India'sSacredCowbyMarvinHarris

Theculturalpracticesofotherpeopleoftenseemstrange,irrational,andeven
inexplicabletooutsiders.Infact,themembersoftheculturemaybeunabletogivea
rationallysatisfyingexplanationofwhytheybehaveastheydo:theymaysaythat"thegods
wishit,"orthat"itisalwaysdonethatway."Yetafundamentalassumptionofsocialscience
isthatnomatterhowpeculiarorevenbizarrehumanculturesmayappear,theycanbe
understood,atleastinpart.
ToAmericansandEuropeans,theattitudeofmostpeopleinIndiatowardcowsis
perplexing.Hindusregardtheanimalsassacredandwillnotkilloreatthem.InIndiaalarge
populationofcowswandersfreelythroughbothruralareasandcitystreets,undisturbedby
themillionsofhungryandmalnourishedpeople.Why?
MarvinHarrissuggestsananswertosuchpuzzles.Inthisquitefamousarticle,he
suggeststhatIndia'ssacredcowisinfactquitearationalculturaladaptationbecausethe
cowissoextraordinarilyuseful.

NewsphotographsthatcameoutofIndiaduringthefamineofthelate1960s
showedstarvingpeoplestretchingoutbonyhandstobegforfoodwhilecattlestrolled
behindthemundisturbed.TheHindu,itseems,wouldratherstarvetodeaththaneathis
coworevendepriveitoffood.
WesternspecialistsinfoodhabitsaroundtheworldconsiderHinduismanirrational
ideologythatcompelspeopletooverlookabundant,nutritiousfoodsforscarcer,less
healthfulfoods.ManyWesternobserversbelievethatanabsurddevotiontothemother
cowpervadesIndianlife.ManyIndiansagreewithWesternassessmentsoftheHindu
reverencefortheircattle,thezebu,alargehumpedspeciesofcattleprevalentinAsiaand
Africa.M.N.Srinivas,anIndiananthropologiststates:
"OrthodoxHinduopinionregardsthekillingofcattlewithabhorrence,eventhough
therefusaltokillthevastnumberofuselesscattlewhichexistsinIndiatodayis
detrimentaltothenation."EventheIndianMinistryofInformationformerly
maintainedthat"thelargeanimalpopulationismorealiabilitythananassetinview
ofourlandresources."
Accountsfrommanydifferentsourcespointtothesameconclusion:India,oneofthe
world'sgreatcivilizations,isbeingstrangledbyitsloveforthecow.

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TheeasyexplanationforIndia'sdevotiontothecow,theonemostWesternersand
Indianswouldoffer,isthatcowworshipisanintegralpartofHinduism.Religionissomehow
goodforthesoul,evenifitsometimesfailsthebody.Religionordersthecosmosandexplains
ourplaceintheuniverse.Religiousbeliefs,manywouldclaim,haveexistedforthousandsof
yearsandhavealifeoftheirown.Theyarenotunderstandableinscientificterms.
Butallthisignoreshistory.Thereismoretobesaidforcowworshipthanis
immediatelyapparent.

