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Hasham Raza
Grammar Reference
The following grammar reference pages include charts, quizzes and other related
resources. Use these pages to quickly review specific grammar points, or to
introduce yourself to new topics.
Grammar Reference
He asked,
Hasham Raza
Verb Form
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
'to'
I don't particularly like...
Stating Preferences
Verb Form
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
with 'rather'
It's not my idea of...
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
for
n on
Spain.
Formula used only on the Question
telphone
Word
I'm calling to find out...
if
Example Finish
flight AZ098 will leave on
time today.
Making Suggestions
There are a number of formulas used when making suggestions in English. Here
are some of the most common:
Why don't you / we go to the movies tonight?
You / we could visit New York while you're / we're there.
Let's go to the travel agent's this afternoon to book our ticket.
What about asking your brother for help?
How about going to Hawaii for your vacation?
I suggest you / we take all the factors into consideration before we
decide.
After you study these constructions, take the making suggestions quiz to check
your understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Let's go to a movie.
SIMPLE
PASSIVE
PROGRESSIVE /
CONTINUOUS
PROGRESSIVE /
CONTINUOUS
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ACTIVE
PASSIVE
I had been
waiting for four
hours when he
finally arrived.
I was watching
TV when she
arrived.
I am working at
the moment.
PAST
TIME
^
|
|
|
|
She had
The painting
already
had been
eaten when I sold twice
arrived.
before it was
destroyed.
^
|
PAST
PERFECT
|
|
I bought a
new car last
week.
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
V
The sun will
shine
tomorrow.
She will be
teaching
tomorrow at six
o'clock.
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Hasham Raza
Adverb Clauses
CAUSE
OPPOSITIO
CONDITION
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Grammar Reference
after, before,
when, while,
as, by the
time (that),
as soon as,
since, until,
whenever,
the first time
(that), the
next time
(that), the
last time
(that), every
time (that) more
information
on adverb
clauses with
time
expressions
Hasham Raza
AND
EFFECT
because,
since, as,
as long as,
so long as,
due to the
fact that more
informatio
n on
adverb
clauses
with
expression
s of cause
and effect
although,
even though,
though,
whereas,
while - more
information
on adverb
clauses with
expressions
of opposition
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Whereas
, while
up for his
diet.
Although he
course was
difficult, he
passed with
the highest
marks.
Whereas
you have
lots of time
to do your
homework, I
have very
little time
indeed.
Mary is rich,
while I am
poor.
'Whereas' and
'while' show clauses
in direct opposition
to each other. Notice
that you should
always use a comma
with 'whereas' and
'while'.
Verb Formation
The following chart shows the positive, negative and interrogative (question) forms
of all the principle tenses in English with a brief description of the principle usage.
Please note that for a better understanding of the tense forms you should follow
the links to pages focusing on the specific tense. This chart is principally for
comparison purposes.
TENSE
Simple
Present
I play
They
Does she
tennis on don't (do know
Mondays. not) work him?
in New
York.
Habitual
activities States More
Simple
Past
She went
to Paris
last
week.
Actions
happening
at a defined
moment in
the past.
More
They
Where did
didn't (did she get
not) drive that hat?
to work.
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Grammar Reference
Simple
Future
Hasham Raza
I'll (will)
meet you
at the
airport
tomorrow
.
Decisions
made at the
moment
about the
future,
future
predictions,
future
promises
More
They
What are
aren't (are you
not)
doing?
coming
this
evening.
Actions
happening
at the
present
moment.
Near future
intention
and
scheduling.
More
Past
I was
Continuo watching
us
TV when
you
called.
He wasn't
(was not)
working
when she
arrived.
What
were you
doing
when I
called?
Interrupted
past action,
action
happening
at a specific
moment in
time in the
past. More
Future
I'll (will)
Continuo be
us
cooking
dinner
when
you
arrive.
They
won't (will
not) be
living in
Paris this
time next
year.
What will
you be
doing next
week at
this time?
Future
action at a
specific
moment in
the future.
More
Future
He's (is) They're
Where are
with
going to (are) not you going
Going to fly to
going to to stay?
Boston
invite the
next
Browns.
week.
Future
intent or
planned
action More
Present
Perfect
1)To express
an action
that was
begun in the
past and
I've
(have)
seen
Mick
three
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Hasham Raza
times
this
week.
continues
into the
present. 2)
To express
an action
that
happened in
the
UNspecified
past. 3) To
express a
recent
action that
has a
present
effect. More
Past
Perfect
I'd (had)
already
eaten
before
they
came.
She
hadn't
(had not)
been to
Rome
before
that trip.
Had you
ever seen
such a
crazy lady
before
that?
