MOI UNIVERSITY EMBA PROGRAMME

MBA 820: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

3.0 DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE HUMAN RESOURCES

Topic three discusses the human resource function of human resource development. This
is the function concerned with ensuring that the organization has the right kind of human
qualifications in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes through training, education and
development.
It will cover four main areas:
3.1 Training and development
3.2 The process of training
3.3 Career development and succession planning
3.4 Performance appraisal

3.1 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
• Explain the difference between training, development and education
• Describe the purpose/objectives of training
• Discuss the aims and various approaches to management
development.
• Discuss the concept of learning
• Explain the process of training
3.1.1 Definition of terminologies
Training:
Training is the systematic modification of behaviour through learning, which occurs as a
result of education, instruction, development and planned experience. This refers to the
imparting of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are specifically related to a narrow area
of employment. It is task oriented as it focuses on a specific area of work. The training
standards are derived from the job description or task requirements of the job. Training is
provided when there is a skill gap between expected and actual standards of work
performance.
Education:
Education includes activities, which aim at developing knowledge, skills, moral values
and understanding in all aspects of life rather than knowledge and skills related to only
one field of activity. It is a process of transformation, transmission and preservation of
cultural heritage
Purpose:
• Provide conditions for all people - young and adult to develop understanding of
traditions and ideas influencing their society.
• Empower people with knowledge and understanding to make a contribution in their
society.

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• Education involves acquisition of linguistic and other skills which are basic to
learning, personal development, creativity and communication.
• Enables people to cope with their environment
• Develops character, behaviours and attitudes associated with personal and social
adjustment
• Provides a wide range of general knowledge - conceptual, theoretical and
philosophical rather than specific skills
Development:
Employee development refers to individual growth and self-realization of a person’s
ability through conscious or unconscious learning – usually in a broad area. It includes
both education and training. Employee development is directed at creating learning
opportunities and making learning possible by facilitating a learning environment.

NB: The three definitions refer to PLANNED activities. Although it is said experience
is the best teacher, effective training and development should be planned and
sequential.

3.1.2 Aims of training and development

• Develop the competencies of employees and improve their performance.

• Help people grow within the organization to meet future needs for HR.
• Reduce learning time for new employees or those on transfer or promotion.
• Increased productivity – training increases the labour productivity.
• Employee’s morale is increased/improved thus favorable attitude, loyalty and
cooperation.
• Reduced costs due to low accidents and sub-standard products and wastage of
resources.
• Reduced supervision
• Greater organizational stability and flexibility to adapt to changing environments.
• Meets the needs of individuals in search of life long careers.
• Promote employment chances and utilize people’s talents.
• Attracts high quality staff.
• Helps to develop a positive culture within the organization.
• Provides higher levels of service to customers.
• Managerial succession

Training can be divided into two broad categories:

Operative level training: these are training programmes for non-managers – they are
designed to develop skills to perform a job, usually technological.
Methods used are:
• On the job training.
• Apprenticeship programmes: - usually long term and supported by training
Acts e.g. Industrial Training Act Cap 234 of the laws of Kenya.

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 • Special courses: offered through computer, distance learning or
correspondence etc. Use of media technology and retraining programmes.

Management Development/Supervisory levels: These are training and educational

programmes designed for supervisors and managers/executives to enable them to
manage.

3.1.3 Management development

Management development programmes are expected to meet the needs of managers such
as:
• Decision making skills
• Interpersonal skills
• Job knowledge
• General knowledge
• Organizational knowledge
• Specific individual needs and other needs.

Common Methods used are:

On the job experiences; seminars, role playing, Conferences, Business games,
Sensitivity training, Case studies, In basket (picking assorted memoranda in a
basket and making sense out of them to test potential),Coaching, Position rotation,
Special courses e.g. those run by colleges, Selective reading, Special projects,
Special meetings, Committee assignments, Brainstorming.
Other methods
• On the job training – coaching, counseling monitoring and feedback.
• Work experience – job rotation, job enlargement or taking part in project
teams or task groups and secondment/attachment to other organizations.
• Formal management courses
• Self-development programmes e.g. evening/adult classes, distance and e-
Learning etc.

Aims of Management Development

• Ensure that the organization has the effective managers it requires to meet its
future and present needs.
• Improve the performance of existing managers by giving opportunities for
growth and development.
• Ensure that management succession within the organization is catered for.

Activity: Can you think of more reasons why organizations should invest in management
development.

3.1.4 The Process of learning:

Objectives:
• Explain the meaning of learning

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 • Discuss the challenges that hinder the achievement of learning

Learning:
Learning refers to the process of acquiring new skills, knowledge and attitude,
which result in change of behaviour. Learning is a natural process, but it is
necessary to create conditions in which it can take place effectively.

