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Stress (mechanics)

Stress is the force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it to change shape.[2]
Stress is a measure of the internal forces in a body between its particles.[2] These internal forces are a reaction to
the external forces applied on the body that cause it to separate, compress or slide. [2] External forces are
either surface forces or body forces. Stress is the average force per unit area that a particle of a body exerts on an
adjacent particle, across an imaginary surface that separates them.
The formula for uniaxial normal stress is:

where is the stress, F is the force and A is the surface area.


In SI units, force is measured in newtons and area in square metres. This means stress is newtons per square
meter, or N/m2. However, stress has its own SI unit, called the pascal. 1 pascal (symbol Pa) is equal to 1 N/m2.
In Imperial units, stress is measured in pound-force per square inch, which is often shortened to "psi". The
dimension of stress is the same as that ofpressure.
In continuum mechanics, the loaded deformable body behaves as a continuum. So, these internal forces are
distributed continually within the volume of the material body. (This means that the stress distribution in the body
is expressed as apiecewise continuous function of space and time.) The forces cause deformation of the body's
shape. The deformation can lead to a permanent shape change or structural failure if the material is not strong
enough.
Some models of continuum mechanics treat force as something that can change. Other models look at the
deformation of matter and solid bodies, because the characteristics of matter and solids are three dimensional.
Each approach can give different results. Classical models of continuum mechanics assume an average force
and do not properly include "geometrical factors". (The geometry of the body can be important to how stress is
shared out and how energy builds up during the application of the external force.)
Contents
[hide]

1 Shear stress

2 Simple stresses
o

2.1 Uniaxial normal stress


3 Stress in one-dimensional bodies

4 Related pages

5 References

6 Bibliography

7 Other websites

Shear stress[change | change source]


For more details, see Shear stress

Simple stresses[change | change source]


In some situations, the stress within an object can be described by a single number, or by a single vector (a
number and a direction). Three such simple stress situations are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear
stress, and the isotropic normal stress.[3]

Uniaxial normal stress[change | change source]


Tensile stress (or tension) is the stress state leading to expansion; that is, the length of a material tends to
increase in the tensile direction. The volume of the material stays constant. When equal and opposite forces are
applied on a body, then the stress due to this force is called tensile stress.
Therefore in a uniaxial material the length increases in the tensile stress direction and the other two directions
will decrease in size. In the uniaxial manner of tension, tensile stress is induced by pulling forces. Tensile stress
is the opposite ofcompressive stress.
Structural members in direct tension are ropes, soil anchors and nails, bolts, etc. Beams subjected to
bending moments may include tensile stress as well as compressive stress and/or shear stress.
Tensile stress may be increased until the reach of tensile strength, namely the limit state of stress.

Stress in one-dimensional bodies[change | change source]


All real objects occupy three-dimensional space. However, if two dimensions are very large or very small
compared to the others, the object may be modelled as one-dimensional. This simplifies the mathematical
modelling of the object. One-dimensional objects include a piece of wire loaded at the ends and viewed from the
side, and a metal sheet loaded on the face and viewed up close and through the cross section.

In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighboring particles of
a continuous materialexert on each other, while strain is the measure of the deformation of the material. For
example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting aweight, each particle in the bar pushes on the particles

immediately below it. When a liquid is in a closed container under pressure, each particle gets pushed against by all
the surrounding particles. The container walls and the pressure inducing surface (such as a piston), inreaction, push
against them. These macroscopic forces are actually the average of a very large number of intermolecular
forces andcollisions between the particles in those molecules.
Strain inside a material may arise by various mechanisms, such as stress as applied by external forces to the bulk
material (like gravity) or to its surface (like contact forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a
solid material generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring, that tends to restore
the material to its original non-deformed state. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume
generate persistent elastic stress. However, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there
will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined
under the namemechanical stress.
Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent (a common assumption when
modeling the flow of water). Stress may exist in the absence of external forces; such built-in stress is important, for
example, in prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the
application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or chemical composition, or by
external electromagnetic fields (as in piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials).
The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and the rate of change of deformation can be quite
complicated, although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough. Stress
that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic
flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.
In some branches of engineering, the term stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal
force". For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a
beam, rather than the force divided by the area of its cross-section.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Overview

