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Guangdong Open Lab. of Geospatial Information Technology and Application, Guangzhou Institute of Geography, Guangzhou 510070, China
Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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info
Article history:
Received 5 May 2010
Received in revised form
4 January 2011
Accepted 12 January 2011
Available online 8 February 2011
Keywords:
Chlorophyll-a
Three-band model
Evaluation
Pearl River Estuary
Hyperion remote sensing
abstract
Accurate assessment of phytoplankton chlorophyll-a (Chla) concentration in turbid waters by means of
remote sensing was challenging due to the optical complexity of turbid waters. Recently, a conceptual
model containing reflectance in three spectral bands in the red and near-infrared range of the spectrum
was suggested for retrieving Chla concentrations in turbid productive waters. The objective of this
paper was to evaluate the performance of this three-band model to estimate Chla concentration in
the Pearl River Estuary (PRE), China. Reflectance spectra of surface water and water samples were
collected concurrently. The samples contained variable Chla (4.8092.60 mg/m3 ) and total suspended
solids (0.455.2 mg/L dry wt). Colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) absorption at 400 nm was
0.401.41 m1 ; turbidity ranged from 4 to 25 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). The three-band
model was spectrally calibrated by iterative and least-square linear regression methods to select the
optimal spectral bands for the most accurate Chla estimation. Strong linear relationships (R2 = 0.81,
RMSE = 1.4 mg/m3 , N = 32) were established between measured Chla and the levels obtained from
the calibrated three-band model [R1 (684)R1 (690)] R(718), where R() was the reflectance at
wavelength . The calibrated three-band model was independently validated (R2 = 0.9521, RMSE =
6.44 mg/m3 , N = 16) and applied to retrieve Chla concentrations from the calibrated EO-1 Hyperion
reflectance data in the PRE on December 21, 2006. The EO-1 Hyperion-derived Chla concentrations were
further validated using synchronous in situ data collected on the same day (R2 = 0.64, RMSE = 2 mg/m3 ,
N = 9). The spatial tendency of Chla distribution mapping by Hyperion showed gradually increased
concentrations of Chla farther from the river mouths (although decreasing from east to west), which were
disturbed by the combination of river outlets and tidal current in Lingding Bay of the PRE. This observation
conformed to previous observations and studies, and could reasonably be explained by geographical
changes. Also, results indicated that the slope of the three-band regression line decreased as the Chla
concentration increased, resulting in the first sensitive band of the three-band model to move towards
short wavelengths. These findings validated the rationale behind the conceptual model and demonstrated
the robustness of this algorithm for Chla retrieval from in situ data and the Hyperion satellite sensor in
turbid estuarine waters of the PRE, China.
2011 International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Inc. (ISPRS). Published by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The use of spectral signals in the visible wavelengths in estuarine environments presented many difficulties due to the variety of optically active constituents present in estuarine waters.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: css@gdas.ac.cn (S. Chen).
These constituents generally fell into three classes: Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Colored Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM),
and chlorophyll pigments (Chla). Each class was characterized by
specific inherent optical properties (IOPs) related to its absorption
and scattering processes (Preisendorfer and Mobley, 1984). Existing algorithms for determining the water quality parameters in
open ocean waters were more robust and universal than those for
coastal waters, because coastal turbid productive waters were optically more heterogeneous and complex than open ocean waters.
This explained why spectral and spatial resolutions by satellites
0924-2716/$ see front matter 2011 International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Inc. (ISPRS). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2011.01.004
S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
357
Fig. 1. The study area of Pearl River Estuary (PRE) and field data-sampling stations: Samples for spectra, Chla, TSS, turbidity, and CDOM at 32 stations taken on 12/27/2007
and 12/31/2007, 17 locations in the Humen riverway (Nos. 1632), 15 locations in the ModaomenMacau riverway (Nos. 115), 16 sampling sites (rectangles) in the upstream
Modaomen riverway, and 10 sites (triangles) synchronous with acquisition of EO-1 Hyperion satellite imagery on 12/21/2006.
were often not fine enough to enable the development of algorithms that were as reliable as those for open ocean waters. For
this reason, most algorithms currently used for open ocean waters
could not be suitable for determining water constituents by remote
sensing in river estuary water. There had been discussion in the
literature on the problem of the inversion of TSS, CDOM, and Chla
based on in situ reflectance in the PRE (e.g., Yang and Chen (2007)).
Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the spectral properties of water constituents based on in situ spectral data and develop reliable
algorithms for retrieving the temporal and spatial distribution of
various water parameters in the PRE by remote sensing.
Accurate assessment of phytoplankton Chla concentration in
turbid waters by means of remote sensing was challenging due
to the optical complexity of turbid case II waters. In productive
turbid waters, absorption by dissolved organic matter, tripton, and
phytoplankton pigments in the blue spectral region overlapped
and prevented Chla estimation (Gitelson et al., 2007). In many
estuaries, tripton and CDOM dominated water column optics. For
example, phytoplankton accounted, on average, for about 5% of
vertical attenuation in San Francisco Bay (Cole and Cloern, 1987).
To retrieve Chla concentrations, one needs to isolate the Chla
absorption coefficient by subtracting the effects of TSS and CDOM.
Recently, a conceptual model containing reflectance in three
spectral bands in the red and near-infrared range of the spectrum
was suggested for retrieving Chla concentrations in turbid
productive waters. The model was calibrated and validated in
lakes, reservoirs, and coastal waters (DallOlmo et al., 2003).
However, the model had not been applied in Chinas coastal
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S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
Table 1
Dates and locations of field-water sampling in the PRE (including mean values and range of water-column conditions).
Date
Location
Number of samples
Chla
Turbidity
g400
TSS
19/12/2006
21/12/2006
27/12/2007
31/12/2007
Modaomen
Lingding bay
Nos. 115
Nos. 1632
16
10
15
17
0.72 (0.401.41) m1
on November 21, 2000. Its imagery data were recorded in 16bit radiance values. Hyperion is the first Earth-orbiting imaging
spectrometer operating across the full solar-reflected spectrum,
collecting 196 unique calibrated spectral channels with spectral
coverage ranging from 426 to 2395 nm, and 10 nm sampling and
spectral response functions. The spatial sampling is 30 m with a
7.7 km imagery swath and 185 km length, which is well suited for
detecting and portraying complex spatial distributions of salinity
and other water-color constituents in a salt water intrusion region.
2.3. Spectral data processing
The surface reflectance of water included not only reflection
information for water, but also information on diffused sunlight
from the airwater interface to obtain pure reflectance information
for water. The in situ radiance of water was converted to remote
sensing reflectance by Eq. (1).
Rrs = p (LSW r Lsky )/ Lp
(1)
S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
359
Spatial Profile
0.25
Reflectance
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
10
20
30
Location
40
Fig. 2. Variance range of water spatial reflectance profile at a Hyperion NIR band (864.35 nm).
0.1
0.08
854
Measured
reflectance
0.07
Reflectance
Apparent
reflectance
Derived
reflectance
0.09
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
447
498
549
600
651
702
752
803
905
Wavelength (nm)
(2)
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S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
350
450
550
650
750
850
Wavelength(nm)
Fig. 4. Remote sensing reflectance of surface water on Dec. 27 and Dec. 31, 2007, in the PRE. The three vertical lines indicate the optimal bands of 1 (684 nm), 2 (690 nm),
and 3 (718 nm) from left to right.
Table 2
Optimum wavelengths and correlation coefficients of 1 , 2 and 3 .
1 (nm)
2 (nm)
3 (nm)
Optimum
band (nm)
Correlation
coefficient
(r)
First
circle
660690
683
683
695
685710
690
750
750
710780
683
690
718
0.8636
0.8843
0.9016
Second
circle
660690
684
684
690
685710
690
718
718
710780
684
690
718
0.902
0.902
0.902
Iterative
process
peak. NIR reflectance was less than 2% and varied widely, arriving
at a peak around 810 nm. The variation of reflectance was
relatively minimal in the blue range. The minimum near the
420 nm band (Fig. 4), corresponding to Chla absorption, was
almost indistinguishable in the reflectance spectra. Reflectance
in the range of 400500 nm did not have pronounced spectral
features over the broad range of turbidity and Chla concentration.