Basic learning theories:

Reinforcement:
This group of theories refers to positive feedback by commending praising, etc.
thus motivating them to extend their learning (i.e. behaviour change).

Cognitive theories:
This theory assumes that people learn better if they can provide the solutions
themselves through discovery. The use of workshop, participative or case study
training is based on this theory. The people “own” the solution rather than
something they have been forced to accept.

Experiential Learning:
Trainees have different learning styles. According to Kolb, Rubin & Mclntyre,
there are four stages: the actual experience, reflections on the experience,
theorizing or forming abstract concepts about it, testing/applying the experience.

Conditions Required for Effective Learning:

Learning theory suggests several conditions required for effective learning.

• Individuals must be motivated to learn.

• Set standards of performance – i.e. clearly defined targets for judging progress.
• Learners should have guidance i.e. a sense of direction, feedback and encouragement
from trainer.
• Learners must be active, not passive – participative
• Learners must gain satisfaction from learning – i.e. must be seen as useful and
fulfilling needs.
• Use of appropriate learning methods.
• Varied learning methods.
• Time must be allowed to absorb learning – assimilate, test and accept new ideas.
• Reinforcement of correct behaviour – feedback, praise, commendation etc.
• Recognize different levels of learning and the need for different methods to address
them. Program from knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Learning is not always successfully achieved. Some of the challenges that may
hinder learning include:
• Lack of clarity in organizational objectives

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• Lack of clear and consistent policies on training
• Lack of competent trainers and training facilities.
• Lack of linkage between training and career promotion.
• Inability to transfer knowledge gained from training to job situation due to lack of
support from supervisors.

3.2 THE PROCESS OF TRAINING

Objectives:
• Describe the systematic training model
• Discuss the methods for identifying training needs
• Explain the steps in course development
• Describe the methods for course presentation
• Discuss the methods and importance of course evaluation

3.2.1 Introduction
Training writers have formulated models – referred to as systematic training models/ or
process that consists of critical events in the training process.
Nadler (1982) proposes a general model with the following steps:

1. Identification of training needs

2. Determining learning objectives
3. Compiling a syllabus
4. Selecting instructional strategies
5. Presenting training
6. Evaluating training
This process can however be condensed to four steps namely:
• Identification of training needs
• Course development or programme design
• Course presentation
• Course evaluation
We shall study each of these steps in the training process.

3.2.2. Identification of Training Needs (or Training Needs Analysis- TNA)

Meaning of TNA
TNA refers to the determination of the gap between what employees must do and what
they actually can do. It deals with identifying the gap between current and expected
results. Where there is a performance deviation it implies that the expected standard of
performance must be known so as to identify the gap.

NB: A training need exists when an employee lacks the knowledge or skills to perform an
assigned task satisfactorily.

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A training need also exists when an actual condition differs from a desired condition in
the human/people aspect of organizational performance.

Situations that may lead to TNA

New products, New markets, New system installations, Adoption of new managerial
techniques/or organization structure, New legislation, Performance problems e.g.
customer complaints, high labour turnover, absenteeism, accidents and low productivity.

Importance of TNA
• Provides necessary information about participants i.e. target population of trainees
e.g. age, education, gender, occupation, interests etc. this enables trainers to
design relevant course.
• Identify employee difficulties and performance problems. This enables trainer to
match employee skills and knowledge needs with organization needs – what the
organization wants them to know.
• Training needs can form training modules or topics e.g. skills in customer care –
public relations, human relations, leadership, communication etc.
• Provide documentation and materials for training – interviews and observations
enable collection of organization charts, job descriptions, policy documents,
samples of work schedules, references, samples etc. that can be useful in training.
• Provides information on attitudes towards training e.g.
- Do employees/supervisors value training?
- Do they believe they need to learn and change?
- Do they believe a need exists?
- Are they motivated?
• Increases employee involvement and participation motivated by the interest others
show in them
- Creates interest and acceptance of the training
- Contributes to its success; motivation to learn
- See the link between the training and their needs/ work
situation
• Useful in establishing contacts with subject specialists/ professionals
- Subject specialists in other departments met during needs
analysis can be invited as guest presenters during training
- Act as mentors in future for new employees (informally).
• Estimation of training cost
- Importance of the training, the target population
- Enables trainer to draw up a detailed programme and costs.
• Saves time, money and resources
- Enables training to target real needs
- Differentiates a training need from a non-training need
hence saving resources
- Focused not haphazard.
• Provides a means of measuring training effectiveness
- Generates data useful in evaluating training

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 - As training is directed towards actual learning needs, it can
be evaluated.
Pitfalls to watch
• Avoid large scale and expensive TNA – can be confusing and cause delay –
irrelevant. (KISS) – keep it short and simple.
• Using TNA as a means for delaying action on a problem or using TNA as a
rubberstamp to justify and give respectability to something that has been decided
already i.e. failure to identify clients purpose; using training as a cover up for a
non-training problem e.g. bad financial management due to corruption/stealing.