To express
an action
that
happens
before
another
action in the
past. More
Future
Perfect
We'll
(will)
have
lived
here for
twenty
years by
2005.
To express
what will
have
happened or
how long
something
will have
happened
up to a
certain point
in the
future. More
Present
Perfect
Continuo
us
She's
(has)
been
waiting
for over
three
hours.
They
haven't
(have not)
been
studying
for long.
To express
the duration
of a
continuous
activity
begun in the
past and
continuing
into the
present.
More
How long
have you
been
working
on that
problem?
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Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Past
Perfect
Continuo
us
She'd
(had)
been
waiting
for three
hours
when he
finally
arrived.
I hadn't
(had not)
been
sleeping
for long
when I
heard the
doorbell
ring.
How long
had you
been
playing
tennis
when she
arrived?
Future
Perfect
Continuo
us
He'll
(will)
have
been
sleeping
for a few
hours by
the time
we
arrive.
To express
the duration
of a
continuous
activity
begun
before
another
activity in
the past.
More
To express
the duration
of an
activity up
to a point of
time in the
future. More
Adjectives
How to Use Adjectives
An adjective describes how something 'is'. For this reason, we usually use the verb
'to be' when using adjectives. Adjectives are used to describe nouns.
Example: He is a good doctor. Rule: Adjectives describe nouns. The adjective is
always invariable.
Example: beautiful trees, they are happy
Be careful!
Adjectives don't have a singular and plural form OR a masculine, femine
and neuter form.
Adjectives are always the same! Never add a final -s to an adjective.
Adjectives can also be placed at the end of a sentence if they describe
the subject of a sentence. Example: My doctor is excellent.
NOT!!: difficults books
Rule: Adjectives are placed before the noun.
Example: a wonderful book very interesting people
Be careful!
Don't place an adjective after the noun
NOT!!: an apple red
Adjective Placement
Adjective Placement
When using more than one adjective to describe a noun place the adjectives in the
following order before the noun.
NOTE: We usually use no more than three adjectives preceding a noun.
1. Opinion
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Hasham Raza
Contractions
Using Contractions
In everyday spoken English forms of the verb 'to be' and other auxiliary verbs are
usually contracted:
Example: He's been to London, They aren't our neighbors
Here is a chart of when to use the most common contractions in English.
Auxiliar Contraction Contractio Contractions
y Form s With
ns With
With
Pronouns
Nouns
Question
Words
am
I'm working
this
morning.
is
are
You're a
What'm I
supposed to
say?
(common only
in spoken
English)
Who's on the
telephone? What's he
doing?
Grammar Reference
great friend!
- They're
playing golf
this
afternoon.
Hasham Raza
has
have
I've finished
my
homework. They've got
two cars.
The
students've
finished
their
homework.
(common
only in
spoken
English)
Where've you
been all day?
(common only
in spoken
English)
had
He'd been
waiting for
three hours.
- We'd better
be going.
Jack'd
worked
there before
he left.
(common
only in
spoken
English)
What'd you
done before
that?
(common only
in spoken
English)
will
would
Where'd you
like to go?
(common only
in spoken
nglish)
American/British
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
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Hasham Raza
There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a
difference in usage, your dictionary will note the different meanings in its definition
of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in the other.
One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles.
American English - British English hood
bonnet
American English - British English trunk
boot
American English - British English truck
lorry
Once again, your dictionary should list whether the term is used in British English
or American English.
For a more complete list of the vocabulary differences between British and
American English use this British vs. American English vocabulary tool.
Prepositions
There are also a few differences in preposition use including the following:
American English - British English - at
on the weekend
the weekend
American English - British English - in
on a team
a team
American English - British English please write me
please write to
soon
me soon
Past Simple/Past Participles
The following verbs have two acceptable forms of the past simple/past participle in
both American and British English, however, the irregular form is generally more
common in British English (the first form of the two) and the regular form is more
common to American English.
Burn
Burnt OR burned
Dream
dreamt OR dreamed
Lean
leant OR leaned
Learn
learnt OR learned
Smell
smelt OR smelled
Spell
spelt OR spelled
Spill
spilt OR spilled
Spoil
spoilt OR spoiled
Spelling
Here are some general differences between British and American spellings:
Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor,
flavour etc.
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Infinitive
Past
participle
be
was/were
been
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
bet
bet
bet
bite
bit
bitten
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
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cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forget
forgot
forgotten
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
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Hasham Raza
light
lit
lit
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read
read
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
sew
sewed
sewn/sewed
shake
shook
shaken
shine
shone
shone
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown
shrink
shrank
shrunk
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
speak
spoke
spoken
spend
spent
spent
split
split
split
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
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Hasham Raza
sting
stung
stung
stink
stank
stunk
strike
struck
struck
swear
swore
sworn
sweep
swept
swept
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
understand
understood
understood
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
win
won
won
write
wrote
written
Say this sentence aloud and count how many seconds it takes.