HistoryofCowWorship
TheearliestVedas,theHindusacredtextsfromtheSecondMillenniumB.C.,donot
prohibittheslaughterofcattle.Instead,theyordainitasapartofsacrificialrites.Theearly
Hindusdidnotavoidthefleshofcowsandbulls;theyateitatceremonialfeastspresided
overbyBrahmanpriests.
CowworshipisarelativelyrecentdevelopmentinIndia;itevolvedastheHindu
religiondevelopedandchanged.Thisevolutionisrecordedinroyaledictsandreligioustexts
writtenduringthelast3,000yearsofIndianhistory.TheVedasfromtheFirstMillennium
B.C.containcontradictorypassages,somereferringtoritualslaughterandotherstoastrict
tabooonbeefconsumption.Manyofthesacredcowpassageswereincorporatedintothe
textsbypriestsinalaterperiod.
By200A.D.thestatusofIndiancattlehadundergoneatransformation.The
Brahmanpriesthoodexhortedthepopulationtoveneratethecowandforbadethemto
abuseitortofeedonit.Religiousfeastsinvolvingtheritualslaughterandconsumptionof
livestockwereeliminatedandmeateatingwasrestrictedtothenobility.
By1000A.D.,allHinduswereforbiddentoeatbeef.Ahimsa,theHindubeliefinthe
unityofalllife,wasthespiritualjustificationforthisrestriction.Butitisdifficulttoascertain
exactlywhenthischangeoccurred.Animportanteventthathelpedtoshapethemodern
complexwastheIslamicinvasion,whichtookplaceintheEighthCenturyA.D.Hindusmay
havefounditpoliticallyexpedienttosetthemselvesofffromtheinvaders,whowere
beefeaters,byemphasizingtheneedtopreventtheslaughteroftheirsacredanimals.
Thereafter,thecowtabooassumeditsmodernformandbegantofunctionmuchas
itdoestoday.TheplaceofthecowinmodernIndiaiseveryplaceonposters,inthe
movies,inbrassfigures,instoneandwoodcarvings,onthestreets,inthefields.Thecowis
asymbolofhealthandabundance.

TheEconomicUsesofTheCow

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ThecattlearenotjustworshipedandreveredinIndia.Theyarealsoextraordinarily
useful.ThezebucowprovidesthemilkthatIndiansconsumeintheformofyogurtandghee
(clarifiedbutter),whichcontributesubtleflavorstomuchspicyIndianfood.
Thisisonepracticalroleofthecow,butcowsprovidelessthanhalfthemilk
producedinIndia.MostcowsinIndiaarenotdairybreeds.Inmostregions,whenanIndian
farmerwantsasteady,highqualitysourceofmilkheusuallyinvestsinafemalewater
buffalo.InIndiathewaterbuffaloisthespecializeddairybreedbecauseitsmilkhasahigher
butterfatcontentthanzebumilk.Althoughthefarmermilkshiszebucows,themilkis
merelyabyproduct.
MorevitalthanzebumilktoSouthAsianfarmersarezebucalves.Malecalvesare
especiallyvaluedbecausefrombullscomeoxenwhicharethemainstayoftheIndian
agriculturalsystem.
Small,fastoxendragwoodenplowsthroughlatespringfieldswhenmonsoonshave
dampenedthedry,crackedearth.Afterharvest,theoxenbreakthegrainfromthestalkby
stompingthroughmoundsofcutwheatandrice.Forricecultivationinirrigatedfields,the
malewaterbuffaloispreferred(itpullsbetterindeepmud),butformostothercrops,
includingrainfallrice,wheat,sorghum,andmillet,andfortransportinggoodsandpeopleto
andfromtown,ateamofoxenispreferred.
TheoxistheIndianpeasant'stractor,thresherandfamilycarcombined;thecowis
thefactorythatproducestheox.
Ifdraftanimalsinsteadofcowsarecounted,Indiaappearstohavetoofew
domesticatedruminants,nottoomany.Sinceeachofthe70millionfarmsinIndiarequires
adraftteam,itfollowsthatIndianpeasantsshoulduse140millionanimalsinthefields.But
thereareonly83millionoxenandmalewaterbuffaloonthesubcontinent,ashortageof30
milliondraftteams.
Inotherregionsoftheworld,jointownershipofdraftanimalsmightovercomea
shortage,butIndianagricultureiscloselytiedtothemonsoonrainsoflatespringand
summer.Fieldpreparationandplantingmustcoincidewiththerain,andafarmermust
havehisanimalsreadytoplowwhentheweatherisright.Whenthefarmerwithoutadraft
teamneedshisoxen,hisneighborsareallusingtheirs.Anydelayinturningthesoil
drasticallylowersproduction.
Becauseofthisdependenceondraftanimals,lossofthefamilyoxenisdevastating.
Ifabeastdies,thefarmermustborrowmoneytobuyorrentanoxatinterestratessohigh
thatheultimatelyloseshisland.Everyyearforeclosuresforcethousandsofpovertystricken
peasantstoabandonthecountrysidefortheovercrowdedcities.
Ifafamilyisfortunateenoughtoownafertilecow,itwillbeabletorear
replacementsforalostteamandthussurviveuntillifereturnstonormal.If,assometimes

