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Stress is the force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it to change shape.[2]
Stress is a measure of the internal forces in a body between its particles.[2] These internal forces are a reaction to
the external forces applied on the body that cause it to separate, compress or slide. [2] External forces are
either surface forces or body forces. Stress is the average force per unit area that a particle of a body exerts on an
adjacent particle, across an imaginary surface that separates them.
The formula for uniaxial normal stress is:
1 Shear stress
2 Simple stresses
o
4 Related pages
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 Other websites
In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that neighboring particles of
a continuous materialexert on each other, while strain is the measure of the deformation of the material. For
example, when a solid vertical bar is supporting aweight, each particle in the bar pushes on the particles
immediately below it. When a liquid is in a closed container under pressure, each particle gets pushed against by all
the surrounding particles. The container walls and the pressure inducing surface (such as a piston), inreaction, push
against them. These macroscopic forces are actually the average of a very large number of intermolecular
forces andcollisions between the particles in those molecules.
Strain inside a material may arise by various mechanisms, such as stress as applied by external forces to the bulk
material (like gravity) or to its surface (like contact forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a
solid material generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring, that tends to restore
the material to its original non-deformed state. In liquids and gases, only deformations that change the volume
generate persistent elastic stress. However, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there
will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous stresses are usually combined
under the namemechanical stress.
Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent (a common assumption when
modeling the flow of water). Stress may exist in the absence of external forces; such built-in stress is important, for
example, in prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material without the
application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or chemical composition, or by
external electromagnetic fields (as in piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials).
The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and the rate of change of deformation can be quite
complicated, although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough. Stress
that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic
flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.
In some branches of engineering, the term stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal
force". For example, in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a
beam, rather than the force divided by the area of its cross-section.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Overview
3 Simple stress
4 General stress
5 Stress analysis
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
History[edit]
Since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials. Until the 17th century the
understanding of stress was largely intuitive and empirical; and yet it resulted in some surprisingly sophisticated
technology, like the composite bow and glass blowing. [1]
Over several millennia, architects and builders, in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood
beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious
devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas,trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.
Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper
sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools
were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo's rigorous experimental
method, Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus
of infinitesimals.[2] With those tools, Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for
stress in a homogeneous medium.[citation needed] Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear
function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum). [citation
needed]
The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a differential formula for friction forces
(shear stress) in parallellaminar flow.
Overview[edit]
Definition[edit]
Stress is defined as the average force per unit area that some particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle,
across an imaginary surface that separates them. [3]
Being derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a
fundamental quantity, like velocity, torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit
consideration of the nature of the material or of its physical causes.
Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. Namely, the particles
considered in its definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition
and state, but still large enough to ignore quantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force
between two particles is actually the average of a very large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and
physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity,
are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them.[4]:p.90106 Depending on the context, one may also assume that the
particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like the grains of a metal rod or
the fibers of a piece of wood.
The stress across a surface element (yellow disk) is the force that the material on one side (top ball) exerts on the material on
the other side (bottom ball), divided by the area of the surface.
Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector T defined as the traction force F between
adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating surface S, divided by the area of S.[5]:p.4150 In a fluid at
rest the force is perpendicular to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the
force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be regarded a vector quantity, not a
scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally depend on the orientation of S. Thus the stress state of the
material must be described by a tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates
the normal vector n of a surface S to the stress T across S. With respect to any chosen coordinate system, the
Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of 33 real numbers. Even within
a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the
stress within a material is, in general, a time-varying tensor field.
In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S can have any direction
relative to S. The vector Tmay be regarded as the sum of two components: the normal
stress (compression or tension) perpendicular to the surface, and the shear stress that is parallel to the surface.
If the normal unit vector n of the surface (pointing from Q towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can
be expressed by a single number, the dot product T n. This number will be positive if P is "pulling" on Q (tensile
stress), and negative if P is "pushing" against Q(compressive stress) The shear component is then the vector T
(T n)n.
Units[edit]
The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units
as pressure: namely, pascals (Pa, that is, newtons persquare metre) in the International System,
or pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system.