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.
Time required? Probably about 5 seconds. Now, try speaking this sentence aloud.
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
evening.
Time required? Probably about 5 seconds.
Wait a minute the first sentence is much shorter than the second sentence!
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
evening
You are only partially right!
This simple exercise makes a very important point about how we speak and use
English. Namely, English is considered a stressed language while many other
languages are considered syllabic. What does that mean? It means that, in English,
we give stress to certain words while other words are quickly spoken (some
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Hasham Raza
students say eaten!). In other languages, such as French or Italian, each syllable
receives equal importance (there is stress, but each syllable has its own length).
Many speakers of syllabic languages don't understand why we quickly speak, or
swallow, a number of words in a sentence. In syllabic languages each syllable has
equal importance, and therefore equal time is needed. English however, spends
more time on specific stressed words while quickly gliding over the other, less
important, words.
Let's look at a simple example: the modal verb "can". When we use the positive
form of "can" we quickly glide over the can and it is hardly pronounced.
They can come on Friday . (stressed words underlined)
On the other hand, when we use the negative form "can't" we tend to stress the
fact that it is the negative form by also stressing "can't".
They can't come on Friday .
As you can see from the above example the sentence, "They can't come on Friday"
is longer than "They can come on Friday" because both the modal "can't" and the
verb "come" are stressed.
So, what does this mean for my speaking skills?
Well, first of all, you need to understand which words we generally stress and
which we do not stress. Basically, stress words are considered CONTENT
WORDSsuch as
Nouns e.g. kitchen, Peter
(most) principal verbs e.g. visit, construct
Adjectives e.g. beautiful, interesting
Adverbs e.g. often, carefully
Non-stressed words are considered FUNCTION WORDSsuch as
Determiners e.g. the, a, some, a few
Auxiliary verbs e.g. don't, am, can, were
Prepositions e.g. before, next to, opposite
Conjunctions e.g. but, while, as
Pronouns e.g. they, she, us
Let's return to the beginning example to demonstrate how this affects speech.
The beautifu l Mountain appeared transfixe d in the distance . (14 syllables)
He can come on Sunday s as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the
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Hasham Raza
Future Forms
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Future Forms followed by a quiz.
Examples
Usage
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you want.
Will Verb (base
form)
He will telephone
as soon as he
arrives.
Will you visit me
when you come
next week?
Be going to Verb
(base form)
Frank is going to
study Medicine.
Where are they
going to stay when
they come?
She isn't going to
buy the new house
afterall.
Be going to Verb Used for future predictions based on physical (usually visual)
(base form)
evidence.
Oh no! Look at
those clouds. It's
going to rain.
Be careful! You're
going to drop those
dishes!
Present
Continuous (be 'ing')
He's coming
tomorrow
afternoon.
What are we
having for dinner?
I'm not seeing the
doctor until Friday.
Simple Present
Used for scheduled public events such as train and plane
The class begins at schedules, course schedules, etc.
11.30.
The plane leaves at
6 o'clock.
Common future
next (week, month, year), tomorrow, in X's time (amount of
time expressions time, i.e. two week's time), in year, time clauses (when, as
include:
soon as, before, after) simple present (example: I will telephone
as soon as I arrive.) soon, later
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Structure
Future with Will
S will verb (base form) positve
S will not (won't) verb (base form) negative
will S verb (base form) question
I
will ('ll) help you immediately.
You
won't leave soon.
He
She
It
We
You
They
Will
it rain tomorrow?
Future with 'going to'
Conjugate the helping verb "be" 'going to' verb (base form).
I'm going to (I am)
work this evening.
You're going to (You are)
He's going to (He is)
She's going to (She is)
It's going to (It is)
We're going to (We are)
You're going to (You are)
They're going to (They are)
Conjugate the helping verb "be" not going to verb (base form)
I'm not going to (I am not)
come this evening.
You aren't going to (You are not)
He isn't going to (He is not)
She isn't going to (She is not)
It isn't going to (It is not)
We aren't going to (We are not)
You aren't going to (You are not)
They aren't going to (They are not)
Question word conjugate the helping verb 'be' subject going to verb (base
form)
What
am I going to
do tomorrow?
are you going to
is he going to
is she going to
is it going toare we going to
are you going to
are they going to
Future with '-ing' (present continuous)
Conjugate the helping verb "be" and verb -ing.
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Grammar Reference
I'm (I am)
You're (You are)
He's (He is)
She's (She is)
It's (It is)
We're (We are)
You're (You are)
They're (They are)
Hasham Raza
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Conjugate the helping verb 'do' (do or does) the base form of the verb in
question forms.