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happens,famineleadsafamilytosellitscowandoxteam,alltiestoagriculturearecut.
Evenifthefamilysurvives,ithasnowaytofarmtheland,nooxentoworktheland,andno
cowstoproduceoxen.
Theprohibitionagainsteatingmeatappliestothefleshofcows,bulls,andoxen,but
thecowisthemostsacredbecauseitcanproducetheothertwo.Thepeasantwhosecow
diesisnotonlycryingoveraspirituallossbutoverthelossofhisfarmaswell.
Religiouslawsthatforbidtheslaughterofcattlepromotetherecoveryofthe
agriculturalsystemfromthedryIndianwinterandfromperiodsofdrought.Themonsoon,
onwhichallagriculturedepends,iserratic.Sometimesitarrivesearly,sometimeslate,
sometimesnotatall.DroughthasstrucklargeportionsofIndiatimeandagain,andIndian
farmersandthezebusareaccustomedtothesenaturaldisasters.Zebuscanpassweekson
endwithlittleornofoodandwater.Likecamels,theystorebothintheirhumpsand
recuperatequicklywithonlyalittlenourishment.
Duringdroughtsthecowsoftenstoplactatingandbecomebarren.Insomecasesthe
conditionispermanentbutoftenitisonlytemporary.Ifbarrenanimalsweresummarily
eliminated,asWesternexpertsinanimalhusbandryhavesuggested,cowscapableof
recoverywouldbelostalongwiththoseentirelydebilitated.Bykeepingalivethecowsthat
canlaterproduceoxen,religiouslawsagainstcowslaughterassuretherecoveryofthe
agriculturalsystemfromthegreatestchallengeitfacesthefailureofthemonsoon.
ThelocalIndiangovernmentsaidtheprocessofrecoverybymaintaininghomesfor
barrencows.Farmersreclaimanyanimalthatcalvesorbeginstolactate.Onepolicestation
inMadrascollectsstraysandpasturestheminafieldadjacenttothestation.Afterasmall
fineispaid,acowisreturnedtoitsrightfulownerwhentheownerthinksthecowshows
signsofbeingabletoreproduce.
Duringthehot,dryspringmonthsmuchofIndiaislikeadesert.Indianfarmersoften
complaintheycannotfeedtheirlivestockduringthisperiod.Theymaintaincattlebyletting
themscavengeonthesparsegrassalongtheroads.Inthecitiescattleareencouragedto
scavengenearfoodstallstosupplementtheirscantdiet.Thesearethewanderingcattle
touristsreportseeinginIndia.
Westernersexpectshopkeeperstorespondtotheseintrusionswiththedeference
dueasacredanimal;instead,theirresponseisastringofcursesandthecrackofalong
bamboopoleacrossthebeast'sbackorapokeatitsgenitals.MahatmaGandhiwaswell
awareofthetreatmentsacredcows(andbullsandoxen)receivedinIndia:
"Howwebleedhertotakethelastdropofmilkfromher.Howwestarveherto
emaciation,howweilltreatthecalves,howwedeprivethemoftheirportionofmilk,
howcruellywetreattheoxen,howwecastratethem,howwebeatthem,howwe
overloadthem."