Glass vase with thecraquel effect. The cracks are the result of brief but intense stress created when the semi-molten piece is
briefly dipped in water.[6]
Stress in a material body may be due to multiple physical causes, including external influences and internal physical
processes. Some of these agents (like gravity, changes in temperature and phase, and electromagnetic fields) act
on the bulk of the material, varying continuously with position and time. Other agents (like external loads and
friction, ambient pressure, and contact forces) may create stresses and forces that are concentrated on certain
surfaces, lines, or points; and possibly also on very short time intervals (as in the impulses due to collisions). In
general, the stress distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space and time.
Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical
properties like birefringence,polarization, and permeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually
creates some strain (deformation) in the material, even if it is too small to be detected. In a solid material, such
strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to
restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials (liquids, gases and plasmas) by definition can
only oppose deformations that would change their volume. However, if the deformation is changing with time, even
in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change.
The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation,
can be quite complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small
enough). Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such
as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.
Simple stress[edit]
In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately be described by a single number, or by a single vector
(a number and a direction). Three such simple stresssituations, that are often encountered in engineering design,
are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear stress, and the isotropic normal stress.[7]
A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material and cross section, is
subjected to tensionby opposite forces of magnitude
changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the
top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force F. Therefore the stress throughout the bar, across
any horizontal surface, can be described by the number
On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force
(hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut.
This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple,
etc.) tensile stress.[7] If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except
that the force F and the stress
The ratio
may be only an average stress. The stress may be unevenly distributed over the cross section (mm),
This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-section. In practice, depending on how
the bar is attached at the ends and how it was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the
value
= F/A will be only the average stress, called engineering stress ornominal stress. However, if the bar's
length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed
to be uniformly distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times D from both ends. (This observation
is known as the Saint-Venant's principle).
Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform
and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be
normal (perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer part will be under tensile
stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that occurs on
the walls of a cylindrical pipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.
Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly
attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft
metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of ascissors-like tool. Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the
midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other
part with the same force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be
expressed by the single number
= F/A, where F is the magnitude of those forces and A is the area of the layer.
However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stress is directed parallel to the cross-section considered, rather
than perpendicular to it.[7] For any plane S that is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force across S, and
hence the stress, will be zero.
As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer;
so, as before, the ratio F/A will only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often
sufficient for practical purposes.[8]:p.292 Shear stress is observed also when a cylindrical bar such as a shaft is
subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the
cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and increases with distance from the axis. Significant
shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beams under bending loads, due to the web constraining the
end plates ("flanges").
Isotropic stress[edit]
Isotropic tensile stress. Top left: Each face of a cube of homogeneous material is pulled by a force with magnitude F, applied
evenly over the entire face whose area is A. The force across any section S of the cube must balance the forces applied below
the section. In the three sections shown, the forces are F (top right), F
area of S is A, A
and A
Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions.
This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a
larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal
perpendicular forces provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that
the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected.
In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always
directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be
called isotropic normal or justisotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or just pressure.
Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses, but liquids may withstand very small amounts of isotropic
tensile stress.
Cylinder stresses[edit]
Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the
stress patterns that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of such cylinder
stresses can take advantage of the symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor.
General stress[edit]
Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is called combined
stress. In normal and shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a
certain direction
surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the
sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress, the stress is nonzero across
every surface element.
Illustration of typical stresses (arrows) across various surface elements on the boundary of a particle (sphere), in a
homogeneous material under uniform (but not isotropic) triaxial stress. The normal stresses on the principal axes are +5, +2,
and 3 units.
Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is stressed in the same way
throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that
surface, in a non-trivial way.
However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector
surface's normal vector
function
, where the
satisfies
. The function
completely describes the stress state of a uniformly stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two
physical vector quantities is called atensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the "tensions" (stresses)
in a material.) In tensor calculus,
Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any chosen Cartesian coordinate
system by a 33 matrix of real numbers. Depending on whether the coordinates are numbered
named
or
or
The stress vector
a matrix product
with coordinates
is then
and
momentum and static equilibrium of forces, and is therefore mathematically exact, for any material and
any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy stress tensor at every point in a material satisfy the
equilibrium equations (Cauchys equations of motion for zero acceleration). Moreover, the principle
of conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is
,
, and
. Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can
be specified by only six independent parameters, rather than nine. These may be written
Change of coordinates[edit]
The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of
coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle of stress
distribution.