Absorption by dissolved organic matter and tripton and scattering
by particulate matter contributed strongly to reflectance patterns
in this spectral range of 400500 nm. The blue-to-green ratio
R440 /R550 (Gordon and Morel, 1983) was poorly related to Chla and
appeared inadequate for estimating Chla in the PRE (R2 < 0.01,
not shown). In the green band range around 580 nm, absorption
by pigments was minimal, and scattering by all particulate matter
played the main role on reflectance (Chen et al., 2009; Gitelson
et al., 2007). Reflectance of the water body in the PRE also
had an indistinct peak around 695 nm. In this spectral range,
Chla absorption decreases with wavelength, while absorption
by pure water increases. In other productive turbid waters, the
reflectance peak position shifted toward longer wavelengths with
increasing Chla (Gitelson, 1992; Gitelson et al., 2007). However,
the reflectance peak position rarely shifted with increasing Chla,
and Chla was poorly related to peak magnitude (Fig. 6). This
probably suggested that scattering by inorganic and non-living
organic suspended matter significantly affects reflectance in this
spectral region (Gitelson et al., 2007). As with the peak magnitude,
Chla was poorly related to the reflectance in the red band range of
Chla absorption around 670 nm (Fig. 6). The phenomena showed
that reflectance in this range was strongly affected by absorption
S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
361
100
80
Chla simulated (mg/m3)
R2 =0.9521
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 6. Rrs (670) versus Chla (upper panel), and Rrs (695) versus Chla (lower panel).
(3)
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S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
Table 3
Slopes and intercepts of the relationship Chla versus three-band models with corresponding root mean square error (in mg/m3 ) of Chla estimation and coefficient of
determination (R2 ).
Slope
Intercept
R2
RMSE
Chla (mean)
TSS (mean)
125
117.42
16
23.09
0.94 (N = 86)
0.94 (N = 145)
14.6 (N = 58)
7.8 (N = 275)
46.5
46.3
18.9
20.4
et al., 2008)
1
1
(R
675 R695 ) R730 (Gitelson et al., 2007)
1
1
(R
R
684
690 ) R718 (This study)
178.9
331.01
10.14
14.609
0.81 (N = 44)
0.81 (N = 32)
30
17.6
16.5
40.8
Models
1
for US inland waters. DallOlmo and Gitelson (2005) found that using three bands (1 = 671 nm, 2 = 710 nm, 3 = 740 nm)
resulted in larger error and lower correlation in model calibration
(RMSE = 25.7 mg/m3 , R2 < 0.2). Gitelson et al.s (2007) application to Chesapeake Bay waters using three bands (1 = 675 nm,
2 = 695 nm, 3 = 730 nm) also showed less accurate results in
model calibration (RMSE = 25.1 mg/m3 , R2 < 0.2). When the
MERIS model with three bands (1 = 681 nm, 2 = 708 nm,
3 = 754 nm) was applied to the PRE in this study, using 32
samples in model calibration and 6 samples in model validation,
the resulting error was relatively large (RMSE > 16 mg/m3 ) and
the correlation coefficient was low (R2 = 0.33). Recently, Moses
et al. (2009) showed that the use of the NIRred model (Gitelson,
1992) with MERIS spectral bands of MODIS (R708/R665) could improve accuracy in estimating chlorophyll-a concentrations more
than those using the three-band model for Chla retrieval. However,
examination of Moses et al.s (2009) method by our dataset yielded
poor correlation (R2 = 0.09) and large error (RMSE > 23 mg/m3 ).
This showed that the positions of the three-band model could be
region-specific due to the different properties of turbid productive
waters and the general limitations of physical models for Chla estimation.
3.4. Three-band model application for Chla mapping of hyperion
imagery
According to the result obtained above for optimal bands, the
model of [R1 (684) R1 (690)] R(718) vs. Chla was applied
to retrieve Chla concentrations from the pre-processed Hyperion
imagery. Corresponding to the bands in three-band models, the
bands of the 33rd band (681.2 nm), 34th band (691.37 nm) and the
37th band (721.9 nm) of the Hyperion imagery were selected to
retrieve Chla concentrations using Eq. (3). The results were shown
in Fig. 9.
