PROBLEMS AND NOTES: UNIFORM CONVERGENCE AND

POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION
SAMEER CHAVAN

Abstract. These are the lecture notes prepared for the participants of IST
to be conducted at BP, Pune from 3rd to 15th November, 2014.

Contents
1. Pointwise and Uniform Convergence
2. Lebesgues Proof of Weierstrass Theorem
3. Bernsteins Theorem
4. Applications of Weierstrass Theorem
5. Stones Theorem and its Consequences
6. A Proof of Stones Theorem
7. M
untz-Sz
asz Theorem
8. Nowhere Differentiable Continuous Function
References

1
2
3
4
5
7
8
9
10

1. Pointwise and Uniform Convergence

Exercise 1.1 : Consider the function fn (x) = xn for x [0, 1]. Check that {fn }
converges pointwise to f, where f (x) = 0 for x [0, 1) and f (1) = 1.
Exercise 1.2 : Consider the function fm (x) = limn (cos(m!x))n for x R.
Verify the following:
(1) {fm } converges pointwise to f, where f (x) = 0 if x R \ Q, and f (x) = 1
for x Q.
(2) f is discontinuous everywhere, and hence non-integrable.
Remark 1.3 : If f is pointwise limit of a sequence of continuous functions then
the set of continuties of f is everywhere dense [1, Pg 115].
Consider the vector space B[a, b] of bounded function from [a, b] into C. Let fn , f
be such that fn f B[a, b]. A sequence {fn } converges uniformly to f if
kfn f k := sup |fn (x) f (x)| 0 as n .
x[a,b]

SAMEER CHAVAN

Theorem 1.4. Let {fn } be a sequence of continuous functions. If {fn } converges

uniformly to f on [a, b] then f is continuous. Moreover,
Z b
Z b
fn (x)dx =
f (x)dx.
lim
n

Proof. Let N 1 be such that kfN f k < /3. Recall that fN is uniformly
continuous on [a, b], that is, for some , |fN (x) fN (y)| < /3 whenever |x y| < .
Finally, for all x, y such that |x y| < ,
|f (x) f (y)|

|f (x) fN (x)| + |fN (x) fN (y)| + |fN (y) f (y)|

kfN f k + /3 + kfN f k

/3 + /3 + /3.

The remaining part follows from
Z b
Z b
|
fn (x)dx
f (x)dx| kfn f k (b a).
a

Thats the end of the proof.

Corollary 1.5. Let P = {f B[a, b] : {pn } such that kpn f k 0}. Then P
is contained in C[a, b].
A remarkable result of Weierstrass asserts indeed that P = C[a, b]. In particular,
any continuous function on [a, b] can be approximated uniformly by a sequence of
polynomials.
Theorem 1.6. For any f C[a, b], there exists a sequence {pn } of polynomials
such that kf pn k 0 as n .
There are several proofs of different flavors of this great theorem (apart from
Weierstrass original proof). Perhaps the most elementary proof is due to Lebesgue
(which relies on the conclusion of Weierstrass theorem for the function |x|). A
constructive proof is due to Bernstein (which relies on a Chebyshevs version of
Bernoullis law of large numbers). We will also discuss two remarkable generalizations of Weierstrass Theorem: Stones Theorem and M
untz-Szaszs Theorem.
Exercise 1.7 : Let {pn } be a sequence of polynomials of degree dn . Suppose that
kpn f k 0 as n for some continuous function f C[a, b]. If f is not a
polynomial then dn as n .
Hint. The subspace of polynomials of degree at most d is finite-dimensional,
and hence closed in C[a, b].
2. Lebesgues Proof of Weierstrass Theorem
Exercise 2.1 : Consider the function fn (x) = nx(1 x2 )n for x [0, 1]. Verify:
(1) {fn } converges pointwise to f, where f (x) = 0 for all x [0, 1].
R1
R1
(2) limn 0 fn (x)dx 6= 0 f (x)dx, and hence {fn } can not converge uniformly to f.
Here is a partial converse to Theorem 1.4.

UNIFORM CONVERGENCE AND POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION

Theorem 2.2. Let {fn } be a sequence in C[a, b] converging pointwise to a continuous function f. If {fn (x)} decreasing for all x [a, b] then {fn } converges uniformly
to f.
Proof. Let gn := fn f 0. For  > 0, consider the closed subset Kn := {x
[a, b] : gn (x) } of [a, b]. Since gn gn+1 , Kn+1 Kn . In particular, finite
intersection of Kn s is non-empty if every Kn is non-empty. If x [a, b] then
since gn (x) 0, x
/ Kn for sufficiently large n. If each Kn is non-empty then we
must have
K
n=1 n 6= (Exercise), and hence KN is empty for some N. That is,
0 gn (x) <  for n N.