As a symmetric 33 real matrix, the stress tensor
length eigenvectors
, such that
are equal, the stress is an isotropic compression or tension, always perpendicular to any surface; if
there is no shear stress, the tensor is a diagonal matrix in any coordinate frame.
Man-made objects are often made from stock plates of various materials by operations that do not
change their essentially two-dimensional character, like cutting, drilling, gentle bending and welding
along the edges. The description of stress in such bodies can be simplified by modeling those parts
as two-dimensional surfaces rather than three-dimensional bodies.
In that view, one redefines a "particle" as being an infinitesimal patch of the plate's surface, so that
the boundary between adjacent particles becomes an infinitesimal line element; both are implicitly
extended in the third dimension, straight through the plate. "Stress" is then redefined as being a
measure of the internal forces between two adjacent "particles" across their common line element,
divided by the length of that line. Some components of the stress tensor can be ignored, but since
particles are not infinitesimal in the third dimension one can no longer ignore the torque that a
particle applies on its neighbors. That torque is modeled as a bending stressthat tends to change
the curvature of the plate. However, these simplifications may not hold at welds, at sharp bends and
creases (where the radius of curvature is comparable to the thickness of the plate).
The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform
(or smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and
twisting. For those bodies may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis,
and redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross
sections. The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but
one must take into account also a bending stress (that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some
direction perpendicular to the axis) and a torsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its
axis).
failing under normal stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related
properties, and non-Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.
Stress analysis[edit]
Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal
distribution of stresses in solid objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design
of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or
expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study
phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand
the anatomy of living beings.
Methods[edit]
Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to
scale model, and measuring the resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This
approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However, most stress analysis is
done by mathematical methods, especially during design.
The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated by Euler's equations of motion for continuous
bodies (which are consequences of Newton's laws for conservation of linear
momentum and angular momentum) and the Euler-Cauchy stress principle, together with the
appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system of partial differential
equations involving the stress tensor field and the strain tensor field, as unknown functions to be
determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the
differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic
stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem.
Stress analysis for elastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain
theory. When the applied loads cause permanent deformation, one must use more complicated
constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved (plastic
flow, fracture, phase change, etc.).
However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are
well within the range of linear elasticity (the generalization of Hookes law for continuous media);
that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly related to them. In this case the
differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the problem becomes much
easier. For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small
enough stresses, even non-linear systems can usually be assumed to be linear.
Simplified model of a truss for stress analysis, assuming unidimensional elements under uniform axial tension
or compression.
Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of loads allow the
structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis of trusses, for example, the
stress field may be assumed to be uniform and uniaxial over each member. Then the differential
equations reduce to a finite set of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other
contexts one may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one,
and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like uniaxial
tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
Still, for two- or three-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential equation problem.
Analytical or closed-form solutions to the differential equations can be obtained when the geometry,
constitutive relations, and boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally
resort to numerical approximations such as the finite element method, the finite difference method,
and the boundary element method.
Other useful stress measures include the first and second PiolaKirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot
stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor.
deformation gradient and strain tensors are described by relating the motion to the reference
configuration; thus not all tensors describing the state of the material are in either the reference or
current configuration. Describing the stress, strain and deformation either in the reference or current
configuration would make it easier to define constitutive models (for example, the Cauchy Stress
tensor is variant to a pure rotation, while the deformation strain tensor is invariant; thus creating
problems in defining a constitutive model that relates a varying tensor, in terms of an invariant one
during pure rotation; as by definition constitutive models have to be invariant to pure rotations). The
1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor,
tensors, which describe the configuration of the body in either the current or the reference state.
The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor,
where
In terms of components with respect to an orthonormal basis, the first PiolaKirchhoff stress is
given by
Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is a two-point
tensor. In general, it is not symmetric. The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is the 3D
generalization of the 1D concept of engineering stress.
If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of
the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor will vary with material orientation.
The 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient.
2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor[edit]
Whereas the 1st PiolaKirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas
in the reference configuration, the 2nd PiolaKirchhoff stress tensor
reference configuration to areas in the reference configuration. The force in the reference
configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the
force direction and the area normal in the reference configuration.
STRESS is the intensity of force inside a solid. The basic unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) which is Newton
per square metre. In engineering it is more convenient to measured as the force (N) per square mm. This
gives the common engineering unit of stress, MPa.
