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ATOMS
A. Energy - Definitions (Section 3.1)
1.
2.
Forms of energy = mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy, and heat
energy, and others.
3.
Energy has two essential manifestations: kinetic energy and potential energy.
a. Kinetic energy is energy of motion = mv2/2.
Thermal energy is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms
and molecules.
b. Potential energy is stored energy = the energy an object possesses because of its
position, condition, or composition.
Two major types in chemistry:
o Chemical energy- Stored within the structural units of chemical
substances.
o Electrostatic energy- Potential energy resulting from the interaction
of charged particles.
4.
The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can be converted between these two
from, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
5.
=J
Q Q
Structure of atom had been established as cloud of electrons around a heavy nuclear
core = the nuclear atom picture.
2.
3.
4.
Atomic emission spectra = light emitted from excited atoms, analyzed into
wavelength components.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Referred to as dispersion.
Using light with smaller wavelengths allows the pits to be smaller, enabling
the storage of more data.
15. Additional Aspects of EM Waves
a. Electromagnetic waves are so named because they have both an electrical and
magnetic component.
Equivalent wavelengths, frequencies, and amplitudes, but oscillating
perpendicular (90) to one another.
b. When passed through successive narrow slits, waves diffract and generate
interference patterns.
= energy (J)
h = Plancks Constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js
= frequency (s-1)
3. Example Problems:
FM radio stations typically use signals with a frequency of 1.00x108 s-1, while microwave
ovens use radiation with a wavelength of 0.1225 meters. Which has more energy, the
radio waves or the microwaves?
Heating glass in a flame results in a yellow glow emitted from excited Na atoms in the
glass with a wavelength of 590 nm. Calculate:
The frequency of this light.
The energy of a photon of this light.
The energy of one mole of photons of this light in joules per mole.
A whole mole of Na atoms emitting one photon would emit how much energy?
7. Balmer (1885) showed that the wavelengths in the visible spectrum of Hydrogen can
be fit by a simple formula:
1
1
1
= 1.097 107 m1
2 2 n2
- Balmer Equation
8. Rydberg found an equation that reproduces the of the all lines in Hydrogen emission
spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared:
1
1
1
=R
2
2
n2
n1
- Rydberg Equation
c. Bohr Frequency Rule: The atom can only absorb or emit light having just the right
energy (and thus frequency or wavelength) to move the e- between these energy
levels.
Can also jump multiple levels.
1925 - Louis de Broglie described the phenomenon called the wave/particle duality =
microscopic particles possess wave-like character, and vice versa.
i.e. - just as light usually seems wave-like and yet has particle-like behavior (photons),
electrons also have both particle-like and wave-like behavior.
= h/mv
= wavelength (m)
h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
2.
3.
4.
As the differences
between the steps get
smaller, these become
the same thing!
5.
6.
The more precisely you measure the position, the less precisely you can
simultaneously measure its momentum (or velocity), and vice versa.
h
2
h
x v x
2m
x px
b.
When they change energy, they must absorb or emit precisely the required energy
to place them in the new energy state.
c.
The allowed energy states are indexed by sets of numbers called quantum
numbers.
d.
e.
f.
+ V = E
8 2 m x 2 y 2 z 2
g.
This equation has as many solutions as the atom has quantum states.
h.
i.
tells the size and shape of the region of space where the probability of finding the
electron is high.
2 atomic orbitals
G. Quantum Numbers (Section 3.7)
1.
2.
3.
The magnetic quantum number, ml, designates the spatial orientation of an atomic
orbital. Allowed values:
ml = (-l ), ... 0, ..., (+l )
4.
The spin quantum number, ms, refers to the spin of an electron and the orientation of
the magnetic field produced by this spin. Allowed values:
ms = 1/2
Example from everyday life: At Tech football games a person sits in Section J, Row
21, Seat 8. It takes 3 numbers to fully specify where the person is sitting!
H. Atomic Orbital Representations (Section 3.8)
1.
An AO is specified by n, l, ml .
2.
Higher energy!
l = 0, s (sharp)
l = 1, p (principal)
l = 2, d (diffuse)
l = 3, f (fundamental)
l = 4, g; l = 5, h; etc.
5. Effect of ml on orbitals
a. The value of ml determines the spatial orientation of the orbital in the subshell:
For l = 0, ml = 0 (n=1)
s orbitals are spherical, so there cant be more than one on the same
set of axes
For l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1 (excite to n = 1)
Three p orbitals in a subshell, each oriented along a different
Cartesian axis.
For l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 (excite to n = 3)
The d subshell has five orbitals!
6. Energy Levels
a. As n increases, the energy increases.
b. Energy also increases as l increases, but to a lesser extent.
In a hydrogen atom (or any single electron ion) the l value does not affect
the energy.
7. To place the electron () in one of these orbitals with spin ms = +1/2 () or ms = - 1/2
() is the last step in fully specifying which quantum state the electron occupies.
2. Atoms bigger than H are treated by placing additional electrons into H-like orbitals:
3. Note that maximum of 2 electrons can go into an atomic orbital with opposite spins,
consequence of Pauli Principle.
4. Pauli Exclusion Principle = no two e- in an atom can have identical set of 4 quantum
numbers.
5. P.E.P. also implies that for 3 e- atom like Li, would have to start to fill 2s AO:
(n + ) = 6; 4d, 5p, 6s
(n + ) = 7; 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s
etc.
4f
4d
n=4
n=3
4p
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
n=2
n=1
2s
1s
11. Hunds Rule = when filling a sublevel having more than one AO (such as 2p sublevel)
one places electrons singly in separate orbitals before pairing begins. These unpaired
e- have parallel spins. This is lower energy.
12. Lets continue:
13. Note at Neon, 2p sublevel is filled, and also n = 2 level is filled. At He n = 1 level is
filled. These are stable, chemically inert configurations.
14. Lets do Row 3:
Electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet and orients in a magnetic field.
2.
Magnetic field from two electrons with paired spins (one up and one down) cancels
itself out. No net magnetism.
3.
Atoms with all paired-up electrons are called diamagnetic - they are not attracted by
an external magnetic field, but actually slightly repelled.
Example: Hg vapor Why?
4.
Unpaired electrons in an atom impart an overall magnetism to the atom and these are
called paramagnetic. They are attracted by a magnetic field.
Example: Na vapor Why?
5.
1. Electron configurations explain the shape of the Periodic Table, and vice versa, we can
use Periodic Table to figure out electron configuration.
2. For the main group elements, the period number tells you the value of n.
The d subshells are n - 1
The f subshells are n 2
10
Se: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
10
[Ar]4s 3d 4p
___ ___
1s 2s
___ ___
1s 2s
Ground State
___ ___
1s 2s
Excited State
Invalid Configuration
Mg
Ga
Tc
Ir
For each of the following electron configurations for neutral atoms, determine what