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Oxengenerallyreceivebettertreatmentthancows.Whenfoodisinshortsupply,
thriftyIndianpeasantsfeedtheirworkingbullocksandignoretheircows,butrarelydothey
abandonthecowstodie.Whencowsaresick,farmersworryoverthemastheywouldover
membersofthefamilyandnursethemasiftheywerechildren.Whentherainsreturnand
whenthefieldsareharvested,thefarmersagainfeedtheircowsregularlyandreclaimtheir
abandonedanimals.Theprohibitionagainstbeefconsumptionisaformofdisaster
insuranceforallIndia.
Westerneconomistsandagriculturalexpertsarequicktoprotestthatallthe
functionsofthezebucattlecanbeimprovedwithorganizedbreedingprograms,cultivated
pastures,andsilosforstorage.Becausestrongeroxenwouldpulltheplowfaster,theycould
workmultipleplotsofland,allowingfarmerstosharetheiranimals.Fewerhealthy,wellfed
cowscouldprovideIndianswithmoremilk.Butpasturesandsilosrequirefarmland,land
neededtoproducewheatandrice.
AlookatWesterncattlefarmingmakesplainthecostofadoptingadvanced
technologyinIndianagriculture.InastudyoflivestockproductionintheUnitedStates,one
scientistatCornellUniversityfoundthat91percentofthecereal,bean,andvegetable
proteinsuitableforhumanconsumptionisconsumedbylivestock.Approximatelythree
quartersofthefarminglandintheUnitedStatesisdevotedtogrowingfoodforlivestock.In
theproductionofmeatandmilk,Americanranchersuseenoughfossilfueltoequalmore
than82millionbarrelsofoilannually.
Indiancattledonotdrainthesysteminthesameway.Ina1971studyoflivestockin
WestBengal,India,byaprofessorattheUniversityofMissouri,foundthatthecattleate
onlytheinedibleremainsofsubsistencecropsricestraw,ricehulls,thetopsofsugarcane,
andmustardoilcake.Cattlegrazeinthefieldsafterharvestandeattheremainsofcrops
leftontheground;theyforageforgrassandweedsontheroadsides.Thefoodforzebu
cattlecoststhehumanpopulationvirtuallynothing."Basicallythecattleconvertitemsof
littledirecthumanvalueintoproductsofimmediateutility."
Inadditiontoplowingthefieldsandproducingmilk,thezebusproducedung,which
firesthehearthsandfertilizesthefieldsofIndia.Muchoftheestimated800milliontonsof
manureproducedannuallyiscollectedbythefarmers'childrenastheyfollowthefamily
cowsandbullsfromplacetoplace.Andwhenthechildrenseethedroppingsofanother
farmer'scattlealongtheroad,theypickthoseupalso.Thesystemoperateswithsuchhigh
efficiencythatthechildrenofWestBengalrecovernearly100percentofthedungproduced
bytheirlivestock.
From40to70percentofallmanureproducedbyIndiancattleisusedasfuelfor
cooking;therestisreturnedtothefieldsasfertilizer.Drieddungburnsslowly,cleanly,and
withlowheatcharacteristicsthatsatisfythehouseholdneedsofIndianwomen.Staples
likecurryandricecansimmerforhours.Whilethemealslowlycooksoveranunattended
fire,thewomenofthehouseholdcandootherchores.Cowchips,unlikefirewood,donot
scorchastheyburn.
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Itisestimatedthatthedungusedforcookingfuelprovidestheenergyequivalentof
43milliontonsofcoal.Atcurrentprices,itwouldcostIndiaanextra1.5billiondollarsin
foreignexchangetoreplacethedungwithcoal.Andifthe350milliontonsofmanurethat
arebeingusedasfertilizerwerereplacedwithcommercialfertilizers,theexpensewouldbe
evengreater.RogerRevelleoftheUniversityofCaliforniaatSanDiegohascalculatedthat
89percentoftheenergyusedinIndianagriculture(theequivalentofabout140milliontons
ofcoal)isprovidedbylocalsources.Evenifforeignloansweretoprovidethemoney,the
capitaloutlaynecessarytoreplacetheIndiancowwithtractorsandfertilizersforthefields,
coalforthefires,andtransportationforthefamilywouldprobablywarpinternational
financialinstitutionsforyears.
InsteadofaskingtheIndianstolearnfromtheAmericanmodelofindustrial
agriculture,AmericanfarmersmightlearnenergyconservationfromtheIndians.Everystep
inanenergycycleresultsinalossofenergytothesystem.Likeapendulumthatslowsabit