NB: A trainer needs to be proactive rather than reactive. A proactive trainer:

- Sees training as a service
- Monitors company procedures, policies, operations,
changes etc.
- Keeps in touch with organizations past, current and future
training needs
- Reads, subscribes to professional journals, libraries,
updates or latest training methods etc
- Maintains contact with other departments
- Networks with others
- Forecasts future training needs
Reactive trainers:
- Respond to events before planning for training
- Wait for instructions
- Do not carry out continuous TNA
- Are formal and bureaucratic
- Are unprepared for changes

Methods for identifying training needs

Interviews
- Face to face or telephone
- Use structured or semi-structured questionnaire to provide purpose and direction
- Conduct interview at clients site – to give you an initial ‘feel’ of the situation
- Be as informal as possible
- Approach can be exploratory
- Ask probing questions
- Establish the political dimensions – interested parties etc
- Identify hidden agendas and expectations i.e. tears, concerns, politics etc
- Deadlines and timelines
- Target population for training
- Likely costs per participant.

Advantages
- Possible to gather specific information from specialists
- Non-verbal messages can be read
- Builds rapport

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Disadvantages
- Takes time and it’s expensive
- Affected by interviewers bias
- Non-suitable for a large number of people

Focus groups
This is information that is gathered from groups with the same interests e.g. heads of
products lines. It consists of 8 to 12 people with a trainer as the facilitator.

Benefits
- Valuable information especially if group is representative of various viewpoints –
generates many ideas
- Useful in diffusing hostilities and negative attitudes to training
- Encourages a feeling of ownership

Weaknesses
- Unrepresentative and delays
- Stifles honest discussion of actual job performance, feelings and causes
- Needs a skilled facilitator who is perceived as honest and trustworthy
- Expensive and time consuming
- Subjective information

Questionnaires and surveys

They consist of closed and open-ended questions. Appointments are not necessary.

Benefits
- Can reach many people
- Inexpensive
- Easy to administer as format is easy/familiar
- Safeguards anonymity
- Results are more objective

Weaknesses
- Low response rate historic findings
- Not easy to write good questions

Observation
It is good when used in combination with other methods.

Benefits
- Brings trainer into direct contact with trainees
- Used to validate information
- Generates resource material for training e.g. examples, role-plays etc.
- Objective method of obtaining facts

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Weaknesses
- Artificial – people may modify behavior when watched
- Time consuming
- Not all jobs are observable
- Jobs are varied from time to time
- Trainers may be seen as management spies
- Observation requires expertise in job analysis
- Requires qualities of listening, patience etc.

Secondary sources/ document analysis

Performance appraisals
Annual reports
Work documents/reports
Job descriptions/ specifications

Benefits
- Good background information
- Time saving
- Examples and clues

Weaknesses
- Limited focus
- Not available
- Information/ data irrelevant

3.2.2. Course development/ program design

Objectives:
• Explain the meaning of course development
• Discuss the importance of course development
• Outline the process of course development
• State and explain Bloom’s classification of training objectives
• Compose course objectives
• Prepare a lesson plan
• Write course content

What is course development/ program design?

It is the step in the training process of developing the learning content to fit the identified
needs of the trainees.

Importance of course development

Decisions are made on the kind of content to impart to trainees – knowledge, skill or
attitudinal.

Process of course development / design

Course development involves:
Formulation of training objectives

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This is the most important step. Objectives are drawn from the training needs.
Robert Mager (1975) defined an objective as:
“A description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before
you consider them competent. An objective describes an intended result of the
instruction rather than the process of instruction itself”.
The emphasis here is the need for learner performance and the demonstration of
knowledge and/or skills.

Importance of learning objectives

1). They guide the course developer in the selection and development of
information, materials and activities. Objectives force the trainer to think
seriously about what is worth teaching and spending resources on.

2). They direct presentation of training – provides focus and direction of the
course and for participants – easy to follow teaching.

3). They help participants to organize their learning efforts – people learn
better when they know what is expected of them.

4). They provide a means of evaluating the course (did the participants
achieve the objectives?)

NB: if objectives are not identified and clarified, there will be confusion in course development,
presentation, participants and evaluation. Objectives are not fixed; they are flexible and can be
changed where necessary during a course.