Here is an important special case of Weierstrass Theorem.
Corollary 2.3. Define a sequence {pn } of polynomials by p0 (x) = 0, and
pn+1 (x) := pn (x) + (x pn (x)2 )/2 (n 0).
If qn (x) := pn (x2 ) then the {qn } converges uniformly to f (x) = |x| on [1, 1].

Proof. Let y = 1x2 (x [1, 1]) then f (x)

= 1 y for y [0, 1]. Thus it suffices
to check that {pn }
converges uniformly to x on [0, 1]. One may verify inductively
that 0 pn (x) x for x [0, 1]. It follows that pn (x) pn+1 (x)
for all n 0
and all x [0, 1]. In particular, {pn (x)} converges pointwise to x. Now apply
Theorem 2.2 to fn := pn .

Exercise 2.4 : Show that the function g : R R given by
g(x)

0 for x 0,

= x for x 0.
Show that for any positive number , g can be uniformly approximated by polynomials on [, ].
Hint. Note that g(x) = 21 (x + |x|).
Lebesgues Proof of Weierstrass Theorem. Since f is uniformly continuous on [a, b],
there exists a positive integer N such that |f (x) f (y)| < /2 whenever |x y| <
1/N. For xi := a + (b a)(i/N ) (i = 0, , N ), consider the function h(x) with
graph a polygon of vertices at
(a, f (a)), (x1 , f (x1 )), , (xn1 , f (xn1 )), (b, f (b)).
Check that kf gk /2. On the other hand,
h(x) = f (a) +

N
1
X

ci g(x xi ) (x [a, b])

i=0

for some scalars c0 , , cN 1 . The result now follows from Exercise 3.2.

3. Bernsteins Theorem
For f C[0, 1], define the nth Bernstein polynomial Bn (f ) by
 
n
X
n k
Bn (f )(x) :=
f (k/n)
x (1 x)nk (x [0, 1], n 1).
k
k=0

Remark 3.1 : Bn (1) = 1 (Probability distribution) and Bn (nt) = nx (Mean of

the distribution), and Bn (n2 t2 ) = n(n 1)x2 + nx (Variance of the distribution).

SAMEER CHAVAN

Exercise 3.2 : If gn (x) :=

that kgn k 1/4n.

Pn

2 n
k=0 (x k/n) k

xk (1 x)nk (x [0, 1]) then verify

Hint. Use Remark 3.1.

Theorem 3.3. If f C[0, 1] then kBn f f k 0 as n .
Remark 3.4 : Since (x) = (1 x)a + xb is a homeomorphism from [0, 1] onto
[a, b], Weierstrass Theorem follows from Bernsteins theorem.
The proof of Bernsteins Theorem depends on the following variant of Bernoullis
law of large numbers due to Chebyshev.
Lemma 3.5. Given > 0 and x [0, 1], let F denote the set
F := {k N : 0 k n such that |k/n x| }.
Then, for every x [0, 1],
X n
k

kF

xk (1 x)nk

1
.
4n 2
2

Proof. Note that for any x [0, 1] and k F, |k/nx|

1. It follows that
2




X n
1 X
k
nk
2 n
x (1 x)

(k/n x)
xk (1 x)nk
k
2
k
kF
kF
 
n
1 X
2 n

(k/n

x)
xk (1 x)nk .
2
k
k=0

The desired estimate follows from Exercise 3.2.

Proof of Bernsteins Theorem. Since f is uniformly continuous, there exists an integer N 1 such that |f (x) f (y)| < /2 whenever |x y| < = 1/N. Let us
estimate kBn (f ) f k . Let F be as in Lemma 3.5, and note that


 
n
X

n k

nk 
|Bn (f )(x) f (x)| =  (f (k/n) f (x))
x (1 x)



k
k=0


X
n k

|f (k/n) f (x)|
x (1 x)nk
k
kF
 
X
n k
+
|f (k/n) f (x)|
x (1 x)nk
k
kF
/

2kf k
+ /2,
4n 2

where we used Remark 3.1. Choose now an integer n 1 so that

note that kBn (f ) f k < .

kf k
n 2

< , and


4. Applications of Weierstrass Theorem

Exercise 4.1 : Use Weierstrass Theorem to show that C[a, b] is separable.