Property
Formula
Units
Example
kg / m3
Steel = 7800
MPa
varies
HRC55 (Rockwell
MPa
1020 Steel E = 20
J / m2
= Strain at yield
= (L2 - L1) / L1
1020 Steel: 25
v = ex / ey
1020 Steel v = 0
DEFINE
Formula
Shear Stress
Units
Diagram
MPa
MPa
GPa
Slope of Stress:Strain
diagram
G = S. Stress / S. Strain
GPa
Slope of
S.Stress:S.Strain
diagram
Shear Strain
Strain = movement /
original Depth
Shear in Detail:
Shear Strain is usually small
enough to ignore the changes in L
with angle.
Angle is in radians.
Area is the zone that would slide
apart assuming it broke in shear.
What is a Stress?
STRESS is the intensity of force inside a solid.
It has the same units as Pressure (Pa, kPa, MPa, etc), so you could think of stress as pressure in a solid.
The difference is, pressure acts equally in every direction, but stress has a certain direction.
Stress = Force/Area
The base unit for pressure and stress is the Pascal (Pa), but this is way too small for engineering use except perhaps when measuring the pressure of air conditioning ducts or something. Certainly nothing
compared to the stress required to break steel. In most engineering situations, the strength of a material
is measured in MPa (MegaPascals)
Worked Example 2: A block made of 40MPa concrete with dimensions as shown. What is the maximum
load (mass) it can support?
Worked Example 3: Tensile force of 1kN, with steel of UTS=750MPa and Factor of Safety of 2.5. What is
maximum force?
DIFFERENT SYMBOLS: Watch out for different symbols for stress. Ivanoff
(and some TAFE publications) use f but the rest of the world (internet and
other textbooks) use the Greek symbol sigma .
Any of these 3 types of stress are calculated the same way, with the same units - it the area that is
different. Always think of what area must be broken when the component fails (the broken area).
Fig. 1.
1.000 pounds, or ton. Notice that thisvaluehas nothing to do with thesizeof the crosssection on which the stress acts.
3. Kinds of Stress, (a) When the forces acting on a body (as a rope or rod) are such that
they tend to tear it, the stress at any cross-section is called a tension or a tensile stress.
The stresses P and Q, of Fig. 1, are tensile stresses. Stretched ropes, loaded "tie rods"
ofroofsand bridges, etc., are under tensile stress. (b.) "When the forces acting on a body
(as a shortpost,brick, etc.) are such that they tend to crush it, the stress at any section at
rightanglesto the direction of the crushing forces is called a pressure or a compres-sive
stress. Fig. 2 (a) represents a loaded post, and Fig. 2 (b) the upper and lower parts. The
upper part presses down on B, and the lower part presses up on A, as shown. P or Q is
the compressive stress in the post at section C. Loaded posts, or struts, piers, etc., are
under compressive stress.
(c.) When the forces acting on a body (as a rivet in a bridgejoint) are such that they tend
to cut or "shear" it across, the stress at a section along which there is a tendency to cut
is called a shear or a shearing stress. This kind of stress takes its name from the act of
cutting with a pair of shears. In amaterialwhich is being cut in this way, the stresses that
are being "overcome" are shearing stresses. Fig. 3 (a) represents ariveted joint, and Fig.
3 (b) two parts of the rivet. The forces applied to the joint are such that A tends to slide
to the left, and B to the right; then B exerts on A a force P toward the right, and A on B a
force Q toward the left as shown. P or Q is the shearing stress in the rivet.
Tensions, Compressions and Shears are called simple stresses. "Forces may act upon a
body so as to produce a combination of simple stresses on some section; such a
combination is called a complex stress. The stresses inbeamsare usually complex. There
are other terms used to describe stress; they will be defined farther on.
Fig. 2.
4. Unit=Stress. It is often necessary to specify not merely the amount of the entire stress
which acts on an area, but also the amount which acts on each unit of area (square inch
for example). By unit-stress is meant stress per unit area.
To find the value of a unit-stress: Divide the whole stress by the whole area of the section
on which it acts, or over which it is distributed. Thus, let
P denote the value of the whole stress,
A the area on which it acts, and
S the value of the unit-stress; then
S = P/A, also P = AS.
(I)
Strictly these formulas apply only when the stress P is uniform, that is, when it is
uniformly distributed over the area, each square inch for example sustaining the same
amount of stress. When the stress is not uniform, that is, when the stresses on different
square inches are not equal, then PA equals the average value of the unit-stress.