The Chla concentrations were more than 15 mg/m3 in most
areas in Lingding Bay. The Chla mapping ranged from 0.4 to
66 mg/m3 on December 21, 2006; confirming the similar findings
in previous observations (Shen et al., 2005). The areas of lowest
Chla concentration were detected near the mouths of the Humen
waterway and south of the study area (towards the South China
Sea; Figs. 1 and 9), where Chla concentrations were less than
5 mg/m3 . Low Chla concentration areas in the Humen outlet
were probably caused by the inflow of clean river water quality,
from the Shawan waterway and the East River of Pearl River,
and high water-flow velocity. Areas of high concentrations of
Chla were detected near Dongwan City and Shenzhen City (the
northern and eastern portions of the Hyperion imagery), where
the concentrations of Chla were more than 25 mg/m3 . The
high concentrations near Dongwan City and Shenzhen City were
caused by large numbers of municipal industry and sewage inflow,
resulting in surface-layer Chla enrichment of the water body. Chla
concentration was relatively low near the river outlet (yellow area
in Fig. 9). Their flow direction, from northeast to southwest, was
obviously controlled by the combined actions of coastal currents
and the west channel of Lingding Bay (near the Modaomen outlets;
S. Chen et al. / ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 66 (2011) 356364
363
Table 4
Comparison between observed and EO-1 Hyperion-derived Chla concentrations.
Site
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
RMSE
Chla observed
Chla simulated
24.5
22.0
30.3
28.2
26.4
26.3
26.8
26.0
24.1
22.2
24.5
26.5
24.
21.7
24.5
21.6
26.4
19.3
24.5
21.8
35
30
RMSE =2 mg/m3
25
20
15
15
20
25
30
35
Fig. 10. Comparison between the observed Chla concentrations and those
estimated from an atmospherically corrected Hyperion image of the PRE (Dec. 21,
2006) using Eq. (3) (RMSE = 2 mg/m3 ). Data at 10 stations collected synchronous
with EO-1 Hyperion imagery were used to validate Chla concentrations (black
square site indicates exceptional data removed). Dashed line is the 1:1 line.
varies slightly, from 0.746 to 0.81, with change in the optimal band
location component.
The findings in this paper did not conform to the results for
sensitivity analysis of the original three-band model; the major
difference was in the range of 1 . DallOlmo and Gitelson (2005)
found that RMSE was minimal at 1 between 660 and 673 nm.
The maximal RMSE occurred in a narrow range of 1 near 685 nm,
where the algorithms were strongly affected by variability in the
quantum yield of Chla fluorescence, which contradicted the study.
The study found the minimum of RMSE for Chla estimation at
684 nm (RMSE = 1.4 mg/m3 ). The optimal bands of 2 and 3
were similar with Chesapeake Bay waters. An optimal 2 occurred
within the narrow range near 700 nm, while the optimum for 3 is
near 720 nm (Gitelson et al., 2007).
There was a weak absorption value for Chla at about 684 nm in
the study. In the waters of the PRE, the variability in absorption by
tripton and dissolved organic matter was probably the significant
factor for the change of position in the three-band model.
Therefore, 2 , in the narrow range, should be used to account for
the effects of these region-specific water constituents. This was
also suggested by previous research (Fang et al., 2010).
Data from ten in situ samples of Chla collected synchronous
with acquisition of EO-1 Hyperion satellite imagery were used for
satellite validation of the three-band model. Table 4 presented
the comparison of satellite-inversed and in situ-measured Chla
concentrations. The concentration of Chla was reasonably well
estimated, with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 3 mg/m3
(relative error <9.5%). It was noticed that the low concentration
area was slightly overestimated and the high concentration
area was slightly underestimated. This could be due in part to
inhomogeneous atmospheric parameters or error in data analysis.
In this study, fixed values of atmospheric parameters were used
for the whole imagery area. However, the atmospheric parameters
should differ from place to place, in particular in the PRE region,
which was near one of the fastest growing industrial areas of
the world, the Pearl River Delta. However, these results were in
agreement with results obtained by Shen et al. (2005) and Huang
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