3 Simple stress

4 General stress

5 Stress analysis

6 Alternative measures of stress

7 See also

8 Further reading

9 References

History[edit]

Roman-era bridge in Switzerland

Inca bridge on the Apurimac River

Since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials. Until the 17th century the
understanding of stress was largely intuitive and empirical; and yet it resulted in some surprisingly sophisticated
technology, like the composite bow and glass blowing. [1]
Over several millennia, architects and builders, in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood
beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious
devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas,trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.
Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper
sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools
were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo's rigorous experimental
method, Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus
of infinitesimals.[2] With those tools, Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for
stress in a homogeneous medium.[citation needed] Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear
function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum). [citation
needed]

The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a differential formula for friction forces
(shear stress) in parallellaminar flow.

Overview[edit]

Definition[edit]
Stress is defined as the average force per unit area that some particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle,
across an imaginary surface that separates them. [3]

Being derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a
fundamental quantity, like velocity, torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit
consideration of the nature of the material or of its physical causes.
Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. Namely, the particles
considered in its definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition
and state, but still large enough to ignore quantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force
between two particles is actually the average of a very large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and
physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity,
are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them.[4]:p.90106 Depending on the context, one may also assume that the
particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like the grains of a metal rod or
the fibers of a piece of wood.

The stress across a surface element (yellow disk) is the force that the material on one side (top ball) exerts on the material on
the other side (bottom ball), divided by the area of the surface.

Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector T defined as the traction force F between
adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating surface S, divided by the area of S.[5]:p.4150 In a fluid at
rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the
force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a
scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the
material must be described by a tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates
the normal vector n of a surface S to the stress T across S. With respect to any chosen coordinate system, the
Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of 33 real numbers. Even within
a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the
stress within a material is, in general, a time-varying tensor field.

Normal and shear stress[edit]


Further information: compression (physical) and Shear stress

In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any direction
relative to S. The vector Tmay be regarded as the sum of two components: the normal
stress (compression or tension) perpendicular to the surface, and the shear stress that is parallel to the surface.
If the normal unit vector n of the surface (pointing from Q towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can
be expressed by a single number, the dot product T n. This number will be positive if P is "pulling" on Q (tensile
stress), and negative if P is "pushing" against Q(compressive stress) The shear component is then the vector T
(T n)n.

Units[edit]
The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units
as pressure: namely, pascals (Pa, that is, newtons persquare metre) in the International System,
or pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system.

Causes and effects[edit]

Glass vase with thecraquel effect. The cracks are the result of brief but intense stress created when the semi-molten piece is
briefly dipped in water.[6]

Stress in a material body may be due to multiple physical causes, including external influences and internal physical
processes. Some of these agents (like gravity, changes in temperature and phase, and electromagnetic fields) act
on the bulk of the material, varying continuously with position and time. Other agents (like external loads and
friction, ambient pressure, and contact forces) may create stresses and forces that are concentrated on certain
surfaces, lines, or points; and possibly also on very short time intervals (as in the impulses due to collisions). In
general, the stress distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space and time.
Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical
properties like birefringence,polarization, and permeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually
creates some strain (deformation) in the material, even if it is too small to be detected. In a solid material, such
strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to
restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials (liquids, gases and plasmas) by definition can

only oppose deformations that would change their volume. However, if the deformation is changing with time, even
in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change.
The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation,
can be quite complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small
enough). Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such
as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.

Simple stress[edit]
In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately be described by a single number, or by a single vector
(a number and a direction). Three such simple stresssituations, that are often encountered in engineering design,
are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear stress, and the isotropic normal stress.[7]

Uniaxial normal stress[edit]

Idealized stress in a straight bar with uniform cross-section.

A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material and cross section, is
subjected to tensionby opposite forces of magnitude

along its axis. If the system is in equilibrium and not

changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the
top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force F. Therefore the stress throughout the bar, across
any horizontal surface, can be described by the number

= F/A, where A is the area of the cross-section.

On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force
(hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut.
This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple,
etc.) tensile stress.[7] If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except
that the force F and the stress

change sign, and the stress is called compressive stress.

