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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels
File Reference: MEX20204
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Fabrication, Inspection, and
Testing of Pressure Vessels
CONTENTS
PAGE
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Fabrication, Inspection, and
Testing of Pressure Vessels
Engineering Encyclopedia
Vessels
Fabrication, Inspection, and
Testing of Pressure Vessels
Engineering Encyclopedia
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Fabrication, Inspection, and
Testing of Pressure Vessels
Power source
Ground clamp
Electrode holder
Electrodes or rods
Two types of power supplies are used for arc welding: the direct current (dc) generator and
the alternating current (ac) transformer. The choice of power supply depends on the
particular welding that is to be done. Figure 1 shows a typical ac arc welding circuit.
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Heat-Affected Zone
Figure 2
Because the welding heat changes the crystal structure and grain size of the HAZ, a postweld
heat treatment (PWHT) may be necessary to restore the material structure to the required
properties. The need for PWHT for these metallurgical reasons depends on the materials that
are involved and the service conditions that they are exposed to. As the weld metal and HAZ
cool from the very high welding temperatures, the thermal contraction that occurs in the
locally heated area is resisted by the cooler base metal that surrounds the locally heated area.
This resistance to thermal contraction results in residual stresses that remain in the structure.
For thicker plates, these residual stresses must be removed by PWHT. PWHT requirements
based on stress relief considerations are contained in the ASME Code, Section VIII, and were
discussed in MEX 202.02. PWHT is discussed in more detail later in this module.
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Most modern welding electrodes are coated with a flux. As the electrode wire melts, the flux
that coats the wire burns and produces a gaseous shield around the electric arc. This gaseous
shield prevents contamination of the weld by protecting the molten metal from contaminants
that are in the atmosphere. Figure 3 shows a coated electrode weld deposit and the area
around the weld.
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The choice of the joint and weld type that is to be used in each case depends on the following:
The geometric relationship between the parts that are being joined and the
access that is available for welding.
Economic considerations.
Groove Welds
Groove welds are subdivided based on the shape of the edges of the groove welds. Figure 5
shows the primary types of groove welds that are used in pressure vessel fabrication. Butt- or
tee-type joints with V or double-bevel groove welds are the most common weld joint types
that are used in pressure vessel fabrication.
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For example, butt-type joints are used to join pressure vessel shell and head plate sections
together. Tee-type joints are used to join nozzles to shell or head sections.
Note in Figure 5 that the edges of the pieces that are to be joined are cut from their initially
supplied straight configuration into some form of bevel. The cut edges are called "edge
preparation." The primary pressure containing welds in pressure vessels must be designed for
full penetration (that is, the weld penetrates through the complete thickness of the metals that
are joined) and for full fusion (that is, the weld metal is completely fused to the base metal
and to itself throughout the full thickness). The full penetration requirement is stated in the
ASME Code, 32-SAMSS-004, and in SAES-W-001. The ASME Code also specifies the full
fusion requirement.
The type of edge preparation that is used depends on the following factors:
Whether the weld will be made in the shop with automatic equipment or
whether it will be made manually.
For thicker plates with access for welding from both sides, double bevel groove welds are
used, and the weld is completed from both sides to help ensure full penetration and fusion.
The angle of the bevel face is also specified to ensure that the welding electrode has complete
access to the bottom of the weld area. The bottom of the weld area is called the "root" of the
weld. The parts that are being joined are separated by a small distance, called the "root gap."
As the thickness of the parts that are to be joined increases, the width of the open area at the
surface of the weld for a V-groove weld preparation increases because the bevel angle is
constant through the entire thickness. This extra width requires a larger amount of weld metal
to make the closure. This extra weld metal increases the cost of fabrication for both material
and labor. The J or U groove-type weld preparations are more frequently used in thick
fabrications. With these J- or U-groove weld geometries, the weld root is completely
accessible, but the total amount of open area that is to be filled with weld metal is reduced in
comparison to the V-groove preparation. The weld preparation cost is more for a J- or Ugroove weld. However, when thick components are being joined, the total weld cost is less
for a J- or U-groove due to the reduced actual welding time and material.
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Allowable stress of the weld metal (which is nearly always the same as that of
the parts that are to be joined).
Stresses in groove welds are computed through the use of standard formulas for tension,
bending, and shear. The full penetration groove weld is the most reliable of all weld types.
There are no significant stress concentration effects in a full penetration groove weld because
there are no abrupt geometric discontinuities. The joint efficiency is specified by the ASME
Code and depends on the type of weld examination that is used, as was discussed in MEX
202.03.
Fillet Welds
A fillet weld has a triangular cross section and joins two surfaces that are typically at right
angles to each other. Figure 6 shows fillet welds at a tee-joint, and defines some relevant
terms.
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Figure 6
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The size of a fillet weld is specified by the leg length, w, of its largest inscribed right triangle.
A 45 fillet weld with legs of equal size is the most common and economical type of fillet
weld. No edge preparation is required for a fillet weld. This lack of edge preparation lowers
the cost to make a fillet weld. However, the allowable stress of a fillet weld is also lower than
that of a groove weld. Stress concentrations at the root and toe of a fillet weld can cause
fatigue failure under cyclic loading conditions. Fillet welds are never used as the primary
pressure-retaining weld in pressure vessel construction. Fillet welds are primarily used to
attach reinforcing pads, stiffener rings, and other attachments to the main pressure-containing
parts.