witheachswing,eachtransferofenergyfromsuntoplants,plantstoanimals,andanimals
tohumanbeingsinvolvesenergylosses.Somesystemsaremoreefficientthanothers;they
provideahigherpercentageoftheenergyinputsinafinal,usefulform.Seventeenpercent
ofallenergyzebusconsumeisreturnedintheformofmilk,tractionanddung.American
cattleraisedonWesternrangelandreturnonly4percentoftheenergytheyconsume.
ButtheAmericansystemisimproving.BasedontechniquespioneeredbyIndian
scientists,atleastonecommercialfirmintheUnitedStatesisreportedtobebuildingplants
thatwillturnmanurefromcattlefeedlotsintocombustiblegas.Whenorganicmatteris
brokendownbybacteria,methanegasandcarbondioxideareproduced.Afterthemethane
iscleansedofthecarbondioxide,itisavailableforthesamepurposesasnaturalgas
cooking,heating,electricitygeneration.Thecompanyconstructingtheplantplanstosellits
producttoagassupplycompany,tobepipedthroughtheexistingdistributionsystem.
Schemessimilartothisonecouldmakecattleranchesalmostindependentofutilityand
gasolinecompanies,formethanecanbeusedtoruntrucks,tractors,andcarsaswellasto
supplyheatandelectricity.TherelativeenergyselfsufficiencythattheIndianpeasanthas
achievedisagoalAmericanfarmersandindustryarenowstrivingfor.
StudiesoftenunderstatetheefficiencyoftheIndiancow,becausedeadcowsareused
forpurposesthatHindusprefernottoacknowledge.Whenacowdies,anUntouchable,a
memberofoneofthelowestrankingcastesinIndia,issummonedtohaulawaythecarcass.
Highercastesconsiderthebodyofthedeadcowpolluting;iftheydohandleit,theymustgo
throughariteofpurification.
Untouchablesfirstskinthedeadanimalandeithertantheskinthemselvesorsellitto
aleatherfactory.Intheprivacyoftheirhomes,contrarytotheteachingsofHinduism,
untouchablecastescookthemeatandeatit.Indiansofallcastesrarelyacknowledgethe
existenceofthesepracticestononHindus,butmostareawarethatbeefeatingtakesplace.
Theprohibitionagainstbeefeatingrestrictsconsumptionbythehighercastesandhelps
distributeanimalproteintothepoorestsectorsofthepopulationthatotherwisewouldhave
nosourceofthesevitalnutrients.
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UntouchablesarenottheonlyIndianswhoconsumebeef.IndianMuslimsand
Christiansareundernorestrictionthatforbidsthembeef,anditsconsumptionislegalin
manyplaces.TheIndianbanoncowslaughterisstate,notnational,lawandnotallstates
restrictit.Inmanycities,suchasNewDelhi,Calcutta,andBombay,legalslaughterhouses
sellbeeftoretailcustomersandtotherestaurantsthatservesteak.
Ifthecaloricvalueofbeefandtheenergycostsinvolvedinthemanufactureof
syntheticleatherwereincludedintheestimatesofenergy,thecalculatedefficiencyof
Indianlivestockwouldriseconsiderably.
Aswellasthesystemworks,expertsoftenclaimthatitsefficiencycanbefurther
improved.AneconomistattheUniversityofPennsylvania,believesthatIndianssufferfrom
anoverabundanceofcowssimplybecausetheyrefusetoslaughtertheexcesscattle.India
couldproduceatleastthesamenumberofoxenandthesamequantitiesofmilkand
manurewith30millionfewercows.Theeconomistcalculatesthatonly40cowsare
necessarytomaintainapopulationof100bullsandoxen.SinceIndiaaverages70cowsfor
every100bullocks,thedifference,30millioncows,isexpendable.
Whatthiseconomistfailstonoteisthatsexratiosamongcattleindifferentregions
ofIndiavarytremendously,indicatingthatadjustmentsinthecowpopulationdotakeplace.
somecullingofherdsdoestakeplace;Indiansdoadjusttheirreligiousrestrictionsto
accommodateecologicalrealities.
Theycannotkillacowbuttheycantetheranoldorunhealthyanimaluntilithas
starvedtodeath.Theycannotslaughteracalfbuttheycanyokeitwithalargewooden
trianglesothatwhenitnursesitirritatesthemother'sudderandgetskickedtodeath.They
cannotshiptheiranimalstotheslaughterhousebuttheycansellthemtoMuslims,closing
theireyestothefactthattheMuslimswilltakethecattletotheslaughterhouse.These
violationsoftheprohibitionagainstcattleslaughterstrengthenthepremisethatcow
worshipisavitalpartofIndianeconomiclifeandculture.