The ratio

may be only an average stress. The stress may be unevenly distributed over the cross section (mm),

especially near the attachment points (nn).

This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-section. In practice, depending on how
the bar is attached at the ends and how it was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the
value

= F/A will be only the average stress, called engineering stress ornominal stress. However, if the bar's

length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed
to be uniformly distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times D from both ends. (This observation
is known as the Saint-Venant's principle).
Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform
and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be
normal (perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer part will be under tensile
stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that occurs on
the walls of a cylindrical pipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.

Simple shear stress[edit]

Shear stress in a horizontal bar loaded by two offset blocks.

Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly
attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft
metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of ascissors-like tool. Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the
midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other
part with the same force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be
expressed by the single number

= F/A, where F is the magnitude of those forces and A is the area of the layer.

However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stress is directed parallel to the cross-section considered, rather
than perpendicular to it.[7] For any plane S that is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force across S, and
hence the stress, will be zero.
As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer;
so, as before, the ratio F/A will only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often
sufficient for practical purposes.[8]:p.292 Shear stress is observed also when a cylindrical bar such as a shaft is
subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the
cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and increases with distance from the axis. Significant
shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beams under bending loads, due to the web constraining the
end plates ("flanges").

Isotropic stress[edit]

Isotropic tensile stress. Top left: Each face of a cube of homogeneous material is pulled by a force with magnitude F, applied
evenly over the entire face whose area is A. The force across any section S of the cube must balance the forces applied below
the section. In the three sections shown, the forces are F (top right), F
area of S is A, A

and A

(bottom left), and F

(bottom right); and the

, respectively. So the stress across S is F/Ain all three cases.

Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions.
This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a
larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal
perpendicular forces provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that
the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected.
In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always
directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be
called isotropic normal or justisotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or just pressure.
Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses, but liquids may withstand very small amounts of isotropic
tensile stress.

Cylinder stresses[edit]
Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the
stress patterns that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of such cylinder
stresses can take advantage of the symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor.

General stress[edit]
Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is called combined
stress. In normal and shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a
certain direction

, and zero across any surfaces that are parallel to

. When the stress is zero only across

surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the
sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress, the stress is nonzero across
every surface element.

The Cauchy stress tensor[edit]


Main article: Cauchy stress tensor

Components of stress in three dimensions

Illustration of typical stresses (arrows) across various surface elements on the boundary of a particle (sphere), in a
homogeneous material under uniform (but not isotropic) triaxial stress. The normal stresses on the principal axes are +5, +2,
and 3 units.

Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is stressed in the same way
throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that
surface, in a non-trivial way.
However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector
surface's normal vector
function

across a surface will always be alinear function of the

, the unit-length vector that is perpendicular to it. That is,

, where the

satisfies

for any vectors

and any real numbers

. The function

, now called the(Cauchy) stress tensor,

completely describes the stress state of a uniformly stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two
physical vector quantities is called atensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the "tensions" (stresses)
in a material.) In tensor calculus,

is classified as second-order tensor of type (0,2).

Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any chosen Cartesian coordinate
system by a 33 matrix of real numbers. Depending on whether the coordinates are numbered
named

or

, the matrix may be written as

or
The stress vector

across a surface with normal vector

a matrix product

with coordinates

is then

(where T in upper index is transposition) (look on Cauchy

stress tensor), that is

The linear relation between

and

follows from the fundamental laws of conservation of linear

momentum and static equilibrium of forces, and is therefore mathematically exact, for any material and
any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy stress tensor at every point in a material satisfy the
equilibrium equations (Cauchys equations of motion for zero acceleration). Moreover, the principle
of conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is
,

, and

. Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can

be specified by only six independent parameters, rather than nine. These may be written

where the elements

are called the orthogonal normal stresses (relative to the

chosen coordinate system), and

the orthogonal shear stresses.

Change of coordinates[edit]
The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of
coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle of stress
distribution.
As a symmetric 33 real matrix, the stress tensor
length eigenvectors

has three mutually orthogonal unit-

and three real eigenvalues

Therefore, in a coordinate system with axes


has only the three normal components

, such that

, the stress tensor is a diagonal matrix, and


the principal stresses. If the three eigenvalues

are equal, the stress is an isotropic compression or tension, always perpendicular to any surface; if
there is no shear stress, the tensor is a diagonal matrix in any coordinate frame.