The stresses in fillet welds are complex because of the eccentricity of the applied load, the
weld shape, and stress concentration effects. These stresses consist of shear, tension, and
compression stresses. The stress distribution is not uniform across the throat and leg of a fillet
weld and varies along the length of the fillet weld. However, practical assumptions are made
with regard to the fillet weld geometry and applied load in order to simplify design.
Where fillet welds are used for attachments to a pressure vessel, SAES-D-001 requires that
the weld be continuous. A continuous fillet weld is required to prevent the occurrence of
corrosion between the attachment and the vessel due to corrosive fluid being trapped between
the two parts.
Plug Welds
A plug weld is a circular weld that is made through one member of a lap or tee-type joint.
Plug weld holes in thin plates are completely filled with weld metal through the entire plate
thickness. Plug weld holes are typically only partially filled in plates that are about 9.5 mm
(3/8 in.) thick and over. Plug welds are most often used in pressure vessel construction to fix
a corrosion-resistant strip lining into an existing vessel.
Weld Joint Categories
The ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, defines weld joint "categories" by the location of
a joint in a vessel. The joints that are included in each category are designated as Categories
A, B, C, or D. The Categories are used by the ASME Code in the specification of joint type
and degree of inspection for certain welded pressure-containing joints. Recall that these
categories were used in MEX 202.03 in the discussion of weld joint efficiency.
As previously discussed, the ASME Code specifies, in Table UW-12, the weld joint types that
may be used in each Category. The following are examples of specifications in Table UW12:
Buttwelded joints that are made by double-welding (i.e., welded from both
sides) or by other means which will obtain the same weld metal quality on the
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inside and outside weld surfaces may be used for all joint categories. This is
the most commonly used weld type for the weld seams of the main pressure
vessel because it results in the best weld joint efficiencies. If a metal backing
strip is used for this weld, the metal backing strip cannot remain in place.
A single-welded butt joint with a backing strip also could be used for all joint
categories in the ASME Code, but such a joint achieves lower joint efficiencies.
However, both 32-SAMSS-004 and SAES-W-001 prohibit the use of
permanent backing strips.
The ASME Code permits the use of a single-welded butt joint without a
backing strip for Categories A, B, and C; but the code allows such a joint only
for circumferential butt joints that are not over 16 mm (0.625 in.) thick and that
are not over 610 mm (24 in.) in outside diameter. From a practical standpoint,
the allowable weld joint efficiency is so low for this type of joint that it is
typically not used for pressure vessels in refinery applications.
Economics is a consideration in the determination of what weld joint efficiency and weld type
to use. Higher weld joint efficiencies reduce the required component thicknesses, which
reduce material and fabrication costs. However, these cost reductions come at the expense of
more expensive weld joint preparations and inspection.
Welding Procedures and Welder Qualification
The achievement of high quality pressure vessel fabrication requires the use of tested welding
procedures as well as qualified welders or welding machines. The ASME Code, Section VIII
contains rules for the mechanical design, fabrication, and testing of pressure vessels. The
ASME Code, Section IX covers welding procedures and welder qualifications, and the use of
Section IX is specified in SAES-W-001. Section IX is not covered in this section. However,
several welding procedure and welder qualification requirements are highlighted in the
following paragraphs.
Welding Procedures
The pressure vessel designer determines the basic type and size of weld and the weld joint
configuration to use in vessel fabrication. The welding engineer, on the other hand, must
specify exactly how the vessel components are to be welded together, based on the following
parameters:
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Material of components
Welding process (including variables such as the welding speed, shielding gas,
and flux)
Electrode
DC or AC electric current
The welding engineer produces a welding procedure that details exactly how the weld is to be
done and considers the parameters that are listed above. Each weld joint type in a pressure
vessel has its own welding procedure. When a welding procedure is developed, a welder uses
the procedure to weld a sample piece, and the sample weld is inspected and tested. When the
sample weld is approved, the procedure is said to be "qualified": that is, the welding
procedure has been shown to produce sound welds for the intended application. Pressure
vessel fabricators have well established welding procedures that are available for the types of
welds and materials that they normally use. Therefore, welding procedures do not have to be
qualified for every new pressure vessel that is fabricated. Additional welding procedures are
qualified only for new welds that the vessel fabricator has not made before.
Saudi Aramco welding procedure requirements are contained in SAES-W-001, Basic Welding
Requirements. Several of these SAES-W-001 requirements that go beyond the ASME Code
are highlighted as follows:
A weld map, drawing, or table that specifies exactly where each weld
procedure will be applied must be provided by the vessel manufacturer. This
information simplifies the review process, helps ensure consistency between
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Additional requirements are also specified for the test coupon, procedure
requalification requirements, procedure variables, documentation, and approval
requirements.
Preheat and PWHT requirements were discussed in MEX 202.02 and must be specified in the
welding procedure. Saudi Aramco preheat and PWHT requirements are specified in SAESW-010 and are contained in Work Aid 1.
The ASME Code contains the temperature and hold time requirements when PWHT is needed
for stress relief considerations. These ASME Code PWHT requirements are based on
material type and thickness, as specified in Paragraph UCS-56 for carbon and low-alloy
steels. The following parameters (based on the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1) must
be controlled during PWHT:
Heatup and cooldown rates must be controlled within specified limits in order
to avoid excessive local thermal stresses within the vessel during PWHT. For
carbon and low-alloy steels, these heatup and cooldown rates are as follows:
-
The furnace temperature must not exceed 427C (800F) before the
vessel or vessel part is placed in it.