Process of writing course objectives

(How to write course objectives)
Bloom came up with taxonomy of course objectives: These are:
Knowledge objectives (cognitive domain) – providing information about e.g. a
new job, procedure etc
Skill objectives (psychomotor domain) – ability to operate a machine etc
Attitudinal objectives (affective domain) – targets change of attitudes, breaking
resistance etc
A course developer should prioritize the objectives; decide what is essential and what is
nice to know based on the various domains.

Difficulty of objectives:
Knowledge objectives are the easiest to achieve, followed by skill objectives. The most
difficult are the attitudinal objectives.

Hierarchy of objectives:
How should objectives flow logically?
1). Knowledge objectives usually come first – information, guidelines,
procedures etc
2). Practice (skill) comes second and

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 3). Attitude objectives come last

NB: In most training situations too much time is usually taken up by knowledge with too little
time for practice. Participants end up knowing the task or skill but are unable to perform. Most
courses teach the ‘how to’ but provide less practice – hence problems in the transfer of learning.

Activity:
A Training needs analysis done for 50 middle managers of an organization identified the
following needs:
- Interpersonal skills such as listening, communicating and negotiating
- Leadership skills, staff motivation and team building
- Time management
- Delegation of authority
- Conduct and management of meetings etc
The CEO has ordered that these managers attend a 5-day training program.
Required
1). Design a program showing days, time for various activities, training
methods, venue/location, resource persons etc.
2). Formulate course objectives – knowledge, skill and attitudinal.
3). Formulate the training content (what would be the topics to be covered?)
4). Provide justifications for your recommendations.

3.2.3 Writing Course Content

Step 1: Collect relevant information and material from the client organization or
participants and specialists in the subject area

Step 2: Review relevant off- the - shelf courses

- Find out what can be added to your content
- Review other literature/resource books e.g. HRD journals (in Kenya, IPM and
KIM journals)
- Include a bibliography in handouts (credits the course developer with having done
some previous work)

Step 3: Find out different ways of presenting a course content e.g. audio-visual aids,
built-in structured experiences into the presentation of the content e.g. icebreakers, case
studies, games, group tasks, role plays or problem solving.
- It adds variety and increases learning effectiveness.

Step 4: Divide the course and organize it in such a way that each objective is covered
individually.
- Prepare sufficient content to accomplish each objective
- Devise relevant activities to apply the knowledge or skill to be learnt.
- Provide evaluation/feedback to measure whether the objective has been achieved

Step 5: Write a lesson plan. A lesson plan is a structured outline of how a lesson is to be
delivered. It contains lesson objectives, introduction, content, conclusion / summary,

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learning activities, learning resources and time estimated for each activity.Sequence the
content into introduction, presentation, application activities and conclusion.

Step 6: Decide on who will present the course content?

- Participants – discussions
- Media e.g. handouts, videos
- Structured experience e.g. case studies
- Trainer

3.2.4 Course presentation

Presentation of training content requires good preparation – both for new and experienced
trainers. For efficiency, a trainer can use a preparation checklist, which may contain the
following:
• Course preparation
- Room/venue reservation
- Travel/accommodation arrangement
- Meal breaks etc.
• Prepare participants
- Confirm enrolment/participation, time, dates etc
- Information on travel/venue etc
- Pre-course tasks e.g. readings
- Informing on participant objectives/ expectations by trainer etc.
• Prepare self (trainer)
- Rehearse presentation
- Prepare handouts
- Visual aids
- Division of tasks with co-trainers
• Prepare training room
- Set room/sitting arrangements
- Set equipment/visual aids etc
- Check other materials e.g. tape, chalk, pens, handouts etc.
- Name tags, paper, stationery etc.

NB: preparation eliminates problems that are likely to interfere with the learning process
especially for adult learners.

Steps in course presentation

- Announce the title of the course
- Introduce yourself
- Explain administrative arrangements e.g. breaks, lunch, rules on smoking,
washrooms etc.
- Brief introduction of the course – answer participants questions of ‘ WHY AM I
HERE?’ ‘WHAT IS IN IT FOR ME?’
- Introduce and clarify course objectives i.e. what participants are expected to
achieve

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 - Facilitate introductions – break the ice or warming up or set the climate
Some methods
- Participants introduce each other
- List questions on a flip chart e.g. name, department, job, organization, experience
on course, topic and ask participants to give information (avoid the ‘creeping
death’ method)
- Autograph hunting method

Presentation methods
A trainer needs to be flexible – to adjust roles and styles in response to the requirements
of activities, participants needs etc. A trainer can be a facilitator, a course leader or
presenter depending on:
- Level of participants knowledge of topic
- Attitudes of participants towards topic - mature versus immature participants.

