Periodicity

Concept behind the Periodic Table

In the 19th century, many new elements were discovered.
Chemist also begun to discover patterns among the elements. For example, the
metals lithium, sodium and potassium all looked similar and reacted in similar
ways.
When all the elements known at the time were arranged in order of atomic
mass, it was noticed that elements with similar properties occurred at regular
intervals.
This is the purpose behind the periodic table!

How did the modern periodic table come about?

The most successful version of Periodic table was published by Dmitri
Mendeleev, a Russian chemist in 1869.
He took 69 elements known at the time and arranged them in order of
relative atomic mass.
Elements with similar properties were placed in the same vertical columns,
i.e. group.
The asterisk represent undiscovered elements.

What is the difference between Mendeleevs Table and

the Modern Periodic Table?

1. Mendeleevs table had only 69 elements. The modern table includes all 118
known elements.
2. He arranged the elements in order of relative atomic mass. Today, the
elements are arranged in order of proton number (atomic number).
Some groups have names,
i.e. Gp 1 and Gp 2.
The elements between
Group 2 and Group 3 are
transition elements/metals.
They are all metals.

Importance of Periodic Table

The arrangement of the elements allow us to categorize them into similar
chemical properties, hence it makes it easier to remember the properties of
several elements (or a group of elements) instead of learning them individually
Using properties of some elements in a group or period, we are able to make
predictions of unfamiliar elements. Scientific knowledge is useful if we are able
to predict new facts than just to explain known facts.
For examples Francium in Gp 1; its properties can be predicted from Lithium,
Sodium and Potassium, i.e. reactivity with water.

Patterns in the Periodic Table

The periodic table contains patterns among the properties of the element.
We will be discussing the following:
1. Electronic Structure
2. Charges on Ion
3. Bonding
4. Metals & Non-Metals
5. Trends in reactivity/properties in a group*
6. Trends across a period (IGCSE)*

1. Electronic Structure
From previous chapters, it is known that atoms of elements in the same group
have the same number of valence electron or outershell electrons. This
number is the same as the group number.

2. Charges on Ions
The charges on the Ions formed by elements are related to the group number
and the number of outer shell electrons.
The elements on the left side, lose their outer shell electrons to form positive
ions, i.e. Cations.
The elements on the right side, gain electrons to gain a stable outer shell
configuration forming negative ions, i.e. Anions.

3.Bonding and Chemical Formula

Elements in the same group form the SAME TYPE and NUMBER of bonds
because they have the same number of outer electron. For example:

will form
when reacted with Chloride ions or chlorine atoms to give a
charge of 1+ due to the loss of the single outer shell electron. Similarly,
Potassium, Lithium and Rubidium will form similar ionic compounds,
,
,
Similarly, carbon and silicon will form 4 covalent bonds in compounds because
they have 4 valence electrons.
.

4. Metals & Non-metals

The metals are on the left side of the periodic table
The non-metals are on the right side of the table.
From left to right in every period, the elements change from metal to nonmetal
The dividing line between metals and non-metals run diagonally through the
periodic table (Zig-zag or stair-case line dropped from Boron).
Elements close to this line are called metalloids. They have properties of metals
and non-metals.

5. Trends in a group
The atomic number increase from the left to right in a period and also down a
group.
The properties of elements will change down a group as well. (Our focus)
The changes are usually gradual at the sides of the periodic table, i.e. Group 1,2
and Group 7.
For groups in the middle of the periodic table, changes in properties are less
gradual / more drastic.
As atomic number increase down the group, electrons also increase. So as it
goes down the group, the number of shell increases down the group(Screening
effect). The valence electrons becomes more further away from the nucleus or
are less attracted by the nucleus. This causes the properties to change down a
group.

6. Trends across a period (IGCSE)

Brief Observation
In the first period, we see two elements: ,
(First shell can accommodate 2
electrons)
In the second period, we see eight elements starting from Lithium. Each
successive element has an additional valence electron. The third period is
similar
The fourth period is complicated by transition elements which form a block of
metals in the middle of the periodic table (between Gp 2 and Gp 3).
Examples of Trends across a period (Period 2)
Melting and boiling point tends to increase to Gp 4 and then decrease to Gp 8.
This reflects the differences in structures!!!

6. Trends across a period (IGCSE)

Trends across a period
We metallic structures on the left, giant covalent structures in the middle (Gp
4) and on the right non-metals with simple molecular structures.
There are differences in Chemical properties. The basic oxides are formed on
the left and the acidic oxides on the right.

How is the Periodic table used?

As mentioned, the periodic table organize facts about elements and allows us to predict
properties of elements from knowledge of other elements in the same group. Here are two
examples:
Formulae and Structure
Chlorine, bromine and iodine (Gp 7) elements form diatomic molecule, i.e.
,
. We can
predict that fluorine in the same group will form diatomic molecules that have the molecular
formula, .
Properties of elements
Properties of elements change down a group gradually (at the sides of the table). For example
the melting and boiling points.