Above 427C (800F), the heatup rate must not be more than 222C
(400F)/hr divided by the maximum metal thickness of the shell or head
plate, in inches. In no case can the heatup rate exceed 222C
(400F)/hr.
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The ASME Code requires that welders and welding operators that are used to weld pressurecontaining parts and to join load-carrying nonpressure parts to pressure parts be qualified in
accordance with Section IX of the ASME Code. Other requirements apply for less critical
welds. Methods must also be established that relate the specific welder to his work and that
permit test records to be maintained.
Acceptable Welding Details
All pressure vessel welds, including the welds that attach heads, nozzles, small fittings, and
nonpressure components to a shell, must conform to requirements that are specified in the
SAESs, 32-SAMSS-004, and the ASME Code. Details that are used for the primary
circumferential and longitudinal welds were discussed earlier in conjunction with weld joint
categories. Other Saudi Aramco and ASME Code weld detail requirements are highlighted
below.
Saudi Aramco Weld Detail Requirements
Saudi Aramco specifies weld detail requirements in 32-SAMSS-004 and SAES-W-010.
These requirements are contained in Work Aid 1. The paragraphs that follow elaborate on
two of these requirements.
For welded connections, a 6 mm (1/4 in.) NPS weep hole is required in each
nozzle reinforcing pad, saddle wear plate, or attachment pad that covers a weld
seam. The weep hole permits later pressure testing of the pad attachment welds
and also provides a vent during welding.
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Thickness of a pressure vessel head sometimes differs from the thickness of the shell it is
attached to, such as when a hemispherical head is attached to a cylindrical shell. The
transition between the component thicknesses must be made gradually in a taper in order to
avoid an excessive local stress. The head-to-shell weld will typically be made in the
cylindrical shell. However, the weld can also be located within the taper. Head-to-shell
thickness transitions are illustrated in Figure 16 in Work Aid 1.
An intermediate head is attached to the inside of a cylindrical shell when the intermediate
head separates two sections of the vessel. The butt weld between shell sections also attaches
to the head, and a fillet weld is also located between the head and shell. The ASME Code
permits elimination of the fillet weld if there is no access and if the service is noncorrosive.
However, the fillet weld should generally be used for all refinery applications to avoid the
potential for accelerated corrosion due to process fluid getting between the head and shell.
The attachment of an intermediate head to a cylindrical shell is illustrated in Figure 16 in
Work Aid 1.
In some cases, a nozzle neck that has a weld-end may be attached to a pipe that is thinner.
This attachment between components of different thicknesses could occur if extra thickness
was included in the nozzle neck for reinforcement or if the pipe and nozzle materials and/or
allowable stresses differ. In such a case, the nozzle neck must be tapered to the pipe
thickness. Tapers of similar thickness are also used to join shell sections that are of different
thicknesses. Shell thickness and nozzle thickness tapers are illustrated in Figures 15 and 17
respectively in Work Aid 1.
Stiffener rings may be attached to the vessel shell by continuous, intermittent, or a
combination of continuous and intermittent welds. Intermittent welds must be placed on both
sides of the stiffener and may be either staggered or in-line. The ASME Code specifies
acceptable spacing, size, and length of the welds. Stiffener ring attachment weld options are
illustrated in Figure 18 in Work Aid 1.
Tolerances
Pressure vessel components are designed for specified dimensions through the use of
procedures and equations that were discussed in MEX 202.03. The actual fabrication of the
individual components and the completed vessel must match the dimensions that were used in
the design calculations within relatively small tolerances. These small tolerances are required
for the design to be valid and for it to have the reliability that the ASME Code intends.
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The ASME Code specifies acceptable dimensional tolerances for specific situations. This
specification also includes allowable alignment tolerances between components that are being
welded together. Excessive misalignment between welded components can result in poor
quality welds, local stress intensification effects that were not considered in the design, and a
reduction in long-term weld reliability. Saudi Aramco generally accepts the ASME Code
tolerance requirements without additions.
Heads and Shells
The following list summarizes the primary dimensional tolerance requirements for heads and
shells based on the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1.
Cylindrical, conical, and spherical shells that are under internal pressure must
be substantially round and must meet the following requirements:
-
Cylindrical, conical, and spherical shells that are under external pressure must
meet the same dimensional tolerances noted above, plus additional dimensional
tolerances that are specified in Paragraph UG-80 of the ASME Code. These
additional requirements account for local geometric discontinuities, which
reduce the buckling resistance of a shell. Participants are referred to the
ASME Code for details.
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The difference between the maximum and minimum diameters of head skirts is
to be limited to a maximum of 1% of the nominal diameter.
Plate Thickness
For plate material that is ordered, it must be specified that the material is to be no thinner than
the required design thickness. If plate is furnished with an undertolerance of no more than the
smaller of 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) or 6% of the ordered thickness, it may still be used at the full
design pressure for the thickness ordered.
In the extreme case, this degree of permissible plate thickness undertolerance permits at most
a 6% overstress in the vessel component. This amount of overstress will still be well below a
level that could cause a failure. From a practical standpoint, there will be slight variations in
plate thickness so that the entire plate would not be this thin. In addition, the allowable
stresses are based on minimum permissible material strength properties, and the material will
typically be stronger than these minimum permissible material strength properties. Therefore,
permitting a nominal plate thickness undertolerance of up to 6% is well within reasonable
safety margins.
It should also be noted that, except for certain special provisions that are noted in Paragraph
UG-16, the ASME Code requires that the minimum thickness for shells and heads, after they
are formed, shall be 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) exclusive of any corrosion allowance. This minimum
thickness requirement results in a basic degree of mechanical integrity of the vessel regardless
of the actual design loads.