Question and answer method

- This is a useful participative training method
- Involves trainer asking questions and trainees answering them
- Clarifies information
- Best where trainees have some knowledge of topic
Advantages
- Enhances depth of understanding and retention of knowledge
- Check group’s starting level of knowledge
- Increases trainers rapport with group
- Builds complex knowledge step by step
- Initiates group discussion
- Establishes positive group and individual attitudes towards subject
- Requires little planning and preparation
Avoid:
- Closed questions (yes/no)
- Double questions
- Leading questions
- Very difficult questions –(can be demoralizing)
- Too simple questions –(seen as an insult to intelligence)
- Rhetorical questions
- Nominating individuals –(can feel intimidated)
Buzz group exercises
This is where a task or problem is discussed in groups of 2 or 3 neighbours and asked to
report their findings to the trainer and the rest of the group.
Advantages
- Makes the trainees think
- Trainees participate and are involved
- Sharing of information/ideas
- Security because individuals do not feel exposed
- Quiet group members participate
Time: takes up to ten (10) minutes

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Syndicate exercises
This is where learners are divided into groups of 4 to 6 and asked to:
- Discuss a topic
- Solve or identify a problem
- Perform a task
- Answer a question
Syndicates are more organized than buzz groups. After discussions/exercises they make
presentations and the trainer summarizes.
Case studies
This is a participative method in which a set of circumstances or situations – real or
imaginary is given to trainees and asked to diagnose, solve etc.
Uses:
- Practice of skill relating to analysis of information
- Encourage employees to reason
Demonstration role-play
This is where role players (usually the trainers) act out a prepared script for the group to
observe and learn (live action).
Uses:
Demonstrate skills such as:
- Interviewing
- Questioning and listening
- Verbal and non-verbal communication
- Negotiating and influencing
- Assertion
Advantages:
- Powerful method of demonstrating learning points in a short time
- Fun, humorous
- Brings theory to life
- Write the script – dialogue and stage directions
Avoid:
Reinforcing stereotypes e.g. gender/race
Projects
This is where trainees are asked to complete one large task, which involves researching a
topic, collecting and collating information. It can be in writing.
Uses:
- Skills in organization and planning
- Research
- Interviewing
- Report writing
- Presentation
- Time management
- Team working
- Analysis and interpretation of data
- Decision making
- Problem solving
- Leadership and management

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 - Communication
Acquisition of knowledge
Trainees take responsibility for their own actions
Discussion
This is where groups orally explore a particular topic, which has no set answer.
Game Simulations or Business Games or Management Games
- Can be work or non-work related
- Outdoor games e.g. competitions, survival etc.
- Board games etc.
Have a competitive element between teams. Deal with:
- Decision-making
- Problem solving
- Team working
- Leadership
- Negotiation
Uses:
- Fun
- Variety to teaching
- Promote team spirit
- Provide sense of achievement
- Influence attitudes
Lecture method
This the most teacher-centered of all the methods. It involves talking/explaining by the
trainer .It is most useful where information is new and a lot of learners have no previous
experience.

Methods for introductions/ice breakers

- Self-introduction following a guideline e.g. name, organization, title etc – avoid
creeping death method of speaking in rotation round the room.
- Buzz groups – where neighbours talk to each other and introduce their
neighbours.
- Syndicate groups – divide participants into groups of 4 to 6 and let them discuss
expectations etc. and introduce themselves.
- Autograph method – participants are given a list of items and asked to choose say
ten and go round looking for people who fit into them and they sign.

NB: The method depends on the time available for introductions or icebreakers.

3.2.5 Course evaluation

Objectives:
 Explain the meaning of evaluation
 Discuss the significance of course evaluation
 Outline the methods of course evaluation
 State the levels of course evaluation
Meaning of Evaluation

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This refers to the process of obtaining feedback on the effectiveness of a training
program. It is also the measurement of the effectiveness of training. It comes usually at
the end of a training program (summative) although it can also come in between
(formative).
- Evaluation tells us how worthwhile the total value of training has been in respect
of the total benefits accrued to it.
- It is concerned with the total value of training to the organization. It is not limited
to the achievement of training objectives.
- Evaluation is a continuous process involving managers, participants and trainers
in training decision-making. Concerned with reviewing progress, identifying
additional support action to make training effective –Hence it is not a separate /
isolated step that comes at the end of the training cycle.
- Evaluation of training is the collection and analysis of information, which enables
effective decisions to be taken about the future training actions needed to achieve
desired organizational outcomes.
In a nutshell:
• Evaluation is not an end in itself, but a means to an end.
• Evaluation is an integral part of the training process-it is a continuous
process.
• Evaluation involves comparing actual results with desired results.