Stress as a tensor field[edit]


In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over a material body, and may vary with time.
Therefore the stress tensor must be defined for each point and each moment, by considering
an infinitesimal particle of the medium surrounding that point, and taking the average stresses in
that particle as being the stresses at the point.

Stress in thin plates[edit]

A tank car made from bent and welded steel plates.

Man-made objects are often made from stock plates of various materials by operations that do not
change their essentially two-dimensional character, like cutting, drilling, gentle bending and welding
along the edges. The description of stress in such bodies can be simplified by modeling those parts
as two-dimensional surfaces rather than three-dimensional bodies.

In that view, one redefines a "particle" as being an infinitesimal patch of the plate's surface, so that
the boundary between adjacent particles becomes an infinitesimal line element; both are implicitly
extended in the third dimension, straight through the plate. "Stress" is then redefined as being a
measure of the internal forces between two adjacent "particles" across their common line element,
divided by the length of that line. Some components of the stress tensor can be ignored, but since
particles are not infinitesimal in the third dimension one can no longer ignore the torque that a
particle applies on its neighbors. That torque is modeled as a bending stressthat tends to change
the curvature of the plate. However, these simplifications may not hold at welds, at sharp bends and
creases (where the radius of curvature is comparable to the thickness of the plate).

Stress in thin beams[edit]

For stress modeling, a fishing pole may be considered one-dimensional.

The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform
(or smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and
twisting. For those bodies may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis,
and redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross
sections. The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but
one must take into account also a bending stress (that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some
direction perpendicular to the axis) and a torsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its
axis).

Other descriptions of stress[edit]


The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small
deformations where the differences in stress distribution in most cases can be neglected. For large
deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as the first and second
PiolaKirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor, are required.
Solids, liquids, and gases have stress fields. Static fluids support normal stress but will flow
under shear stress. Moving viscous fluids can support shear stress (dynamic pressure). Solids can
support both shear and normal stress, with ductile materials failing under shear and brittle materials

failing under normal stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related
properties, and non-Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.

Stress analysis[edit]
Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal
distribution of stresses in solid objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design
of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or
expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study
phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand
the anatomy of living beings.

Goals and assumptions[edit]


Stress analysis is generally concerned with objects and structures that can be assumed to be in
macroscopic static equilibrium. By Newton's laws of motion, any external forces are being applied
to such a system must be balanced by internal reaction forces,[9]:p.97 which are almost always surface
contact forces between adjacent particles that is, as stress.[5] Since every particle needs to be in
equilibrium, this reaction stress will generally propagate from particle, creating a stress distribution
throughout the body.
The typical problem in stress analysis is to determine these internal stresses, given the external
forces that are acting on the system. The latter may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic
attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material; [10]:p.4281 or concentrated loads (such as
friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to
act over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point.
In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of the forces or the precise nature of
the materials. Instead, one assumes that the stresses are related to deformation (and, in non-static
problems, to the rate of deformation) of the material by known constitutive equations.[11]

Methods[edit]
Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to
scale model, and measuring the resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This
approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However, most stress analysis is
done by mathematical methods, especially during design.
The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated by Euler's equations of motion for continuous
bodies (which are consequences of Newton's laws for conservation of linear
momentum and angular momentum) and the Euler-Cauchy stress principle, together with the
appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system of partial differential
equations involving the stress tensor field and the strain tensor field, as unknown functions to be
determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the

differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic
stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem.
Stress analysis for elastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain
theory. When the applied loads cause permanent deformation, one must use more complicated
constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved (plastic
flow, fracture, phase change, etc.).
However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are
well within the range of linear elasticity (the generalization of Hookes law for continuous media);
that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to them. In this case the
differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the problem becomes much
easier. For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small
enough stresses, even non-linear systems can usually be assumed to be linear.

Simplified model of a truss for stress analysis, assuming unidimensional elements under uniform axial tension
or compression.

Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of loads allow the
structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of trusses, for example, the
stress field may be assumed to be uniform and uniaxial over each member. Then the differential
equations reduce to a finite set of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other
contexts one may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one,
and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like uniaxial
tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
Still, for two- or three-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential equation problem.
Analytical or closed-form solutions to the differential equations can be obtained when the geometry,
constitutive relations, and boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally
resort to numerical approximations such as the finite element method, the finite difference method,
and the boundary element method.

Alternative measures of stress[edit]


Main article: Stress measures

Other useful stress measures include the first and second PiolaKirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot
stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor.

PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor[edit]


In the case of finite deformations, the PiolaKirchhoff stress tensors express the stress relative to
the reference configuration. This is in contrast to the Cauchy stress tensorwhich expresses the
stress relative to the present configuration. For infinitesimal deformations and rotations, the Cauchy
and PiolaKirchhoff tensors are identical.
Whereas the Cauchy stress tensor

relates stresses in the current configuration, the

deformation gradient and strain tensors are described by relating the motion to the reference
configuration; thus not all tensors describing the state of the material are in either the reference or
current configuration. Describing the stress, strain and deformation either in the reference or current
configuration would make it easier to define constitutive models (for example, the Cauchy Stress
tensor is variant to a pure rotation, while the deformation strain tensor is invariant; thus creating
problems in defining a constitutive model that relates a varying tensor, in terms of an invariant one
during pure rotation; as by definition constitutive models have to be invariant to pure rotations). The
1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor,

is one possible solution to this problem. It defines a family of

tensors, which describe the configuration of the body in either the current or the reference state.
The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor,

relates forces in the present configuration with areas in

the reference ("material") configuration.

where

is the deformation gradient and

is the Jacobian determinant.

In terms of components with respect to an orthonormal basis, the first PiolaKirchhoff stress is
given by

Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is a two-point
tensor. In general, it is not symmetric. The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is the 3D
generalization of the 1D concept of engineering stress.
If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of
the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor will vary with material orientation.
The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient.
2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor[edit]

Whereas the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas
in the reference configuration, the 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor

relates forces in the

reference configuration to areas in the reference configuration. The force in the reference
configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the
force direction and the area normal in the reference configuration.

In index notation with respect to an orthonormal basis,

This tensor, a one-point tensor, is symmetric.


If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the
components of the 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor remain constant, irrespective
of material orientation.
The 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor is energy conjugate to the GreenLagrange
finite strain tensor.

STRESS is the intensity of force inside a solid. The basic unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) which is Newton
per square metre. In engineering it is more convenient to measured as the force (N) per square mm. This
gives the common engineering unit of stress, MPa.

Property

Formula

Units

Example

DENSITY: Mass per unit volume

= Mass (kg) / Volume (m3)

kg / m3

Steel = 7800

STRENGTH: How much Stress it can 'take'


Ultimate Strength (max stress before
breaking)
Yield Strength (max stress before plastic)
Stresses: Tensile & Compression (Axial),
Shear
Fatigue: Max stress under millions of reps
Working/Allowable; 'Safe' stress, design value

= Force (N) / Area (mm2)

MPa

HARDNESS: Resistance to indentation or


abrasion

Size or depth of indent

varies

HRC55 (Rockwell

STIFFNESS: How much Stress for a certain


Strain
Young's Modulus, Elastic Modulus

= Stress (MPa) / Strain

MPa

1020 Steel E = 20

TOUGHNESS: Energy to break

= Area under Stress-Strain


curve

J / m2

1020 Steel UTS = 4


1020 Steel YS = 20
1020 Steel SS =
Steel Grade 250 FS =
1020 ATS = 120M

Charpy Test (Jou

ELASTICITY: Ability to Stretch with plasticity

= Strain at yield

1020 Steel: 0.01% @

PLASTICITY: Permanent deformation:


Ductility = tensile plasticity
Malleablility = compressive plasticity

= (L2 - L1) / L1

1020 Steel: 25

POISSON'S RATIO: side strain to axial strain

v = ex / ey

1020 Steel v = 0

DEFINE

Formula

Axial Stress (Tension or


Compression)

Stress = Force / Area

Axial Strain (Tension or


Compression)

Strain = extension / original


Length

Shear Stress

Stress = Force / Area

Units

Diagram

MPa

MPa

Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Mod) E = Stress / Strain

GPa

Slope of Stress:Strain
diagram

Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Mod.)


