INTRODUCTION

Population can change through three processes: fertility, mortality and migration . Fertility is the
child bearing performance of an individual, couples, groups or the population. Mortality is the
study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of
the population. Migration refers to the permanent movement to an area over a period of time, of
at least six months. Hence this piece of academic writing is to explain, how these three
demographic variables influenced Zambians sex composition from 2000 to 2010. Further, it will
explain what the social, economic, demographic and political consequences in sex composition
are in Zambia.
HOW FERTILITY INFLUENCED SEX COMPOSITION
John Graunt, in the year 1662 made a very important observation in his method of survey
sampling. Empirical evidence has proved this even today that some social and demographic
indicators remained stable in time and space. One such example is the influence of fertility on
sex composition, the number of male infants exceed the number of female infants. This can be
justified by knowing the sex ratio at birth of most populations which is normally more than 100,
clearly stating that there are more males per 100 females in most populations at birth. Given this
fact, the make-up of the population in terms of sex in Zambia is greatly influenced by this
empirical evidence. Hence high fertility in a given area population of Zambia will certainly mean
a large number of male babies as compared to the female born babies (Frost, 2008).
HOW MORTALTY INFLUENCED SEX COMPOSITION
However, with the passage of time the sex ratio changes, probably due to the fact that females
have a higher life expectancy as compared to the males. Hence mortality influenced the sex
composition of Zambia in the sense that there is usually a reduction of male babies, because
female babies have higher chances of surviving as compared to the males. The sex ratio of
Zambia reduces with increase in age. The 2010 census report of Zambia shows that the number
of male births to female births was xxxxxxxx to xxxxxxx. And that the population of males to
females above the age of 35years old being xxxxxxxx to xxxxxxxxx respectively. With these
data statistics it is quite obvious that mortality has a greater impact, on males than on females,
showing how mortality influenced sex composition in Zambia. This can further be clarified by

comparing births of both sexes in the year 2000 being xxxxxxx males to xxxxxxxx females and
the population age groups above 40years being xxxxxx males to xxxxxxxx females. With such
results of the effect of mortality on Zambias sex composition, the end result led to a larger
population of females to males seen after birth. Hence having a larger older female population
than the male population (National Center for Health statistics, 2010).
HOW MIGRATION INFLUENCED SEX COMPOSTION
Migration has its fair share of influence on Zambias sex composition. Migration can be as a
result of many factors, such as natural disasters, political-military concerns, search of
employment, preference of area of residence due to personal factors and many other factors. In
spite of these and many other factors, migration is seen to be sex selective. Comprehensive
research shown has that males of a population have a greater force of migrating to longer
distances, whilst females have a greater force of migrating to shorter distances. Due to this
aspect, migration has influenced the sex composition of Zambia in sense that, after independence
in the late 1970s until the early 1990s majority of the population of males was seen to migrate to
urban areas, on the Copperbelt and Lusaka to be precise. Mostly in search of employment, in the
mines and various manufacturing industries on the Copperbelt and Lusaka provinces
respectively. This in return influenced Zambias sex composition in that the sex ratio in most
urban areas increased almost immediately whilst it decreased in most rural areas, meaning that
that ferminity ratio increased in most rural areas (

CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFERENTIALS IN SEX COMPOSITION

SOCIAL
Fertility, mortality and migration have had their respective influences on Zambias sex
composition, resulting in different sex ratios and femininity ratios. However, these differentials
in sex composition have their consequences on the Zambia population. These consequences can
be classified under different classifications; one such example can be seen through social
consequences. The dominance of the population of males over the population of females in
Zambia makes females more prone to HIV/AIDS infection due to lack of empowerment in
sexual relationships, forced sex, unprotected sex, and sex with men who are likely to be infected
with the virus. Furthermore, differentials in sex composition in Zambia changes how health