Related terms:
Validation – The process of assessing the extent to which the objectives of a training
program have been met. It is establishing that what you set out to do (objectives) have
actually been done (achieved).
Assessment – the process of testing/measuring the level of learning achieved.
Monitoring – The process of checking along the way that one is on the right track (doing
the right thing) and not going wrong.

N.B. Evaluation is a compound term that is usually used to cover all these activities.

Importance of evaluation
1) Used to justify the organization’s expenditure on training
2) Provides evidence about the effectiveness of a training course
3) Provides a basis to decide if a program should be continued or
discontinued
4) Make improvements on the program.
5) Used as a training aid to clarify issues covered in the training program or
to identify additional training needs, clarify objectives, give feedback on
learning (formative).

Who should carry out the evaluation?

Evaluation is a co-operative process. All who are affected by the process must participate
in the process e.g.
- The trainer
- The managers

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 - The learners/trainees
- A consultant – external

NB. There must be no bias as this can invalidate the results. Those who have overall
responsibility must be impartial, credible, have expertise and knowledge of the relevant
processes and tact to deal with sensitive issues.

Levels of evaluation
Hamblin (1970) suggested four levels of evaluation each requiring different techniques.
The reactions level
It involves reactions on the content and methods of training, opinions about the trainer,
the usefulness and interest in the subject matter, their enjoyment, food, accommodation,
sitting arrangement etc. and also the relevance of the course, training materials.
Questionnaires, interviews, group discussions, individual interviews etc. are used to
measure..
Limitations:
- Recency effect – if employees have enjoyed a course, the euphoria may be
misleading.
- The time lag between training and reality of work may give a false impression
that learning occurred when in reality it did not – trainees discover this once they
get back to work.

Caution: It may focus more on trainer popularity rather than participant learning.

The learning level

Did the trainees learn what was intended?
It involves feedback on the knowledge, skills and attitudes about the content of the
training which can be translated to behavior at work etc.
Methods:
- Quizzes
- Practicals, field attachments, demonstrations,
- Tests, final examinations, project writing – to test knowledge, skills and attitudes.
- Structured exercises and case studies
- Participation in class discussion during training
However some trainees may be silent for reasons not related to subject.
The job behavior level
Did the learning transfer to the job? Did the trainees apply the learning in the job
behavior back at work? Are they doing things differently?
Method:
- Followed at the jobsite – by participant’s manager or supervisor.
- Use of discussions/interviews
- Observation and assessment of a project
The organizational level
Has the training helped the organizational performance? What has been the impact on the
organization of participants using these skills?
Method:

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Obtain data on indications such as: employee turnover, absences, reduced costs, quality
and quantity of production, sales, reduced employee grievances etc.
Benefits:
- Evidence from organization level evaluation can support training in times of
cutback.
- Ties training more closely to organizational goals and objectives
- Fits in with management rhetoric about training needing to be more business and
result oriented
- May reveal more training needs
Limitations:
- Difficult to measure the effects of changes/performance at organizational level as
these may be attributed to other factors other than training e.g. procedures,
policies or salaries. This is because training benefits are indirect and intangible
- Can be time-consuming and expensive
Conclusion:
The evaluation stages are sequential from 1-4. The easiest levels to evaluate are 1 and 2
but the process becomes increasingly difficult as level 4 is approached. This is because of
the difficulties of measurement. The factors are complex because of the many causes and
effects.
Levels 3, 4 and 5 are the most difficult to evaluate because job, organizational and
departmental performance depend on many other people and factors and it is difficult to
apportion improvements to the efforts of specific individuals. The results due to training
can only be inferred through:
- Increased profitability
- Lack of customer complaints
- A favorable attitude towards training
- The standing of the training officer
- Nature of training requests made
- System of performance appraisal
- Availability of promotable employees
- Proactive labor force not resistant to change.

To maximize the benefits from investment in training, trainers should: Set clear objectives in
behavioral terms or competencies; Set objectives for each level of evaluation and evaluate
systematically at as many levels as possible to obtain the total picture.

Presentation of an evaluation report

Data collected/information is analyzed in percentages, tables, histograms etc. This forms
a good record for justification of the training and a base for future improvement and
planning of the course.

3.3 CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Objectives:
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Discuss the importance of career development

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  Explain the significance of talent management and succession planning for
organizational performance

Succession plans are achieved through career development. A career is a sequence of

separate but related work activities that provides continuity, order and meaning in
a person’s life.

3.3.1 Importance of career development

• Prepares for succession of HR in organization – satisfies need for management in
organization.
• Integrates work and need for personal development – thus equipping people for
higher responsibilities.
• Encourages individuals with potential to exploit their talents.
• Revitalize employees experiencing stagnation in their careers.
• Provides employees with opportunity to develop themselves

NB In planning for career development, personnel managers must be aware of the basic
drives and needs for employees.