Alignment
As noted earlier, the alignment between two parts that are being welded together must be
within a reasonable tolerance in order to achieve an acceptable weld. The list that follows
highlights several ASME Code requirements for alignment.
Plates that are to be welded together must be fitted, aligned, and retained in
position during the welding operation. This procedure keeps the parts from
moving during welding.
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Any tack welds that are used to achieve alignment must either be removed
when they are no longer needed, or their ends must be ground and the tack
weld incorporated into the final weld. Tack welds must also be made using
qualified welding procedures. If qualified welding procedures are not used, a
relatively poor quality tack weld could be the initiation point of a weld failure.
Joint Categories
t, in.
B, C, & D
1/4t
1/4t
1/8 in.
1/4t
1/8 in.
3/16 in.
1/8 in.
1/8t
Lesser of
1/16t or 3/8 in.
Lesser of
1/8t or 3/4 in.
Up to 1/2, incl.
Over 2
Any offset within the allowable tolerances must be fared at a 3:1 taper over the
width of the finished weld. Additional weld metal may be added at the edge of
the weld to meet this requirement. This 3:1 amount of taper minimizes the
effects of local stress concentrations.
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Welds
Dimensional requirements
Equipment documentation
This section discusses only the methods and extent of required weld examinations.
A good weld combines a good design with the execution of a qualified procedure by a
qualified welder. However, the ultimate quality of the actual welds that are made in a
pressure vessel may not be acceptable for a variety of reasons. The pressure vessel designer
is responsible for specification of the type and extent of weld examination that is required in
order to ensure that acceptable welds are achieved. The most common weld defects for which
welds are examined are as follows:
Incomplete fusion between weld beads or between the weld and the base metal.
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The presence of defects reduces the strength of the weld below the requirements of the design
calculations, reduces the overall strength of the fabrication, and increases the risk of failure.
Weld inspection must be performed in a manner that will detect unacceptable defects and that
will not damage the vessel material. This type of inspection is called nondestructive
examination, or NDE.
Radiographic weld examination, weld joint efficiency, and ASME Code requirements have
already been discussed. For example, a spot radiographic examination produces a weld joint
efficiency of 0.85 in a full-penetration butt weld. A 100% radiographic examination produces
a weld joint efficiency of 1.0 in a full-penetration butt weld. In practical terms, a weld joint
efficiency of 1.0 means that there is greater assurance that high weld quality is achieved, that
there is no difference in quality between the weld and the base metal, and that the vessel parts
may, therefore, be fabricated from thinner material. Main seam pressure-containing welds are
not the only ones whose quality must be assured. Welds that connect nozzles or major
structural components to vessel shells must also be of high quality. The sections that follow
discuss radiographic and other forms of weld inspection, the types of defects that they can
detect, and the extent of required examination.
After a pressure vessel has been completely fabricated, it must be pressure-tested before it is
considered safe for operation. The objective of a pressure test is to bring the vessel, under
controlled conditions, to an internal pressure that is high enough to demonstrate its
mechanical integrity. Later sections discuss pressure test requirements in more detail.
Weld hardness tests may be required prior to fabrication and after the welding of vessel
components, based on service considerations and the vessel material. Weld hardness must be
kept below specified maximum values in order to decrease the potential for weld cracking in
certain process environments.
If the material is not exempt from impact testing in accordance with Division 2 requirements,
Charpy impact tests must be made to confirm that the material has adequate fracture
toughness prior to fabrication. The need for this impact testing must be included as part of the
vessel vendor's fabrication plans.
Methods of Examination
The five primary weld NDE methods are as follows:
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The choice of which weld examination method or methods to use depends on the weld quality
required of the joint, the position of the weld, the material to be joined, and the particular
defects that are expected. These weld NDE methods are discussed in the paragraphs that
follow.
Radiographic Examination (RT)
The most important NDE method is radiographic examination. In radiographic examination,
a ray is emitted from a controllable source, penetrates a test specimen, and leaves an image on
a strip of film that is mounted behind the test specimen. The major advantage of RT is that it
produces a permanent record of the examination on film. Figure 9 shows a typical setup for
RT examination.
Typical RT Setup
Figure 9
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Any change in density of the weld metal shows on the film as a dark spot. Flaws such as gas
pockets, slag inclusions, incomplete penetration, or cracks that are located anywhere through
the weld thickness are readily detected. RT examination is most effective in the detection and
identification of small flaws, but RT is not practical for complex shapes such as tee junctions
because the results of the examination are difficult to interpret. RT examination is most
effective in the examination of buttwelded joints, such as longitudinal and circumferential
joints in pressure vessel shells.
RT examination is a relatively expensive method due to the high equipment cost and required
safety precautions. When RT examination is done, access to the area is restricted to essential
personnel, and the operators are located behind protective shields in order to minimize
operator exposure to the rays that are emitted.
Visual Inspection (VT)
A thorough visual inspection is usually satisfactory for minor structural welds, such as those
that connect insulation support rings to a vessel shell. All weld surfaces that will be examined
by more extensive means are first subject to VT. Visual weld inspection involves measuring
the weld and noting any areas of obvious surface porosity, slag inclusions, weld undercut, or
overlap. The VT provides an overall impression of weld quality and helps to locate areas
where additional NDE should be performed.
Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT)
A liquid penetrant examination is used to detect weld surface-type defects. Defects which a
PT examination may detect are cracks, seams, porosity, folds, inclusions, shrinkage, or any
other surface defect. PT examination is used for both ferrous and nonferrous materials. The
major limitation of PT examination is that it can only detect imperfections that are open to the
surface. It cannot be used as the only examination tool for critical pressure-containing welds.
PT is often used as the first and only step up from VT for relatively minor structural-type
welds. In some cases, PT examination is done on intermediate weld passes for critical welds
in order to detect and repair defects early before an entire weld is made. PT is often done on
the weld root pass to ensure that the first weld pass is sound. PT is also often used after the
final weld pass to find flaws that go through the weld surface, after which another inspection
method is used to search for internal defects.
PT is relatively simple and is less expensive than RT, MT, or UT. The basic steps of a PT
inspection are as follows:
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(1)
(2)
Penetrant Application: Liquid penetrant solutions have high fluidity, low viscosity,
and high reliability to permit penetration into defects by capillary action. The liquid
penetrant solutions also contain a fluorescent or visible dye to mark potential defect
areas. Spraying is a common means of solution application. Adequate liquid
penetration into any flaws generally takes 10 to 30 minutes, after which excess
penetrant is removed.
(3)
Removal of Excess Penetrant: Excess penetrant must be removed from the surface by
wiping the surface with a clean cloth or equivalent. The penetrant must still be liquid
at this stage rather than dried, or the entire process must be started again. The
objective is to remove the penetrant from the weld surface without removing any
penetrant that seeped into weld defects.
(4)
(5)
The standard true flaws that are indicated by PT include cracks, pits, and porosity. A large
crack appears as a solid line of some width and becomes apparent soon after developer
application. A cold-shut crack is an undersurface crack that bleeds to the surface. A cold-shut
crack appears as a line of dots and comes to the surface a few minutes after the developer is
applied. Porosity indications appear as dots and come to the surface almost immediately after
developer application.
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False or nonrelevant indications are not caused by surface flaws. The primary reasons these
false indications occur are poor PT application procedures or rough weld surfaces. The
results of the PT are evaluated to determine if the flaws are real, to determine their extent and
exact nature, and to determine if repairs are needed.
Magnetic Particle Test (MT)
The MT examination can detect cracks, porosity, and lack of fusion at or near the surface of
ferromagnetic materials. Flaws that are up to 6 mm (1/4 in.) beneath the weld surface can be
detected. MT depends on the magnetic properties of the material that is inspected and cannot
be used on nonmagnetic materials. MT is frequently employed on the root and final weld
passes or every 6 mm (1/4 in.) of weld buildup for critical welds where RT inspection is not
practical (such as for nozzle attachment welds).
MT examination is based on the magnetic lines of flux (or force lines) that can be generated
within a test piece. These force lines are parallel if no defects are present. If there is a defect,
a small break in the force lines appears at the defect location. In MT examination, iron
powder is applied to the surface and then the test piece is magnetized. If there are no defects,
the iron powder is aligned in straight lines along the North-South magnetic flux lines. If there
is a defect, the iron powder alignment is disturbed and flows around the defect. Figure 10
shows schematically how the iron powder is distributed at a defect during an MT
examination.
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In the system shown in Figure 11, the sound waves pass through the test piece and are
reflected back to the transducer either from the far side of the test piece or from a flaw that is
located at an intermediate position within the test piece. By careful calibration, the UT
operator knows if a flaw has been detected and knows its location and its size.
Figure 12 shows a through-transmission UT system. It uses two transducers, one to transmit
the sound waves and the other to receive them. In this case, if a flaw is present, the flaw
blocks the reception of the sound waves from the receiving transducer.
Through-Transmission UT System
Figure 12
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Figure 13 summarizes the types of nondestructive examinations, the defects typically found
by each, and the advantages and limitations of each process.
NDE TYPE
DEFECTS
DETECTED
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Radiographic
Produces permanent
record.
Detects small flaws.
Most effective for buttwelded joints.
Expensive.
Not practical for
complex shapes.
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Weld surface-type
defects: cracks, seams,
porosity, folds, pits,
inclusions, shrinkage
Magnetic Particle
Flaws up to 6 mm
(1/4 in.) beneath surface
can be detected.
Cannot be used on
nonferrous materials.
Subsurface flaws:
laminations, slag
inclusions
Equipment must be
constantly calibrated.
Ultrasonic
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All plates that are over 50 mm (2 in.) thick must be 100% UT-examined
for a distance of 150 mm (6 in.) back from a nozzle weld preparation or
other cut-out. The presence of a lamination in these areas could lead to
poor quality welds and/or high local stresses that were not considered in
the vessel design calculations.
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Form 2682 contains areas that directly relate to determination of the required hydrotest
pressure. Refer to the copy of Form 2682 that is contained in Course Handout 3 and note the
following:
Hydrotest pressures must be calculated for the shop test with the vessel in the
horizontal position, for the field test with the vessel in the final position and
with uncorroded component thicknesses, and for the field test with the vessel in
the final position and with corroded component thicknesses.
The basis for calculation of the initial test pressure for the vessel in the shop is
the lower of the pressure calculated for the shell or the pressure calculated for
the heads.
The shop hydrotest pressure must also consider the permitted hydrotest
pressure of any flanged connections. The calculated hydrotest pressure cannot
exceed the test pressure of the flanged connections.