Do
I
leave at noon?
You
We
They
Does
He
leave at noon?
She
It
Form
Time
Referenc
e
Present
Future
Past
He might be
joking!
Modal Continuous
Form
Present
Modal Verbs
Present Perfect
Past
They might
have gone to
the country.
They might
Modal Present
Past
have been
Perfect Continuous
working at that Verb
time
Can / Be Able To
Listed below are examples and uses of can / could / be able to for ability and
permission
Examples
Usage
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Listed below are examples and uses of must / have to / mustn't / not have to
Examples
Usage
We have to
get up early.
She had to
work hard
yesterday.
They will
have to
arrive early.
Does he
have to go?
I must finish
this work
before I
leave.
Must you
work so
hard?
You don't
The negative form of 'have to' expresses
have to
the idea that something is not required.
arrive before It is however, possible if so desired.
8.
They didn't
have to work
so hard.
She mustn't The negative form of 'must' expresses
use such
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horrible
this form is very different in meaning
language.
than the negative of 'have to'!
Tom. You
mustn't play
with fire.
Did he have IMPORTANT: The past form of 'have to'
to leave so and 'must' is 'had to'. Must does not
early?
exist in the past.
He had to
stay
overnight in
Dallas.
Listed below are examples and uses of modal verbs of probability. Modal verbs of
probability are used to express an opinion of the speaker based on information that
the speaker has. Example: He must be at work, it's 10 o'clock. In this case, the
speaker is 100 % sure that the person is at work based on the speaker's knowledge
that the person in question usually works at during the day.
Examples
Usage
They must be Use 'must' plus the verb when you are
in Spain by
100% (or almost 100%) sure that
now.
something is the case.
She must
have done
well on the
test.
She might
Use 'might' or 'may' to express an
come this
opinion that you think has a good
evening.
possibility of being true.
David may
invite Jesica to
the match.
Jack might
have gone to
France.
Jane could be
at work.
Peter could
have arrived
late.
You can't be
serious!
They can't
have worked
until late.
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
Structure
In the present: Subject Modal Base Form
Objects
I
must be
at work.
You
might be
He, She
could be
We
can't be
They
In the past: Subject Modal Perfect Form
Objects
I
must have left
early.
You
might have left
He, She
could have left
We
can't have left
They
Modal Verbs of Probability Quiz
Use must, might, may, could or can't plus the correct form of the verb.
Where is David? He
She
The concert
Reported Speech
Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence
reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in
a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
For example:
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Grammar Reference
If simple
Hasham Raza
Grammar Reference
He said,
week."
He said,
He said,
job."
He said,
Hasham Raza
Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an
action.
The Passive is formed: Passive Subject To Be Past Particple
It is often used in business and in other areas where the object of the
action is more important than those who perform the action. For
Example: We have produced over 20 different models in the past two
years. Changes to: Over 20 different models have been produced in the
past two years.
If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, use "by" For
Example: Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunnswick" in 1987.
Changes to:"The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1987 by Tim
Wilson.
Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive.
The following chart includes sentences changed from the active to the passive in
the principal tenses.
Active
Passive
Time
Referenc
e
They make
Fords in
Cologne.
Present
Simple
Susan is
Dinner is being
cooking dinner. cooked by Susan
Present
Continuou
s
James Joyce
wrote
"Dubliners".
"Dubliners" was
written by James
Joyces.
Past
Simple
They were
painting the
house when I
arrived.
Past
Continuou
s
They have
produced over
20 models in
the past two
years.
Over 20 models
have been
produced in the
past two years.
Present
Perfect
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A new factory is
Future
going to be built in Intention
Portland.
with
Going to
I will finish it
tomorrow.
It will be finished
tomorrow.
Future
Simple
Passive Voice
Passive Voice
The passive voice is used when focusing on the person or thing affected by an
action.
The Passive is formed: Passive Subject To Be Past Particple
It is often used in business and in other areas where the object of the
action is more important than those who perform the action. For
Example: We have produced over 20 different models in the past two
years. Changes to: Over 20 different models have been produced in the
past two years.
If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, use "by" For
Example: Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunnswick" in 1987.
Changes to:"The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1987 by Tim
Wilson.
Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive.
The following chart includes sentences changed from the active to the passive in
the principal tenses.
Active
Passive
Time
Referenc
e
They make
Fords in
Cologne.
Present
Simple
Susan is
Dinner is being
cooking dinner. cooked by Susan
Present
Continuou
s
James Joyce
wrote
"Dubliners".
"Dubliners" was
written by James
Joyces.