TheHistoricalContextoftheTabooonEatingBeef
Thereligiousbanonkillingcattleandeatingbeefarosetopreventthepopulation
fromconsumingtheanimalonwhichIndianagriculturedepends.
DuringtheFirstMillenniumB.C.,theGangesValleybecameoneofthemostdensely
populatedregionsoftheworld.Wherepreviouslytherehadbeenonlyscatteredvillages,
manytownsandcitiesaroseandpeasantsfarmedeveryavailableacreofland.Apopulation

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expertattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,estimatesthatby300B.C.between50
millionand100millionpeoplewerelivinginIndia.TheforestedGangesValleybecamea
windsweptsemidesertandsignsofecologicalcollapseappeared;droughtsandfloods
becamecommonplace,erosiontookawaytherichtopsoil,farmsshrankaspopulation
increased,anddomesticatedanimalsbecameharderandhardertomaintain.
Itisprobablethattheeliminationofmeateatingcameaboutinaslow,practical
manner.Thefarmerswhodecidednottoeattheircows,whosavedthemforprocreationto
produceoxen,weretheoneswhosurvivedthenaturaldisasters.Thosewhoatebeeflostthe
toolswithwhichtofarm.Overaperiodofcenturies,moreandmorefarmersprobably
avoidedbeefuntilanunwrittentaboocameintoexistence.
Onlylaterwasthepracticecodifiedbythepriesthood.WhileIndianpeasantswere
probablyawareoftheroleofcattleintheirsociety,strongsanctionswerenecessaryto
protectzebusfromapopulationfacedwithstarvation.Toremovetemptation,thefleshof
cattlebecametabooandthecowbecamesacred.
Thesacrednessofthecowisnotjustanignorantbeliefthatstandsinthewayof
progress.Likeallconceptsofthesacredandtheprofane,thisoneaffectsthephysicalworld;
itdefinestherelationshipsthatareimportantforthemaintenanceofIndiansociety.
Indianshavethesacredcow;wehavethe"sacred"carandthe"sacred"dog.It
wouldnotoccurtoustoproposetheeliminationofautomobilesanddogsfromoursociety
withoutcarefullyconsideringtheconsequences,andweshouldnotproposetheelimination
ofzebucattlewithoutfirstunderstandingtheirplaceinthesocialorderinIndia.
Humansocietyisneitherrandomnorcapricious.Theregularitiesofthoughtand
behaviorcalledculturearetheprincipalmechanismsbywhichwehumanbeingsadaptto
theworldaroundus.Practicesandbeliefscanberationalorirrational,butasocietythat
failstoadapttoitsenvironmentisdoomedtoextinction.Onlythosesocietiesthatdrawthe
necessitiesoflifefromtheirsurroundingswithoutdestroyingthosesurroundings,inheritthe
earth.TheWesthasmuchtolearnfromthegreatantiquityofIndiancivilization,andthe
sacredcowisanimportantpartofthatlesson.

QUESTIONS
NativeAmericansofthegreatplainsneverworshipedthebuffalo.BasedonwhatHarris
hassaid,canyouthinkofreasonswhythatmightbeso.
OneimplicationofHarris'sarticleisthatotherdeeplyheldreligiousbeliefsorcustoms
throughouttheworldmightalsohaveveryimportanteconomic,healthandsocialfunctions
oruses.Infact,theymightanimportantreasonsuchbeliefspersist.Canyouthinkofany
examples?

Indias Sacred Cow Sociology101