SAES-D-001 and 32-SAMSS-004 require that, during the pressure test, the stress at any
section of the vessel cannot exceed 90% of the material minimum specified yield strength
(MSYS), based on use of the design weld joint efficiency (E). The stress in the vessel is
limited to 90% of the MSYS to ensure that there is an adequate safety margin before
permanent deformation in vessel components can occur. Also recall that a 48 kph (30 MPH)
wind must be considered to act during the field hydrotest, based on 32-SAMSS-004
requirements.
The requirement to design the vessel for field hydrotest introduces a complication, especially
for tall towers. A tall tower is typically designed for a specific liquid level (design high liquid
level) as part of its normal design conditions. However, the specific gravity of the design
liquid is normally less than 1.0, and the design high liquid level is usually much lower than
the top of the tower. During a field hydrotest, water at a specific gravity of 1.0 is used, and
the tower is filled to the top. The larger specific gravity and fill height of hydrotest water
results in a higher weight and hydrostatic head load than occurs during normal operation.
Therefore, to withstand the hydrotest loads in some cases, thicker plates are required for lower
sections of the tower than would be required for the operational loads.
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There are situations where one pressure vessel may have two or more individual sections that
are separated by intermediate heads. Each vessel section must typically be designed for a
separate hydrotest. Each separate hydrotest could affect the intermediate head design because
the head is exposed to a higher weight and hydrostatic test pressure than would occur during
normal operation.
The paragraphs that follow summarize additional general hydrostatic test requirements that
are based on the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1.
After testing and inspection of the common elements, the adjacent chambers
are then hydrotested simultaneously. Care must be taken to limit the
differential pressure between the chambers to the pressure that is used when
testing the common elements.
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All joints and connections must be inspected after application of the hydrotest
pressure. This inspection must be made at a pressure that is not less than 2/3 of
the test pressure.
Vents must be provided at all vessel high points (based on test position) to
purge possible air pockets while the vessel is filled with water.
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Solution:
Sc = 17 500 psi
E = 0.85
T = 0.75 in.
R = 60 in.
Heads
Sc = 17 500 psi
T = 0.75 in.
E = 1.0
D = 120 in.
Therefore, the shell is the limiting component and is the basis for determining test
pressure.
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Answer:
; the smallest of Ps (PE or PD, as applicable).
Solution:
Answer:
Determine the field hydrotest pressure with the drum new and in the final position.
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Solution:
Answer:
Therefore, test pressure at the top = 274 psig (the higher of C or D). Note that the shop and
field test pressures with the vessel new are equal in this case since this is a horizontal drum
and since the hydrostatic head pressures from the water are equal. This would not be the case
for a tall tower which is hydrotested horizontally in the shop but vertically in the field.
Confirm that the stress in the limiting component does not exceed 0.9 of the minimum
specified yield strength times the weld joint efficiency, E.
Solution:
Since the shell is the limiting component, we only need to check its stress:
Note that the pressure used is at the bottom of the limiting component.
Answer:
Since S < 34 200 psi, the hydrotest pressure is acceptable. Note that E was accounted for
already in the equation.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
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Determine service test pressure at the top of the vessel with the vessel corroded and
confirm that the stress in the vessel does not exceed 0.9 of the minimum specified
yield strength times E.
Solution:
Answer:
S = 21 865 psi < 0.9 38 000 = 34 200 psi
Therefore, the vessel is acceptable.
Hardness Test Plans
Hardness in metals is defined as the ability to resist the penetration of the metallic surface.
Hardness can be readily measured, is directly proportional to material strength, and is
inversely proportional to ductility and toughness. Therefore, the harder a material is, the more
prone it will be to cracking or brittle fracture. Hardness is affected by material chemistry and
microstructure and is thus greatly influenced by the heat of welding. Therefore, there will be
a variation in hardness across the base metal, weld metal, and HAZ of welded components
due to local variations in chemistry (especially carbon content), welding technique, and
preheat temperature. Welding procedure changes and PWHT are often done to reduce weld
hardness when hardness reduction is needed due to material and/or service considerations.
The Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell methods are the most common approaches that are used
to measure hardness. It is also possible to convert hardness measurements that are taken
using one method into equivalent values on the other hardness measurement scales.
Discussion of such conversions is beyond the scope of this course. The paragraphs that
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follow briefly describe the Brinell and Vickers hardness measurement methods, since Saudi
Aramco requires these methods.
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The Vickers hardness test procedure must be used for welding procedure
qualification welds for vessels that are in sour service except for specified
exemptions. However, the exemptions must still comply with all NACE MR01-75 hardness levels and test requirements. Hardness testing is required for
this application since hard welds are prone to cracking in sour service.
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One of the exemptions from hardness testing is if all vessel internal surfaces are
clad or weld-overlaid with austenitic stainless steel or nickel-based alloys. In
this case, the cladding or overlay shields the ferritic base plate from the sour
fluid. Partial or complete strip lining, partial cladding, or partial overlay are not
exempt from hardness testing.
Another exemption from hardness testing is if the weld procedure is used only
for external structural attachments and the vessel wall at the attachment point is
at least 25 mm (1.0 in.) thick. In this case, the weld HAZ will not extend to the
vessel inside surface and thus will not be affected by the sour fluid.
PWHT may be required for specific materials and/or thicknesses in order to meet the hardness
limits that are specified by Saudi Aramco.
SAES-W-010 also requires hardness testing of the production welds for all vessels that are in
sour service, regardless of material, to ensure that the production welds consistently have
acceptable hardness levels. The Brinell hardness test is used in this case because it is
generally quicker and less expensive for production hardness testing than the other hardness
testing methods.