Past
Simple
They were
painting the
Past
Continuou
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house when I
arrived.
when I arrived.
They have
produced over
20 models in
the past two
years.
Over 20 models
have been
produced in the
past two years.
Present
Perfect
A new factory is
Future
going to be built in Intention
Portland.
with
Going to
I will finish it
tomorrow.
It will be finished
tomorrow.
Future
Simple
Contrasting Ideas
There are a number of formulas used when contrasting ideas in English. Here are
some of the most common:
We'd love to stay for dinner, but we have got to get going.
They decided to stay in the area, in spite of their problems with the local
residents.
Despite the difficulties of a long journey, Peter decided to visit India.
Getting a good job is hard work, however, most people eventually find
one with patience.
There were a number of people who came, although the hotels were not
equipped to handle them all.
After you study these constructions, take the contrasting ideas quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Example
Explanation
main statement,
but contrasting
statement
main statement, in
spite of
contrasting
statement OR in
spite of
contrasting
statement, main
statement
main statement,
They continued on their
despite contrasting journey, despite the pouring
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statement OR
Despite
contrasting
statement, main
statement
main statement,
however,
contrasting
statement OR main
statement.
However,
contrasting
statement
main statement,
although
contrasting
statement OR
Although
contrasting
statement, main
statement
Giving Warning
Giving Warnings
There are a number of formulas used when Giving Warnings in English. Here are
some of the most common:
Don't push so hard on that toy, or you might / will break it!
Watch out! Be careful!
Work hard otherwise you'll fail your exam.
After you study these constructions, take the giving warnings quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Don't..., or you
might / will...
Watch out! Be
Careful
Work hard,
Use the imperative otherwise you will / might plus the
otherwise you'll... base form of the verb to show consequenses
Offering Help
Offering Help
There are a number of formulas used when offering help in English. Here are some
of the most common:
May I help you?
Can I help you?
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Are you looking for something?
Would you like some help?
Do you need some help?
What can I do for you today?
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After you study these constructions, take the offering help quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Use 'May I' or 'Can I' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
Would you like some Use 'Would you like' some help OR some advice OR a
help?
recommendation
Do you need some
help?
What can I do for you Use 'What can I do for' you, her, him, etc. today OR this
today?
morning, this afternoon, this evening
Giving Advice
Giving Advice
There are a number of formulas used when Giving Advice in English. Here are some
of the most common:
I don't think you should work so hard.
You ought to work less.
You ought not to work so hard.
If I were you, I'd work less.
If I were in your position, I'd work less.
If I were in your shoes, I'd work less.
You had better work less.
You shouldn't work so hard.
Whatever you do, don't work so hard.
After you study these constructions, take the giving advice quiz to check your
understanding.
Construction
Formula
Verb Form
Use 'I don't think you should' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
Use 'You ought to' the base form of the verb in a statement.
Use 'You ought not to' the base form of the verb in a
statement.
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If I were you,
Use 'If I were' 'you' OR 'in your position' OR 'your shoes' 'I
If I were in your
wouldn't' OR 'I would' base form of the verb in a statement
position,
(A form of the conditional 2).
If I were in your
shoes, I wouldn't work
so hard.
You had better work
less.
Use 'You had better' (you'd better) the base form of the
verb in a statement.
You shouldn't OR You Use 'You should' OR 'You shouldn't' the base form of the
should work less.
verb in a statement.
Whatever you do,
don't work so hard.
Object
which,
that
Object
, that, who,
whom
, which,
that
Posses
sive
whose
whose, of
which
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Generally, who and which are more usual in written English whereas that is more
usual in speech when referring to things.
Relative Pronouns Used As The Object of Defining Relative Clauses
Example: That's the boy ( , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (, that, which) I'd like to buy.
Relative Pronouns Used As A Possessive In A Defining Relative Clauses
Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was
little known.
NOTE: It is preferable to use that (not which) after the following words: all,
any(thing), every (thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing),
and after superlatives. When using the pronoun to refer to the object, that can be
omitted.
Example: It was everything (that) he had ever wanted.
There were only a few (that) really interested him.
The Use Of Where, Why And When - Relative Clauses and Preposition Use
Where, referring to a place, why, referring to a reason, and when, referring to a
time, can be used instead of a relative pronoun after a noun.
In defining relative clauses why and when, unlike where can be omitted.
Example: I'd like to know the reason (why) he decided not to come.
February is the month (when) many of my colleagues take skiing holidays.
BUT! She always had wanted to go to a place where she could speak her native
tongue.
When, where and why are not omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
Example: I come from the Seattle area, where many successful companies such
as Microsoft and Boeing are located, and I often go home during the summer.
He likes shopping between one and three, when most people are at home,
because of the relative calm.