=~ 0.4E

G = S. Stress / S. Strain

GPa

Slope of
S.Stress:S.Strain
diagram

Shear Strain

Strain = movement /
original Depth

Shear in Detail:
Shear Strain is usually small
enough to ignore the changes in L
with angle.
Angle is in radians.
Area is the zone that would slide
apart assuming it broke in shear.

What is a Stress?
STRESS is the intensity of force inside a solid.
It has the same units as Pressure (Pa, kPa, MPa, etc), so you could think of stress as pressure in a solid.
The difference is, pressure acts equally in every direction, but stress has a certain direction.
Stress = Force/Area
The base unit for pressure and stress is the Pascal (Pa), but this is way too small for engineering use except perhaps when measuring the pressure of air conditioning ducts or something. Certainly nothing
compared to the stress required to break steel. In most engineering situations, the strength of a material
is measured in MPa (MegaPascals)

Stress (MPa) = Force (N) / Area (mm2)

COMMON MISTAKE: (FORCE DOUBLING). When drawing a Free Body


Diagram of a component under stress, you will always end up with a pair of
forces (e.g. 1 up, 1 down). This is the definition of stress - that the crosssectional area has to sustain the 2 forces trying to tear it apart. If you add
the 2 forces together you are probably making a mistake! (Besides, if you
did try to add them they would cancel each other out anyway, since they are
in opposite directions.)
Worked Example 1: Tensile force of 5kN acting on a 6mm diameter rod. What is the stress?

Worked Example 2: A block made of 40MPa concrete with dimensions as shown. What is the maximum
load (mass) it can support?

Worked Example 3: Tensile force of 1kN, with steel of UTS=750MPa and Factor of Safety of 2.5. What is
maximum force?

DIFFERENT SYMBOLS: Watch out for different symbols for stress. Ivanoff
(and some TAFE publications) use f but the rest of the world (internet and
other textbooks) use the Greek symbol sigma .

Tensile, Compressive and Shear stress


There are 3 types of stress in the world;

Tensile = pulling apart

Compressive = squashing together

Shear = sliding apart

Any of these 3 types of stress are calculated the same way, with the same units - it the area that is
different. Always think of what area must be broken when the component fails (the broken area).

Strength Of Materials. Part I. Simple Stress


I. Stress. When forces are applied to a body they tend in a greater or less degree to
break it. Preventing or tending to prevent the rupture, there arise, generally, forces
between every two adjacent parts of the body. Thus, when a load is suspended by means
of anironrod, the rod is subjected to a downward pull at its lower end and to an upward
pull at itsupperend, and these two forces tend to pull it apart. At any cross-section of the
rod the iron on either side "holds fast" to that on the other, and these forces which the
parts of the rod exert upon each other prevent the tearing of the rod. Forexample, in Fig.
1, let a represent the rod and its suspended load, 1,000pounds; then the pull on the
lower end equals 1,000 pounds. If we neglect theweightof the rod, the pull on the upper
end is also 1,000 pounds, as shown in Fig. 1 (b); and the upper part A exerts on the lower
part B an upward pull Q equal to 1,000 pounds, while the lower part exerts on the upper
a force P also equal to 1,000 pounds. These two forces, P and Q, prevent rupture of the
rod at the "section" C; at any other section there are two forces like P and Q preventing
rupture at that section.
By stress at a section of a body is meant the force which the part of the body on either
side of the section exerts on the other. Thus, the stress at the section C (Fig. 1) is P (or
Q), and it equals 1,000 pounds.
a. Stresses are usually expressed (in America) in pounds, sometimes in tons. Thus the
stress P in the preceding article is

Fig. 1.
1.000 pounds, or ton. Notice that thisvaluehas nothing to do with thesizeof the crosssection on which the stress acts.