SAES-W-001 specifies hardness testing procedural requirements as follows:
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Production weld hardness testing, when specified, must meet the following
requirements:
-
The weld must be ground to a smooth flat surface for testing. This
smoothing is required to obtain an accurate hardness measurement.
The Saudi Aramco hardness testing requirements ensure that weld hardness is considered in
the weld procedure qualification tests when appropriate. The hardness tests then confirm that
the hardness of the actual production welds is acceptable for sour service.
Impact Test Plans
Material toughness, brittle fracture, Charpy impact testing, and the ASME Code exemption
curves were discussed in MEX 202.02. Also recall that 32-SAMSS-004 requires that Section
VIII, Division 2 exemption criteria and impact test procedures must be used for both Division
1 and Division 2 pressure vessels. Therefore, once it is determined that the material cannot be
exempt from impact testing, the vendor's impact test plans must be based on both Division 2
and Saudi Aramco requirements.
Work Aid 2D contains a checklist which may be used to confirm that vendor impact test plans
meet Saudi Aramco requirements. The paragraphs that follow highlight several Saudi
Aramco and Division 2 requirements. Participants are referred to Division 2 for additional
details. Unless otherwise noted, the stated requirements are from Division 2.
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Each set of impact tests must consist of three specimens of a specified size.
Unless otherwise specified, plate specimens may be oriented with the specimen
length parallel to the final direction of rolling. With this orientation, impact
energies will be measured in the direction in which the plate will tend to be
tougher.
The specimens are representative of the material that was delivered and
the vessel fabrication will not reduce the impact properties of the
material.
The materials from which the specimens are removed are heat treated
separately such that they are representative of the material in the
finished vessel.
This approach ensures that the basic materials are acceptable before they arrive
at the vessel vendor and provides earlier materials quality control. The material
"as-tested" must then be confirmed to be equivalent to the material "asfabricated."
As an alternative to this confirmation, the vessel manufacturer may do the
impact testing.
Minimum required Charpy V-notch impact energy values are specified. These
values are stated both as the average value for the three specimens and the
minimum value for any one specimen. Acceptable impact energy values are
specified as a function of tensile strength, and higher values are required as the
tensile strength increases. Higher strength steels are more prone to brittle
fracture than lower strength steels, all other parameters being equal. Therefore,
higher strength steels must achieve higher impact energy values in order to
have adequate fracture toughness.
32-SAMSS-004 requires that the impact test temperature must be 18C (32F)
below the minimum design temperature that is specified on the Pressure Vessel
Design Data Sheet Form 2682 or 2683. This approach provides an extra
margin of safety against brittle fracture. When impact testing is required, it
must include the base metal, weld metal, and HAZ.
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For any flux, Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) electrode or for any
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) electrode that is used for welding
procedures with impact toughness requirements, the specified brand,
type, and maximum size used for the Procedure Qualification Record
(PQR) must be used in the actual fabrication.
Work Aid 2 may be used to help determine whether vendor inspection and testing plans meet
Saudi Aramco requirements.
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SUMMARY
This module discussed welding fundamentals, types of welded joints, welding procedures and
welder qualification, and acceptable welding techniques. It has also identified the acceptable
welding details and fabrication tolerances for pressure vessel components that are contained
in the Saudi Aramco SAESs and SAMSSs, and in the ASME Code. These requirements will
enable the Participant to correctly evaluate fabrication drawings for acceptability. The second
section of this module discussed methods of examination; type and extent of required
examination; pressure, hardness, and impact test plans; and the applicable codes and
standards which will enable the Participant to determine whether vendor inspection and
testing plans satisfy Saudi Aramco requirements.
This module completes discussion of the requirements that must be met for a new pressure
vessel. MEX 202.05 will discuss maintenance and repair requirements for existing pressure
vessels.
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Vendor fabrication drawings are to reference the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division
1, and 32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels. This reference should generally be
sufficient confirmation that the vendor intends to follow the fabrication requirements
that are contained in these documents, unless there is specific information to the
contrary. For example, dimensional tolerances will typically not be shown on vendor
drawings, but must meet ASME requirements.
2.
Shell and head pressure-containing welds are to be full penetration and full fusion.
3.
Shell and head joint details are to be consistent with weld joint categories that are used
in the vessel design in accordance with Figure UW-12.
4.
5.
Nozzles and manholes that extend into clad vessels are to be in accordance with
Standard Drawing AB-036367 (Reference Course Handout 3).
6.
7.
A 6 mm (1/4 in.) NPS weep hole is to be in all reinforcement or other plates that are
welded to the shell.
8.
Support skirts are to be welded to the vessel heads such that the skirt centerline aligns
with the head straight flange centerline. This requirement is not applicable to
hemispherical heads.
9.
Welds that are greater than 3 mm (0.125 in.) thick shall be made in at least two passes.
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10.
Internal and external supports, support rings, pads, and structural brackets that are
attached to the vessel shall be seal-welded all around.
11.
12.
Refer to the
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13.
Nozzle attachment details shall be in accordance with Figure UW-16.1, except that
only details that use full-penetration welds are acceptable. Typical nozzle attachment
details from this figure were illustrated in MEX 202.03.
14.
See
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15.
A weld procedure is required for each weld type and shall meet ASME
requirements.
A weld map or equivalent is to be provided that relates each weld in the vessel
to the required weld procedure.
20C (68F)
PWHT shall be based on the ASME Code, Para. UCS-56 for carbon and lowalloy steels. PWHT is also required for the following services in accordance
with SAES-W-010, Welding Requirements for Pressure Vessels:
-
16.
