farming in North
Eastern Region of India, Technical Bulletin No 18, ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya.
Duivenbooden, V.N., Pala, M., Studer, C., Bielders, C.L., and
Beukes, D.J. (2000), Cropping systems and crop
complementarity in dryland agriculture to increase soil and
water use efficiency: a review, Netherlands Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, Vol 48, pp 213236.
Irz, X., and Roe, T. (2000), Can the world feed itself? Some
insights from growth theory, Agrekon, Vol 39, No 3,
pp 513528.
Kerr, J., Pangare, G., and Pangare, V. (2002), Watershed
Development Project in India: An Evaluation, Research Report
No 127, Environment and Policy Production Technology
Division, International Food Policy Research Institute,
Washington, DC.
Rosegrant, M., Ximing, C., Cline, S., and Nakagawa, N. (2002),
The Role of Rainfed Agriculture in the Future of Global Food
Production, EPTD Discussion Paper No 90, Environment
and Production Technology Division, IFPRI, Washington,
DC.
Singh, H.P., Venkateshwarlu, B., Vital, K.P.R., and Ramachandran,
K. (2000), Management of rainfed agroecosystem, Proceedings
of the International Conference on Managing Natural Resources for
Sustainable Agricultural Production in the 21st Century, 1418
February, New Delhi, pp 669674.
Thirtle, C., Beyers, L., Lin, L., Mckenzie-Hill, V., Irz, X., Wiggins,
S., and Piesse, J. (2002), The Impact of Changes in Agricultural
Productivity on the Incidence of Poverty in Developing Countries,
DFID Report No 7946, DFID, London.
Yadav, R.P., Aggarwal, R.K., Singh, P., Arya, S.L., Prasad, R.,
Tiwari, A.K., Bhattacharya, P., and Yadav, M.K. (2006),
Rainwater harvesting and recycling technology for sustainable
use of small agricultural watersheds, Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, Vol 76, No 8, pp 506508.

Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol 42, No 2