policies are conceived and implemented, how biomedical and contraceptive technologies are
developed, and how the health system responds to male and female clients (Muntaner, 2003).
In addition, some tropical diseases are due to different societal roles of males and females in the
Zambian society in the household, status within the household and community, and cultural
norms affecting risks of infection. These factors influence exposure of women and men to
diseases such as malaria because men are more likely to be exposed to mosquitoes in certain
work environments such as forestry or mining. Differentials in sex composition in consequences
of tropical diseases include how illness is experienced, treatment-seeking behaviour, nature of
treatment, and care and support received from the family and care providers (Basu, 2000).
Further consequences of over dominance of the male population over the female population in
Zambia is that nutrition in adulthood argue that household power relations are closely linked to
nutritional outcomes when husbands had complete control over all decisions, women had
significantly lower nutritional status than men. Similarly, female household heads had
significantly better nutritional status, suggesting that decision-making power is strongly
associated with access to and control over food resources. Access of women to cash-income was
a positive determinant of their nutritional status. Consequences can further be seen in Zambia by
violence against women as might be assumed when there is a shortage of females (Ibid).
ECONOMIC
Consequences in differentials in sex composition in Zambia can be seen through economic terms
as well. One of the major consequences of having high sex ratio in Zambia is that, there is a very
large number of the population of males in the labour force. When employment is not readily
available one the immediate outcome is increased violence. In addition, Women may feel
discomfort entering certain professions, and men may feel discomfort if women enter these
professions if the professions are strongly dominated by men as compared to women. In
Zambian areas where there are more females than males, you expect much of womens
improvement in health to gain due to social economic status over men, especially increasing
education, and increasing returns to womens education, such as better earnings and employment
prospects, higher occupational statuses, and lower odds of falling into poverty (Schnitter, 2007).
Attendance at religious services is associated with lower levels of smoking and drinking and

more extensive and positive social connections, although religious attendance is also more
common among those with fewer years of education. In areas where the female population has
dominance over the population of males, females are more likely than males to be involved in
religious activities. Other forms of social support that increase survival prospects include
contacts with friends and club membership, in areas where sex ratio is high, males are more
likely to be involved in clubs but less likely to be involved with friends and family (
DEMOGRAPHIC
High sex ratio in Zambia, will only mean there will be an excess of males, due to lesser numbers
of females than males. Most of the males will remain single and will be unable to have families,
in societies where marriage is regarded as virtually universal and social status and acceptance
depend, in large part, on being married and creating a new family. It has also been suggested that
a shortage of women may lead to a rise in homosexual behavior, not implying that the shortage
of women will produce homosexuals, but rather that an increasing tolerance toward
homosexuality, together with the surplus of males, may lead to large numbers of covert
homosexuals openly expressing their sexuality. The latter could be viewed as a positive outcome,
and there are others. Access to prenatal sex determination results in an increase in the proportion
of wanted births, leading to less discrimination against girl children and lower female mortality
(Lee, 2013).
Furthermore, consequences of sex differentials in Zambia, can be seen in other aspects of the
way of life amongst the population. When the sex ratio is low as compared to the ferminity ratio,
Girls are often considered an economic burden because of the dowry system; after marriage they
typically become members of the husband's family, ceasing to have responsibility for their
parents in illness and old age. Son preference is manifest prenatally, through sex determination
and sex-selective abortion, and postnatally through neglect and abandonment of female children,
which leads to higher female mortality (Ibid).
POLITICAL

REFERENCE
Basu A, Roy SK, Mukhopadhyay B, Bharati P, Gupta R, Majumdar PP, (2000). Sex bias in
intrahousehold food distribution: roles of ethnicity and socioeconomic characteristics.
Frost, P. (2008). Sexual selection and human geographic variation, Special Issue: Proceedings of
the 2nd Annual Meeting of the NorthEastern Evolutionary Psychology Society. Journal of
Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 2(4), pp. 169-191.
Lee, R and A Mason, 2013. Population Change and Economic Growth In Zambia. Bulletin
Number 6. Honolullu: National Transfer Accounts.
Muntaner C, Borrell C, Benach J, Pasarin MI, Fernandez E, (2003). The Associations
of Social Class and Social Stratification with Patterns of General and Mental Health
In a Zambian Population. Intl Epidemiol Assoc.

Schnitter J, 2007. Working more and Feeling Better: Womens Health, Employment and Family
Life. American Review.
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Center for Health
Statistics 2010 Recent Mortality Trends in Zambia. National Center for Health Statistics, Series
3, No. 2. Washington: Government Printing Office.