NOTES:
When speaking, we often omit the relative pronoun.
Whom is formal and most often used when writing.
Relative clauses and prepositions
In formal English prepositions can come before the relative pronoun. However, it
much more common to place prepositions at the end of the relative clause,
especially in informal spoken English.
Example: John Robbins, whom I spoke to by telephone, instructed me to buy 200
shares of WAKO. Formal
The Ritz, which was stayed at in New York, was extremely expensive.
Defining Relative Clauses
Form Inform
al
al
Pers who
on
m
Obje whic
ct
h
Example: The banker to whom I gave my check was quite friendly. - formal
The woman I talked to was very pleasant indeed. - informal
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Subordinate clause - cannot stand alone
Main clause - can stand alone
Connective adverb - other examples include: firstly, finally, etc.
Adjective - modifying following noun
Connective conjunction - other examples include: and, or, etc.
Determiner: type - possessive adjective (also known as possessive
pronoun)
Determiner: type - demonstrative adjective (including this, that, these,
those)
Connective: relative pronoun
Period (US English), full stop (British English)
Comma
Ungradable adjective - these adjectives are already 'very' (Example:
'wonderful' means 'very good'. These adjectives can only be used with
'extreme' modifiers like absolutely, extremely, etc.)
Exclamation mark - used for emphasis
Modifier - adverb. Other examples include: pretty, very, quite, etc.
Question mark - used when asking questions
Quotation marks - used when employing direct speech
Sentence Rewriting - 1
Sentence Transformation #1
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
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skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
You must never take your helmet off while you are riding a motorcycle.
all
Helmets must be worn
when riding a motorcycle.
They wanted to apologize for their behavior: that's why they paid for dinner.
order
They paid for dinner
for their behavior.
It isn't necessary to bring skis as they are included in the package.
have
You
bring skis as they are included in the package.
I thought parking was allowed here.
under the impression
I
that parking was allowed here.
Tom said, "I will be playing tennis when you arrive."
he
Tom said
tennis when I arrived.
When I was a child, we would go to the local park every Saturday afternoon.
used
When I was a child,
the park every Saturday.
His daughter continued to cry until he could not be seen any longer.
sight
She continued to cry until he
I'm afraid that car is just too expensive.
means
That car is
.
They moved to this suburb in 1997.
lived
They
in this suburb since 1997.
One other thing before I forget - Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
by
, Jack is coming to visit next weekend.
Sentence Rewriting - 2
Sentence Transformation #2
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
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Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
1. They managed to finish the project in time for the presentation.
succeeded
They
the project in time for the presentation.
2. Maurice didn't come to the meeting yesterday. Perhaps he was ill.
might
Maurice
yesterday.
3. Jane allows her children to stay up to midnight on Saturday evenings.
let
Jane
late on Saturdays.
4. Luckily, Peter wasn't charged with an offense when the police caught him
stealing the first time.
off
Peter was very lucky because he
5. Can I accompany you to the party?
mind
Do you
to the party?
6. I wish you didn't drive so fast.
only
If
so fast.
7. I think Tom needs to see a doctor. His cough is terrible.
ought
With that terrible cough, Tom
a doctor.
8. You should feel horrible! Why did you say that to Jack?
shame
! Why did you say that to Jack?
9. The authorities said she wasn't responsible for the accident.
fault
The accident
.
10. "Why don't you take a holiday?", said Peter.
suggested
Peter
a holiday.
Sentence Rewriting - 3
Sentence Transformation #3
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
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Tom.
in the dictionary?
He needs
by someone.
8. The concert was horrible.
time
The concert was a complete
9. He couldn't find me at the exhibition.
find
He wasn't able
me at the exhibition.
10. She let her son go to New York for the weekend.
allowed
She
to New York
Sentence Rewriting - 4
Sentence Transformation #4
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
1. I haven't seen her for ages.
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time
The
was 15 years ago.
2. I didn't understand what he was saying because I hadn't read his book.
would
If I had read his book I
educated in Canada.
a disguise.
Don't let
Jack.
7. This pasta is a new experience for me.
time
It is
I have tried this pasta.
8. She has probably found a new job.
likely
It
a new job.
9. I don't agree with prohibiting smoking in bars.
favor
I'm not
prohibiting smoking in bars.
10. It doesn't need to be finished this afternoon.
finish
It
this afternoon.
Sentence Rewriting - 5
Sentence Transformation #5
The ability to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the
original is often required for many English ESL EFL Exams such as Cambridge's
First Certificate, CAE and Proficiency. This skill can also help you prepare for the
TOEFL examination (Test of English as a Foreign Language). It is also an important
skill which can help you improve your understanding of similar English expressions
and vocabulary.
Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
Use no more than 5 words.
1. Pittsburgh is less exciting than New York.
as
Pittsburgh
New York.
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It's Jenny's
Jack.
10. I was so bored by his lecture I left.
boring
His lecture was
I left.
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Before
After
While, as
He was talking
on the phone
when I arrived.
When she
called, he had
already eaten
lunch.
I washed the
dishes when
my daughter
fell asleep.
We'll go to
lunch when
you come to
visit.
We will finish
before he
arrives.
She (had) left
before I
telephoned.
We will finish
after he
comes.
She ate after I
(had) left.
She began
cooking while I
was finishing
my homework.
As I was
finishing my
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homework, she
began cooking.
By the time
Until, till
By the time he
finished, I had
cooked dinner.
We will have
finished our
homework by
the time they
arrive.
We waited
until he
finished his
homework.
I'll wait till you
finish.
Since
I have played
tennis since I
was a young
boy.
As soon as
He will let us
know as soon
as he decides
(or as soon as
he has
decided).
Whenever,
every time
Whenever he
comes, we go
to have lunch
at "Dick's".
We take a hike
every time he
visits.
The first,
second,
third, fourth
etc., next,
last time
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to have fun.
If we win,
we'll go to
Kelly's to
celebrate!
She would
buy a
house, if
she had
enough
money.
Even if
Even if
she saves
a lot, she
won't be
able to
afford that
house.
In contrast to
sentences with 'if'
sentences with 'even if'
show a result that is
unexpected based on
the condition in the
'even if' clause.
Example: COMPARE: If
she studies hard, she
will pass the exam
AND Even if she
studies hard, she won't
pass the exam.
Whether
or not
They
won't be
able to
come
whether
or not
they have
enough
'Whether or not'
expresses the idea that
neither one condition
or another matters; the
result will be the same.
Notice the possibility of
inversion (Whether
they have money or
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Unless
In case
(that),
in the
event
(that)
Only if
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money.
not) with 'whether or
Whether not'.
they have
money or
not, they
won't be
able to
come.
Unless
she
hurries
up, we
won't
arrive in
time.
We won't
go unless
he arrives
soon.
In the
case you
need me,
I'll be at
Tom's.
I'll be
studying
upstairs in
the event
he calls.
We'll give
you your
bicycle
only if you
do well on
your
exams.
Only if
you do
well on
your
exams will
we give
you your
bicycle.
Plural Formation
English Plurals
Rule: In general, the plural is formed by adding an -s to
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Adverbs
Using Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs. They tell you How something is done.
Example: How does he she sing? - She sings beautifully.
Rule: Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective
Example: beautiful - beautifully, careful - carefully
Be Careful!
Some adjectives don't change in the adverb form. The most important of
these are: fast - fast, hard - hard
Good is probably the most important exception. The adverb form of
'good' is 'well'. Unfortunately, this is a common mistake that many
Americans make!
NOT!!: He plays tennis good.
Rule: Adverbs can also modify an adjective. In this case, the adverb is placed
before the adjective.
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Keeping these verbs in mind, look at the following chart to review the use of the
simple progressive tenses (past, present, and future) and the simple tenses (past
present, and future).
Simple Progressive Tenses (past,
Simple Tenses (past, present, and
present, and future)
future)
1) CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY Used to
emphasize the continuous nature of any
given activity. examples I was watching
television at 8 o'clock last night. Fred is
speaking on the telephone at the
moment. They will be eating lunch at
Harold's tomorrow.
2) ACTIVITY IN PROGRESS
2) NON-CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY
INTERSECTED BY A NONTexamples he boys bought some new
CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY I was watching coats yesterday. They will arrive at 7
television when Susan telephoned.
o'clock
exampleThey will be working in the
garden when you arrive.
3) TWO CONTINUOUS ACTIVITIES
3) TWO HABITUAL
OCCURING AT THE SAME TIME
EVENTSexample> She kept the
examplePeter was cooking dinner while I books and he advised the clients at
was working at the computer.
their last job.
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reason
cancel
1) visit 2) ask a student a question in class
Call on the telephone
Reach the same position or level as someone
Call off
Call on*
Call up
Catch up
(with)*
Check in*
Register at a hotel
Check into* investigate
Check out
1) borrow a book from a library 2) investigate
Cheer up
Make (someone) feel happier
Clean up
Make clean and orderly
Come
Find by chance
across*
Cross out
Draw a line through
Cut out
Stop an annoying activity
Do over
repeat
Drop by*
Visit informally
Drop in (on)* Visit informally
Drop off
Leave something/someone somewhere
Drop out
Stop going to school or class
(of)*
Figure out
Find the answer by logic
Fill out
Complete a form
Find out
Discover information
Get along
To have a good relationship with
(with)*
Get back
1) return from somewhere 2) receive again
(from)
Get in, get 1) enter a car 2) arrive
into*
Get off*
Leave any vehicle
Get on*
Enter any vehicle
Get out of* 1) leave a car 2) avoid some unpleasant activity
Get over*
Recover from an illness
Get through* finish
Get up*
Arise from bed, a chair etc.