A career development program in the organization consists of;

• Assisting employees in assessing their own internal career needs.
• Developing and publishing available career opportunities in the organization
• Aligning employee needs and abilities with career opportunities.

NB A planned career leads to;

- increasing levels of responsibility, status, power and rewards.
- Security on the job, greater freedom from supervision and respect in
service.
Careers are shaped by;
- physical and mental characteristics
- parents
- schooling
- ethnicity
- peers
- organizational experience
- age
- gender etc
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Considering the changing employment patterns where job tenures are increasingly
becoming short term and permanent jobs are no longer guaranteed, how are
organizations dealing with issues of career development and succession?

3.3.2 Talent management and succession planning

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Talent – Is a natural ability to do something well. Talent management is a
professional term that gained popularity in the 1990’s. It refers to the process of
developing and fostering new workers through developing and keeping current
workers and attracting highly skilled ones from other companies. Companies engaged
in talent management are strategic and deliberate in how they source, attract, select,
train, develop, promote and move employees through the organization.
• It incorporates performance management.
• It is the precursor to succession planning
• It is of strategic importance
• Delivers leaders for the next generation
• Aligns the right person for the right job
• Completes management teams
• Reinforces personal and professional accountability and performance
management
• Gives the organization a competitive advantage
• Competition for talent
• Global labour market
• Virtual workforce
• Workforce demographics such as age, race and culture
• Educational levels of workforce
• Commitment and loyalty issues

Succession planning
This refers to a defined programme that an organization implements to ensure
leadership continuity for all key positions by developing activities that will build
personnel talent for the future.
• Helps identify highly talented individuals
• Promotes employee development
• Refines corporate planning
• Establishes a talent pool
List additional reasons why a succession plan would benefit your organization
Factors affecting succession planning
• Management support
• Participation by all divisions
• Documentation
• Understanding all the phases
• Follow up through action
• Preparation by thinking long-term
• Dissemination to all concerned

Making a business case for succession planning

• Assess current practices and related problems
• Establish a valid need and concrete benefits
• Connect the corporate strategy with succession planning strategies

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 • Use benchmarking
• Develop a rough draft of the proposed plan
• List guidelines to consider
• Gain consensus and commitment

Problems with succession planning

• Employees believe advancement is subjective
• Key positions take too long to fill
• People are trained after they are promoted
• Turnover in priority positions is high
• High talent employees are externally recruited

The obvious objective of succession planning and talent management is to establish a

systematic means for replacing key personnel with strong incumbents. However,
events or policies can weaken an organizations ability to promote from within, for
example, layoffs, mergers, resignations etc. identifying talent, managing and
preparing for succession can help a great deal.

3.4. APPRAISING AND IMPROVING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Objectives:
• Explain the importance of performance appraisal
• Discuss the methods used in conducting a performance appraisal
• Discuss the challenges a manager is likely to encounter when carrying out a
performance appraisal.
A performance appraisal describes employees’ past performance and serves as a basis to
recommend how to improve future performance. It represents a company’s way of telling
employees what is expected of them in their jobs and how well they are meeting those
expectations.

Definition:
An appraisal is the evaluation of worth, quality of merit or an evaluation of present
performance and future capabilities.
• Performance appraisal is a systematic, periodic and impartial rating of an
employee’s excellence in matters pertaining to his present job and to his
potentialities for better job/future capabilities.
• An analysis of an employee’s recent successes and failures, personal strengths and
weaknesses and suitability for promotion or further training.
Objectives:
1. improve job performance and identify potential for other work
2. identify the need and areas of further training of the employee
3. assist in determining promotion and transfer policies
4. reduce grievances among employees

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 5. make compensation plans more scientific and rationale
6. help in proper placement after training.

Importance of performance appraisals (PA)

Systematic, formalized performance appraisals have the following values:
1. Provides information, which is useful for making and enforcing decisions on
promotion, pays increases, layoffs, transfers, training etc.
The information permits comparison between staff.
Useful in backing up/defending decisions that have been challenged.
2. Stimulates and guides employee development. Allows people to know how they
are doing – weakness and strengths and what to be done to improve.
3. Produces better and competent supervisors. The requirement for periodic and
accurate appraisals places a burden on supervisors, which forces them to learn the
essential skills for judging and helping personnel.
4. Attraction of high caliber personnel
5. Puts a psychological pressure on people to improve performance on the job. If
people are conscious that they are being appraised in respect of certain factors,
they tend to behave in an acceptable way – PA acts as a control device.