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Vendor fabrication drawings are to reference the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division
1, and 32-SAMSS-004, Pressure Vessels.
2.
As a minimum, the extent of radiography is to be consistent with the weld joint type,
category, and joint efficiency that were employed in the design calculations in
accordance with Table UW-12 of the ASME Code.
3.
Full radiography is also required for the following cases even if not required by Step 2:
Shell and head butt welds for vessels that are in lethal service.
19 mm (3/4 in.) for P-No. 3 material (C-1/2 Mo through 1/2 Cr-1/2 Mo)
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4.
Shell and head butt welds in unfired steam boilers that are over 345 kPa (50
psig) design pressure.
Butt welds in nozzles and communicating chambers that are attached to vessel
sections or heads that must be fully radiographed due to lethal or steam boiler
service. Exception: Category B and C butt welds that do not exceed NPS 10
or 29 mm (1 1/8 in.) thickness do not require radiography.
Butt welds that are joined by electrogas welding with any single pass that is
over 38 mm (1 1/2 in.).
Category A and B welds that are made from one side, or are located in shell
components that are over 75 mm (3 in.) thick (SAES-W-010).
As a substitute for RT for the final closure seam if the vessel construction is
such that a radiograph cannot be interpreted.
Electrogas welds that are in ferritic material with any single pass over 38 mm
(1 1/2 in.). UT examination shall be done after heat treatment.
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Welds that are made by inertia and continuous drive friction process that are
full- or spot-radiographed.
Plate that is over 50 mm (2 in.) thick, for a distance of 150 mm (6 in.) back
from a nozzle weld preparation, or other cut-out (32-SAMSS-004).
When a pressure part is welded to a flat plate that is thicker than 13 mm (1/2
in.) and forms a corner joint:
-
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All internal welds, including temporary weld areas, for vessels that are
in sour service
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Field hydrotest with the vessel in its final position and uncorroded component
thicknesses
Field hydrotest with the vessel in its final position and corroded component
thicknesses
The required test pressures must be shown in the appropriate spaces on the Pressure Vessel
Design Sheet. The procedure that follows may be used to check contractor/vendor test
pressure proposals or calculations for Division 1 vessels.
1.
Determine the initial test pressure basis, Pc, based on the limiting component of the
vessel. This is done by calculation of an allowable pressure based on the nominal
thickness and allowable stress at test temperature for the vessel shell and heads. The
vessel limiting component determines the initial test pressure basis. Use the equations
that follow for the appropriate component type:
Cylindrical Shell:
Spherical Shell or Head:
Conical Shell:
2:1 Semi-Elliptical Head:
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Where:
Pc is the lowest value of pressure that is calculated using the above equations for each
vessel shell and head component.
2.
Determine the test pressure that was used for any bolted flange connections on the
vessel, PNT. If not given, PNT is determined by multiplying the allowable design
pressure at 38C (100F) in accordance with ANSI B16.5 (for the flange Class) by 1.5,
and rounding up to the nearest 25 psig.
3.
Determine the shop hydrotest pressure at the top of the vessel with the vessel
horizontal, PSH.
BSH = the smaller of 1.5 Pc or PNT (at the bottom)
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4.
SI Units
English Units
Determine the field hydrotest pressure with the vessel new and in its final erected
position.
A = BSH
SI Units
B= 9.81h, kPa
English Units
B = 0.433h, psig
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Conical Shell:
Note that the pressure, P, in the above equations must account for the hydrostatic head
to the bottom of the limiting component.
5.
Determine the service test pressure at the top of the vessel as 1.5 PT.
6.
Confirm that the service test pressure does not result in a stress that is greater than 0.9
times the minimum specified material yield strength of the limiting component,
accounting for the weld joint efficiency. Use the stress equation from Step 4 that is
appropriate for the limiting component with:
SI Units
English Units
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2.
3.
Vickers hardness testing of welding procedure qualification welds for sour service is
required, with the following exceptions:
All vessel internal surfaces that are clad or weld overlaid with austenitic
stainless steel or nickel-based alloys.
Weld procedures are only for external structural attachment welds, and the
vessel wall at the attachment point is at least 25 mm (1.0 in.) thick.
Vickers hardness testing of welding procedure qualification welds is required for any
service if the wall thickness exceeds 38 mm (1.5 in.), except for:
Maximum allowable hardness for procedure qualification welds is VHN 250 when
hardness testing is done.
4.
Brinell hardness testing of production welds is required for vessels of all materials that
are in sour service.
5.
Confirm that the vessel fabrication drawing or other vessel documentation references
SAES-W-001 for procedural requirements for hardness testing.
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2.
Impact test temperature is to be 18C (32F) below the minimum design temperature
that is specified on the Pressure Vessel Design Data Sheet.
3.
Confirm that reference is made to SAES-W-001 for other impact test requirements.
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GLOSSARY
capillary action
communicating
chamber
crack
defect
developer
electrogas
electroslag
false indication
ferritic
Any magnetic iron alloy that contains more than 12% chromium
and that has a body-centered cubic structure.
flaw
flux
flux lines
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heat-affected zone
(HAZ)
The portion of the base metal that is adjacent to the weld and that
is affected by the welding heat.
inspection
lamination
magnetic flux
nondestructive
examination (NDE)
penetration
The distance from the original surface of the base metal to that
point at which weld fusion ends. The distance to which a
projectile sinks into a target.
porosity
Postweld Heat
Treatment (PWHT)
radiography
slag
shrinkage
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