Fig. 3.
5. Unit-stresses are usually expressed (in America) in pounds per square inch, sometimes
in tons per square inch. If P and A in equation 1 are expressed in pounds and square
inches respectively, then S will be in pounds per square inch; and if P and A are
expressed in tons and square inches, S will be in tons per square inch.
Examples. 1. Suppose that the rod sustaining the load in Fig. 1 is 2 square inches in
cross-section, and that the load weighs l000 pounds. What is the value of the unitstress ?
Here P = 1,000 pounds, A= 2 square inches; hence.
S = 1,000/ 2 = 500 pounds per square inch.
2. Suppose that the rod is one-half square inch in cross-section. What is the value of the
unit-stress?
A = square inch, and, as before, P = 1,000 pounds; hence S = 1,000 = 2,000
pounds per square inch.
Notice that one must always divide the whole stress by the area to get the unit-stress,
whether the area is greater or less than one.
6. Deformation. "Whenever forces are applied to a body itchangesin size, and usually in
shape also. This change ofsizeand shape is called deformation. Deformations are usually
measured in inches; thus, if a rod is stretched 2 inches, the "elongation" = 2 inches.
Read more:http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Cyclopedia-Carpentry-Building-13/Strength-Of-Materials-Part-I-Simple-Stress.html#.VMeeu_6UfpU#ixzz3Q22lH4WC
Key Concepts: Normal stress can be viewed as force per unit area acting normal to an
internal section of a structural element, typically called a bar or an axial member.
In a Nut Shell: Definition of an Axial Member
A structure that is generally long in one direction (perhaps in the x-direction), straight,
and has a constant (or mildly tapered) cross-section is generally termed an axial
member. The cross-section of the axial member will have a centroid. The x-axis of the
axial member is assumed to lie along the centroid of each cross-section. Click here to
view a typical axial member.
Definition of Normal Stress in an Axial Member
The average normal stress. , in an axial member is the force, P, in the member divided
by its cross-sectional area, A.
= P/A
Common units for stress are psi, ksi,
(y,z) dA
Normal Stress
Example: Link AC has a uniform cross section in wide and 1/16 in thick. A smooth pin
connects the link to the rectangular plate at A. Smooth pins also are at C and B. A cord raps
around the smooth pulleys as shown. The tension in the cord, P, is 300 lb. Find the normal
stress midway along the link AC.
Strategy: Construct a free body diagrams of the plate and of link, AC. Use equilibrium to
find the force in the link. Then the normal stress in the link is just the force it carries divided
by the cross-sectional area of the link.
Normal Stress
Example: (continued)
- Ax(12) + 300(6) = 0
Ax = 150.0 lb
Note from statics that the link is a two-force member. So that it is either in tension or
in compression. In this case link AC carries a tensile force, R, directed along the link.
For equilibrium of link AC:
Fx = 0
- R cos(30) + 150.0 = 0
R = 173.2 lb
Normal Stress
*Example: While stopping a car the driver exerts a force, P, of 10 lb on the brake pedal at C
as shown below. The brake rod is pinned normal to the brake pedal ABC at B. d = 2 in. and
e = 10 in. The diameter of the brake rod is 3/16 in. Find the normal stress in brake rod BD.
Strategy: Construct a free body diagram of the brake pedal. Use equilibrium to find the
force exerted by the brake rod on the brake pedal. Then the normal stress in the brake
rod is just the force it carries divided by the cross-sectional area of the brake rod.
The force in the brake rod is equal and opposite. So the normal stress in the brake rod is:
= - 60/0.0276 = - 2170 psi
(result)
(dimensionless).
Normal strain is considered to be positive when the material segment becomes
longer and negative if it shortens (sign convention). Usually normal strains are
very small usually much less than 1.
| | << 1
Click here for an example of normal strain.
In a Nut Shell: Imagine the same arbitrary structural member. Before loading let AB be
an arbitrary material segment and AC be a reference line. Further let the angle between the
reference line and the material segment prior to loading be /2 radians. After loading the
material segment, AB, may change length and rotate relative to the reference line. Let the
angle between the material segment and the reference line be /2 - after loading.
Then the shear strain is . Shear strain is the change in angle in radians.
Shear strains will become important when analyzing twisting of torsional members.