3. Kinds of Stress, (a) When the forces acting on a body (as a rope or rod) are such that
they tend to tear it, the stress at any cross-section is called a tension or a tensile stress.
The stresses P and Q, of Fig. 1, are tensile stresses. Stretched ropes, loaded "tie rods"
ofroofsand bridges, etc., are under tensile stress. (b.) "When the forces acting on a body
(as a shortpost,brick, etc.) are such that they tend to crush it, the stress at any section at
rightanglesto the direction of the crushing forces is called a pressure or a compres-sive
stress. Fig. 2 (a) represents a loaded post, and Fig. 2 (b) the upper and lower parts. The
upper part presses down on B, and the lower part presses up on A, as shown. P or Q is
the compressive stress in the post at section C. Loaded posts, or struts, piers, etc., are
under compressive stress.
(c.) When the forces acting on a body (as a rivet in a bridgejoint) are such that they tend
to cut or "shear" it across, the stress at a section along which there is a tendency to cut
is called a shear or a shearing stress. This kind of stress takes its name from the act of
cutting with a pair of shears. In amaterialwhich is being cut in this way, the stresses that
are being "overcome" are shearing stresses. Fig. 3 (a) represents ariveted joint, and Fig.
3 (b) two parts of the rivet. The forces applied to the joint are such that A tends to slide
to the left, and B to the right; then B exerts on A a force P toward the right, and A on B a
force Q toward the left as shown. P or Q is the shearing stress in the rivet.
Tensions, Compressions and Shears are called simple stresses. "Forces may act upon a
body so as to produce a combination of simple stresses on some section; such a
combination is called a complex stress. The stresses inbeamsare usually complex. There
are other terms used to describe stress; they will be defined farther on.

Fig. 2.
4. Unit=Stress. It is often necessary to specify not merely the amount of the entire stress
which acts on an area, but also the amount which acts on each unit of area (square inch
for example). By unit-stress is meant stress per unit area.

To find the value of a unit-stress: Divide the whole stress by the whole area of the section
on which it acts, or over which it is distributed. Thus, let
P denote the value of the whole stress,
A the area on which it acts, and
S the value of the unit-stress; then
S = P/A, also P = AS.
(I)
Strictly these formulas apply only when the stress P is uniform, that is, when it is
uniformly distributed over the area, each square inch for example sustaining the same
amount of stress. When the stress is not uniform, that is, when the stresses on different
square inches are not equal, then PA equals the average value of the unit-stress.

Fig. 3.
5. Unit-stresses are usually expressed (in America) in pounds per square inch, sometimes
in tons per square inch. If P and A in equation 1 are expressed in pounds and square
inches respectively, then S will be in pounds per square inch; and if P and A are
expressed in tons and square inches, S will be in tons per square inch.
Examples. 1. Suppose that the rod sustaining the load in Fig. 1 is 2 square inches in
cross-section, and that the load weighs l000 pounds. What is the value of the unitstress ?
Here P = 1,000 pounds, A= 2 square inches; hence.
S = 1,000/ 2 = 500 pounds per square inch.
2. Suppose that the rod is one-half square inch in cross-section. What is the value of the
unit-stress?
A = square inch, and, as before, P = 1,000 pounds; hence S = 1,000 = 2,000
pounds per square inch.
Notice that one must always divide the whole stress by the area to get the unit-stress,
whether the area is greater or less than one.
6. Deformation. "Whenever forces are applied to a body itchangesin size, and usually in
shape also. This change ofsizeand shape is called deformation. Deformations are usually
measured in inches; thus, if a rod is stretched 2 inches, the "elongation" = 2 inches.

7. Unit-Deformation. It is sometimes necessary to specify not merely the value of a total


deformation but its amount per unit length of the deformed body. Deformation per unit
length of the deformed body is called unit-deformation.

Read more:http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Cyclopedia-Carpentry-Building-13/Strength-Of-Materials-Part-I-Simple-Stress.html#.VMeeu_6UfpU#ixzz3Q22lH4WC

Normal Stress/Shear Stress

Click here for discussion of Shear Stress

Key Concepts: Normal stress can be viewed as force per unit area acting normal to an
internal section of a structural element, typically called a bar or an axial member.
In a Nut Shell: Definition of an Axial Member
A structure that is generally long in one direction (perhaps in the x-direction), straight,
and has a constant (or mildly tapered) cross-section is generally termed an axial
member. The cross-section of the axial member will have a centroid. The x-axis of the
axial member is assumed to lie along the centroid of each cross-section. Click here to
view a typical axial member.
Definition of Normal Stress in an Axial Member
The average normal stress. , in an axial member is the force, P, in the member divided
by its cross-sectional area, A.
= P/A
Common units for stress are psi, ksi,

