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Howarth (2002)
[Principle 1]
Berry (1967)
[Principle 2]
Tajfel (1970)
[Principle 3]
Emic
Etic
Definition of Culture
To test whether participants who had received a favour from another would be
more likely to help this person than if they had not received a favor.
Two people looking at paintings. The experimenter leaves, and purchases two
bottles of coke, giving one to the other person. In the control group the second
person does not receive a coke. Later the experimenter tells the participant that
he is selling raffle tickets for a car and that even the smallest amount will help.
Those who received the coke bought twice as many tickets as those who had not
received the coke.
Regan (1971)
Follow up of the experiment was investigation into how much the participant had
liked the experimenter. Liking was associated with buying more tickets in the
control. In the experiment there was not connection to liking the person. Even to
the point where those who did not like the experimenter still bought just as many
tickets as those who liked him. Even if people dont like someone they will
return a favor.
Laboratory experiment with a high level of control. Easy to establish the
reciprocity process. May be artificiality as well as sample bias. Limits the
possibilities of generalization findings have been supported by observations in
real life.
Campbell (1967)
Grain of Truth Hypothesis
Bandura (1977)
Group think
Stereotypes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Adler (1990)
Devine (1989)
OReilly (2000)
Strengths:
Lipmann (1922)
Simmel (1994)
Evans-Pritchard (1976)
Sabido Method
Cialdini (1974)
Low Balling
2.
3.
4.
Conformity
Cialdini (1993)
The Norm or Rule of Reciprocity
Suedfeld (2003)
Strengths:
The theory has promoted understanding of common
errors in explanation of what happens in the world
Limitations:
The theory is culturally biased with too much focus
on individualism
of the FAE
Explanations: SSB could be a way to uphold self-esteem (selfprotection). People see themselves as responsible for success but not
for their failures because they want to see themselves this way.
SSB occurs when people dont have enough information and limit
themselves to the available information. People typically expect to
succeed and correlate success with their own effort and exaggerate the
amount of control they have (Miller and Ross, 1975).
Basset (2004)
Hofstede (1980)
Informational Conformity
(informational influence)
Normative Conformity
(normative social influence)
Kagitcibasi (1984)
Cultural Dimensions on
Behavior
Gilbert (1951)
Princeton 2
Princeton 1
Moscovici (1973)
Social Representations
Failures are seen in a lack of personal ability, even if this is not true.
Common in Eastern societies: Kahima and Triandis argue that
because of the collectivist nature of Asian societies people derive
their their self-esteem nor from individual accomplishment but
from group identity, and they are less likely to use SSB.
Modesty Bias
The real and larger request is followed by a smaller one. The FITD
technique has been used in fund raising and to promote environmental
awareness.
Foot-in-the-door technique
Moghaddam et al. (1993) Argue that the research may have a social
and cultural bias. Sherifs study was conducted in the USA in a time
when conformity was the norm and this may have changed since.
Sherif (1936)
Use of auto kinetic effect where a light seems to be moving, but is doing so
because of eye movements. Half of the participants watched on their own and
estimated how much the light moved and in which direction. These participants
estimated on their own frame of reference. The other participants were split up
into groups of 3-4 participants. They used each others estimates as a frame of
reference and they converged into almost identical estimates. A group norm had
developed, which participants conformed to once it had been established.
Then the other half of participants performed the estimation task alone. Sherif
found that participants continued to estimate based on the group norm when they
did the task alone. The results showed that social norms emerge to guide behavior
when people find themselves in uncertain situations.
Strengths: influential study that has generated very many other studies.
Demonstrates how a group norm can be established and continue to influence a
persons judgment even when the social influence is no longer present.
Limitations: conducted in a laboratory. Artificial task and ambiguous. Ethics
participants were not informed of the purpose of the experiment, but this was not
the norm at the time of the experiment.
Showed that children did not change their behavior after television had arrived.
Parents and teachers said that anti-social behavior was not accepted on the island,
and there was a strong level of social control in the community. It shows that
people may learn aggressive behavior, but may not exhibit it for several reasons.
Social and cultural factors also play a role in what behaviors are acceptable
Researched a real event and has high ecological validity. Does not question SLT,
but rather the results of Bandura and Ross. The results also confirm that people
must be motivated to imitate behavior.
Strengths:
Strength of
Limitations:
Limitations of
Asch (1951)
The questioner asked each question and the waited 30 seconds for a
response. If the contestants did not answer correctly the question
gave the correct answer. After the quiz, all participants and the
observers were asked to rate general knowledge of contestants and
questioners.
There were also groups who saw the same sex adult and
others that didnt.
They watched the adult play, and then were brought into the
same room where they were told not to play.
Those who had seen the adult being aggressive to the doll
also exhibited the same behavior. Children also were more
likely to imitate same sex models.
Supports Social Learning Theory. Aggressive behavior can
be learned through observational learning. Not possible to
conclude that children always become aggressive when
they watch violent models. Research supports that they
imitate same sex models.
Attribution Theory
Heider 1958
Attribution Theory
Why?
Resaons