Give back
Return something to someone
Give up
Stop doing something
Go over*
Review or check
Grow up*
Become an adult
Hand in
Submit an assignment
Hang up
1) Stop a telephone conversation 2) put up
clothes on a line or a hook
Have on
Wear
Keep out (of) Not enter
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Keep up
(with)*
Kick out (of)
L Look after*
Look into*
Look out
(for)*
Look over
Look up
M Make up
N Name after
P Pass away*
Pass out
Pick out
Pick up
Point out
Put away
Put back
Put off
Put on
Put out
Put up with*
R Run into
Run across
Run out (of)
S Show up*
Shut off
T Take after*
Take off
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Review or check
Look for information in a reference book
1) invent 2) do past work
Give a baby the name of someone else
Die
1) distribute 2) lose consciousness
Select
1) go to get someone 2) take in one's hand
Call someone's attention to
Remove to an appropriate place
Return to original position
Postpone
Dress
Extinguish a cigarette, fire
Tolerate
Meet by chance
Find by chance
Finish a supply of something
Appear, come to
Stop a machine, equipment, light etc.
Resemble
1) remove clothing 2) leave on a trip 3) leave the
ground (aeroplane)
Take out
1) take someone on a date 2) remove
Take over
Take control
Take up
Begin a new activity
Tear down
Demolish, reduce to nothing
Tear up
Tear into many little pieces
Think over Consider
Throw away Discard; get rid of
Throw out
Discard; get rid of
Throw up
Vomit
Try on
Put on clothing to see if it fits
Turn down
Decrease volume
Turn in
1) submit classwork 2) go to bed
Turn off
Stop a machine, equipment, light etc.
Turn on
Start a machine, equipment, light etc.
Turn out
Extinguish a light
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Turn up
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Conditionals 0, 1, 2, 3
Listed below are examples, uses and formation of Conditionals followed by a quiz.
Conditional 0
Situations that are always true if something happens.
NOTE
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This use is similiar to, and can usually be replaced by, a time clause using 'when'
(example: When I am late, my father takes me to school.)
If I am late, my father takes me to school.
She doesn't worry if Jack stays out after school.
Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by
a comma the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause
first without using a comma between the clauses.
If he comes to town, we have dinner.
OR
We have dinner if he comes to town.
Conditional 1
Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible situations. These situations take place if a certain condition is met.
NOTE
In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other words,
'...unless he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.'.
If it rains, we will stay at home.
He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if clause followed by
a comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
If he finishes on time, we will go to the movies.
OR
We will go to the movies if he finishes on time.
Conditional 2
Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given
situation.
NOTE
The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'.
If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if clause followed by a
comma would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
If they had more money, they would buy a new house.
OR
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
Conditional 3
Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past situations
with hypothetical results. Used to express a hypothetical result to a past given
situation.
If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
Conditional 3 is formed by the use of the past perfect in the if clause followed by a
comma would have past participle in the result clause. You can also put the result
clause first without using a comma between the clauses.
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If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed OR Life would have
changed if Alice had won the competition.
Since
They
received a
high mark
on their
exam
because
they had
studied
hard.
I'm
studying
hard
because I
want to
pass my
exam.
He works a
lot of
overtime
because
his rent is
so
expensive
Notice how
because can be
used with a
variety of tenses
based on the
time relationship
between the two
clauses.
Since he
loves
music so
much, he
decided to
go to a
conservato
ry.
They had
'Since' means
the same as
because. 'Since'
tends to be used
in more informal
spoken English.
Important
note: "Since"
when used as a
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to leave
early since
their train
left at
8.30.
conjunction is
typically used to
refer to a period
of time, while
"because"
implies a cause
or reason.
As long
as
As long as
you have
the time,
why don't
you come
for dinner?
As
As the test
is difficult,
you had
better get
some
sleep.
Inasamu
ch as
Inasmuch
as the
students
had
succesfully
completed
their
exams,
their
parents
rewarded
their
efforts by
giving
them a trip
to Paris.
'Inasmuch as'
means the same
as because.
'Inasmuch as' is
used in very
formal, written
English.
Due to
the fact
that
We will be
staying for
an extra
week due
to the fact
that we
haven not
yet
finished.
59/60
Grammar Reference
Hasham Raza
60/60