Groups Properties
In this level, we are only going to study the properties of GROUPS (Gp I, Gp VII,
Gp 0 (or Gp 8) and the transition elements), and where they are positioned in
the Periodic table.

Group 1 Elements Alkali Metals

These are known as Alkali metals. They are a very group of similar metals
Most reactive metals in the Periodic table
They have one outer shell electron in the atom or one valence electron

Group 1 Physical Properties

The alkali metals have similar physical properties and it changes gradually down
the group
1. They are shiny, silvery solids
2. They are soft and can be easily cut with a knife.
3. They have low densities and low melting point.
4. Densities generally increase down the group and melting point decreases down
the group.
Can you
predict
Caesium??

Group 1 Chemical Properties

As mentioned, the alkali metals are reactive metals. The chemical reactions are
similar and also changes down the group.
1. The metals react easily in air, so they are usually kept in oil to prevent contact
with water/air.
2. They are called alkali metals because they react with water to form alkaline
solutions. These turns red litmus paper blue.
3. The metals react vigorously with water, some catches fire, while others could
cause explosions. The products are metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

Group 1 Chemical Properties

4. The group 1 elements becomes more reactive down the group. This can be
shown in their reaction with water. For example, lithium fizzes a lot, but
potassium catches fire and explodes.
5. The metals react to form ionic compounds, these ions has a charge of +1 by
losing their one valence electron. As a result they have similar chemical
formulae.

Group 7 Elements - Halogens

They are known as the halogens. They are a group of very similar non-metals.
They are very reactive. Fluorine is the most reactive element in Gp 7.
They are similar because they have 7 valence electron.

Group 7 Physical Properties

They have similar physical properties and
these gradually changes down the group.
1. They consist of small molecules, and each
molecules contains two atoms (diatomic),
such as Chlorine,
.
2. Fluorine and Chlorine are gases, bromine
is liquid and iodine is a solid. The
elements become darker down a group.

Group 7 Physical Properties

WHY DO M.P/B.P INCREASE????

3. The halogens have low melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling
point increases down the group. They all boil below 200 .

Group 7 Chemical Properties

Halogens are reactive non-metals. Their reactions are similar and change
gradually down the group
They have seven valence electrons and need 1 electron to fufill a stable
electronic configuration/structure of noble gases.
When they take one electron, they form an anion with a charge of -1.
1. Halogen reacts with most metals to form compounds called HALIDES.
2
+
2
( )
*Halides have similar chemical formulae. (
,
)
2. The Halogens becomes less reactive down the group.

Group 7 Chemical Properties

3. A more reactive halogen will displace (takes the place of) a less reactive
halogen to form an aqueous solution of its ions. For example, a solution of
chlorine in water displaces iodine from potassium iodide solution.

+2
Can you tell me any observations? ?
Colour Change

+ (

+
)

Group O elements (Group 8 elements) Noble Gases

Group O elements are called Noble gases. They are the least reactive elements
in the Periodic table, in fact, they do not react at all.

Group O Elements Physical Properties

They are colourless gases.
They consist of single atoms, i.e. monatomic.
All noble gases have stable electronic configurations. Except for helium,
their atoms all have eight electrons in their outer shells.
Helium : 2
Neon : 2.8
Argon : 2.8.8
That is why the noble gas are unreactive and do not usually form bonds
with other atoms.
The elements have very low melting and boiling points.

Group O elements Their uses

Argon, Helium and Neon are the most widely used Noble gases. Their lack of
reactivity is a major reason for their uses.

Transition Elements
They do not have a group number. They are a block of elements (all metals) between
Group II and Group III.
They occur after Period 3, that is, Period 4, 5 and 6 of the periodic table.
From period 4 to 6, there are 10 extra elements between Gp II and Gp III. These are
called transition elements or transition metals.

Transition Elements Physical Properties

1. The metals, when clean, are shiny
and silvery in appearance.
2. They are good conductors of
electricity
3. They are hard and strong. (Unlike
Gp1 metals) This is because the
metallic bonds are very strong.

Transition Elements Physical Properties

4. Transition metals have high densities and high melting points. Most other
metals have lower densities and melting points. Tungsten, a transition
element has the highest melting point (3410 ) of all transition elements.
This property allow it to be suitable to be used as filaments in light bulbs.

Transition Elements Physical Properties

5. Most solid compounds and aqueous solution of transition metals are colored.
Under Chemical Analysis, you will study how colored ions are useful in
identifying compounds.

Can you tell me

other colours?

Transition Elements Chemical Properties

1. Transition metals have variable valency
(and oxidation states) in compounds. For
example, Iron can be found in compounds
with oxidation states of +2 and +3.
*On the other hand, metals that are not
transition metals usually form one ion. Sodium
forms
and Aluminium only forms
ion.
This is because they only lose electrons from
their outer shells.
2. Several transition metals and their
compounds are good catalysts. They are
able to speed up chemical reactions. For
example, Iron is used as a catalyst in Haber
Process for the manufacture of ammonia.