MPa, N/mm2 (English/Metric)

Definition of Normal Stress at a Point, P, in an axial member


Its possible that the axial force might vary over the cross-section of a structural
member. In that case let the element of force be F over an element of area A
for the cross-section.
Then the normal stress, p, at point P in the cross-section of the axial member is
p = lim F / A
A 0
assuming the limit exists. If the cross-section lies in the y-z plane then the axial stress may be
a function of both y and z so that = (y,z) and the total axial force, F, acts through the
centroid at any given cross-section is simply the integral of over the cross-section. Click
here for a review of centroids.
F =

(y,z) dA

Normal Stress
Example: Link AC has a uniform cross section in wide and 1/16 in thick. A smooth pin
connects the link to the rectangular plate at A. Smooth pins also are at C and B. A cord raps
around the smooth pulleys as shown. The tension in the cord, P, is 300 lb. Find the normal
stress midway along the link AC.

Strategy: Construct a free body diagrams of the plate and of link, AC. Use equilibrium to
find the force in the link. Then the normal stress in the link is just the force it carries divided
by the cross-sectional area of the link.

The equations of equilibrium are: Fx = 0, Fy = 0, and MB = 0.


Click here to continue with this example.

Normal Stress

Example: (continued)

For equilibrium of the plate: CCW MB = 0

- Ax(12) + 300(6) = 0

Ax = 150.0 lb

Note from statics that the link is a two-force member. So that it is either in tension or
in compression. In this case link AC carries a tensile force, R, directed along the link.
For equilibrium of link AC:

Fx = 0

- R cos(30) + 150.0 = 0

R = 173.2 lb

Cross-sectional area of link = Alink = (1/4)(1/16) = 1/64 in2


So the normal stress in link AC = link = 173.2/(1/64) = 11085psi = 11.09 ksi (result)

Normal Stress
*Example: While stopping a car the driver exerts a force, P, of 10 lb on the brake pedal at C
as shown below. The brake rod is pinned normal to the brake pedal ABC at B. d = 2 in. and
e = 10 in. The diameter of the brake rod is 3/16 in. Find the normal stress in brake rod BD.
Strategy: Construct a free body diagram of the brake pedal. Use equilibrium to find the
force exerted by the brake rod on the brake pedal. Then the normal stress in the brake
rod is just the force it carries divided by the cross-sectional area of the brake rod.

The free body diagram of the brake pedal, ABC, is:

Apply the equation of equilibrium MA = 0.


R = 10(2+10)/2 = 60 lb

R(d) P(d+e) = 0, R = P(d+e)/d

x-sectional area of brake rod = (3/16)2/4 = 0.0276 in2

The force in the brake rod is equal and opposite. So the normal stress in the brake rod is:
= - 60/0.0276 = - 2170 psi

Note: The brake rod is in compression.

(result)

Normal Strain/Shear Strain


Key Concepts: Normal strain is the change in length of a structural element divided by the
original length of the structural element. Shear strain is the change in angle (distortion)
between any two lines at a section of the structural element resulting from applied loads.
In a Nut Shell: Imagine an arbitrary structural member say in the shape of a flat ovular plate.
See the figure below. Before loading let an arbitrary material segment, AB, in the plate be of
length L. After loading the material segment may rotate and change length. Let the length of
the same material segment become A*B*, after loading be L*. Then the normal strain, , is
defined as
= ( L* - L)/L = normal strain
Common units of strain are in inches/inch, millimeters/millimeter, or microstrain

(dimensionless).
Normal strain is considered to be positive when the material segment becomes
longer and negative if it shortens (sign convention). Usually normal strains are
very small usually much less than 1.
| | << 1
Click here for an example of normal strain.
In a Nut Shell: Imagine the same arbitrary structural member. Before loading let AB be
an arbitrary material segment and AC be a reference line. Further let the angle between the
reference line and the material segment prior to loading be /2 radians. After loading the
material segment, AB, may change length and rotate relative to the reference line. Let the
angle between the material segment and the reference line be /2 - after loading.
Then the shear strain is . Shear strain is the change in angle in radians.
Shear strains will become important when analyzing twisting of torsional members.

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