3.4.1 Methods of performance appraisal

Performance appraisal methods fall under four categories:
- Trait systems
- Comparison systems
- Behavioural systems
- Goal-oriented systems
Trait Systems: These rate employees according to their traits or characteristics e.g.
quality and quantity of work, appearance, dependability, cooperation or initiative. Ratings
are scored on a scale of descriptors ranging from unsatisfactory to outstanding.
Advantages:
- Easy to construct and apply to a wide range of jobs
- Easy to quantify for merit pay purposes
- Useful especially for jobs that focus on quality of interactions with customers
Disadvantages:
- Highly subjective as they are based on supervisors perception of a given trait.
These can be overcome by HR professionals defining the meaning of each trait.
- Rates individuals on subjective personality factors rather than on job performance
data.
- Makes employees to become defensive and hostile when the focus is on
individual rather than job.
Comparison systems: These evaluate an employee’s performance against the
performance of others. Ranking is done from the poorest to the best performer based on
given performance categories or traits. Forced distribution approach is an alternative that

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can be used. Employees are assigned groups e.g. poor, average and good. This avoids the
tendency to rank everyone as good or average.
Limitations:
- Highly subjective and chances of rater errors and biases are high
- Small difference between employees are likely to be exaggerated
Behavioural systems: These rate employees according to how much they display
successful job performance behaviours. They rate objective behaviours and are relatively
free of rater errors. Three types are used:
• Critical incident technique (CIT): this method requires job holders and
their supervisors to identify performance incidents or on-the–job
behaviours and behavioural outcomes that distinguish successful
performance from unsuccessful ones. It is useful because it relies on
extensive documentation of job performance behaviours but is demanding
and cumbersome.
• Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS): Is a variation of CIT that
uses scales for the job behaviours and is very objective as it encourages
raters to do evaluations in the same way. However like CIT it is
demanding.
• Behavioural observation scales (BOS): Uses the same scales as BARS
but incorporates only positive performance indicators. It is difficult and
time consuming to develop and maintain. It also requires regular
observation of employees, which is not feasible.

Goal-oriented systems: These are the most effective performance appraisal techniques.
Employees and supervisors together determine the objectives to be met for the rating
period. They are useful for managerial and professional employees.
Advantages:
- Promotes effective communication between employees and supervisors
- Employees participate in setting their own objectives which is motivating
Disadvantages:
- Time consuming
- Limited only to the given goals, excluding other outcomes (encourages a ‘results
at any cost mentality’)
Performance appraisal serves as the basis for awarding merit pay raises. Awarding merit
pay on factors other than job performance could lead to court action on grounds of pay
discrimination (In the USA, the Equal Pay Act of 1963 has been used to sue employers
for discrimination on pay)
To strengthen the link between pay and performance, employers can do the following:
- Link performance appraisals to business goals
- Analyze jobs
- Communicate
- Design effective performance appraisal systems
- Empower employees
- Differentiate among performers
- Train raters
- Set up formal appeal mechanisms against inaccurate ratings

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 - Incorporate all job characteristics into the rating instrument

3.4.2 Challenges in the performance appraisal process

Rating errors is a reflection of differences between human judgment and objective
accurate assessments without bias. Some errors are:
Bias errors: these occur when raters evaluate employees on the basis of their negative or
positive opinion rather than actual performance. For example:
• First impression effect- the manager’s initial negative or positive first
impression of an employee may distort his judgment of employee’s
performance.
• Halo effect – Occurs when a manager generalizes one positive or negative
jab aspect for all aspects of the job e.g. a secretary with offensive
interpersonal relations but is an outstanding typist and proficient in
computer packages may receive an overall negative rating because of that
one aspect.
• Recency effect – occurs when a manager rates the employee according to
the most remembered positive or negative event.
• Similar to me effect – refers to the tendency by raters to rate favourably
employees whom they perceive to be similar to themselves in terms of
attitudes, beliefs, values or backgrounds.
• Illegal discriminating errors – judgment is influenced by stereotyping,
prejudice on racial gender, age or religious basis.
• Errors of central tendency: Involves rating employees as average or
close to average. This occurs where raters are expected to justify extreme
ratings. To avoid raters can be asked to justify all rates on the scale.
• Errors of leniency or strictness: Raters place employees either high or
low on the scale, Leniency is high and it causes employees to expect high
rates and receive undeserved pay rate raises. Strictness is low and may
lead to reduced effort.
Solutions:
These problems can be reduced by:
- Proper training of appraisers
- Defining the rating factors properly
- Base the PA on objectives/goals and other indicators of performance
- Have a monitoring and evaluation system department
- Discuss the PA with ratee
- Have a conducive/supportive management philosophy in place.

-end-

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