UNIFORM CONVERGENCE AND POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION

Exercise 4.2 : For 0 x < y 1, consider the indicator function [x,y] : [0, 1]
R. Show that there exists a sequence {pn } of polynomials such that
Z 1
|pn (x) [x,y] (x)|dx 0 as n .
0

Conclude that finite linear combination of indicator functions of subintervals of

[0, 1] can be approximated uniformly by polynomials.
Hint. Approximate [x,y] by continuous functions in the L1 norm.
Rb
Exercise 4.3 : Let f C[a, b] be such that a tn f (t)dt = 0 for all non-negative
integers n. Show that f (t) = 0 for every t [a, b].
Hint. Get a sequence {pn } such that kpn f k 0, and apply Theorem 1.4.
Exercise 4.4 : Let f : [a, b] R be a continuouly differentiable function. Show
that there exists a sequence {rn } of polynomials such that
krn f k 0 and krn0 f 0 k 0 as n .
Conclude that C 1 [a, b] is separable with norm kf k := kf k + kf 0 k .
0
Hint. Let g(x) = f (x) f (a) and note that g 0 =
n } of
R xf . Find a sequence {q
0
polynomials such that kqn g k 0. Set pn (x) := a qn (t)dt. Note that p0n = qn ,
and hence kp0n g 0 k 0. Also,

Z x
Z x


qn (t)dt
g 0 (t)dt (b a)kqn g 0 k .
|pn (x) g(x)| = 
a

Let rn (x) := pn (x) + f (a).

Exercise 4.5 : Let f : [a, b] R be a Riemann-integrable function. Show that
there exists a sequence {pn } of polynomials such that
Z b
|pn (x) f (x)|2 dx 0 as n .
a

Hint. Approximate any Riemann-integrable function by a continuous function,

and then apply Weierstrass Theorem.
Exercise 4.6 : Let K be a compact subset of Rn and let A be a subalgebra of
C(K). If f A then show that |f | A , where |f |(x) = |f (x)|.
Hint. Let a := supxK |f (x)| and let  > 0. Let p : [a, a] R be a polynomial
such that kp |t|k < . Since p(f ) A , we must have
sup |p(f )(x) |f (x)|| < .
xK

5. Stones Theorem and its Consequences

Recall that the Weierstrass Theorem says that P = C[a, b]. It is interesting to
note that P is an algebra which enjoys the following properties: If x 6= y [a, b]
then trivially id(x) 6= id(y), and if x [a, b] then 1(x) 6= 0, where id(x) = x and
1(x) = 1. It turns out these properties of subalgebras A of C[a, b] ensure that

SAMEER CHAVAN

A = C[a, b]. This remarkable fact was first discovered by Stone in much more
generality.
Theorem 5.1. Let K be a compact subset of Kn , where K is either R or C. Let A
be an algebra of continuous functions f : K R with the following properties:
(1) If x 6= y K, then there exists f A such that f (x) 6= f (y).
(2) For every x K, there exists f A such that f (x) 6= 0.
Then A = CR (K).
Before we present a proof of Stones Theorem, it is advisable to understand it
through its wide range of applications/consequences.
Exercise 5.2 : For positive integer n, consider the polynomial subalgebra A of
CR [0, 1] generated by 1 and xn . Show that A = CR [0, 1].
Exercise 5.3 : Show that the algebra P of analytic polynomials on the closed unit
D satisfies assumptions of Theorem 5.1, however, P ( C(D). What goes wrong ?
Hint. z belongs to C(D) but z
/ P.
Corollary 5.4. Let K be a compact subset of Kn . Let A be an algebra of continuous
functions f : K C with the following properties:
(1) If x 6= y K, then there exists f A such that f (x) 6= f (y).
(2) For every x K, there exists f A such that f (x) 6= 0.
(3) For every f A , f A , where f (x) = f (x).
Then A = C(K).
Proof. Let AR denote the algebra functions in A which are real-valued, and let
<A be the set of real parts of functions in A . Since <f := (f + f )/2 A for
every f A , <A = AR . Check that AR satisfies (1) and (2) of Theorem 5.1.
Thus every real-valued continuous function on K can be uniformly approximated
by polynomials. Since A is an algebra, A = C(K).

Exercise 5.5 : Show that the trigonometric polynomials are dense in C(T), where
T stands for the unit circle.
Exercise 5.6 : Let f : T R be a continuous function such that f(n) :=
R 2
f (ei )ein d = 0 for all n Z. Show that f is identically 0.
0
Hint. Use the last exercise.
Exercise 5.7 : For an integer n 1, consider the polynomial subalgebra A of
C[a, b] generated by x. If 0
/ [a, b] then show that A = C[a, b].
Corollary 5.8. Let A be as in Theorem 5.1 except that (2) is not given. If f A
whenever f A , then there exists a K such that A = {f C(K) : f (a) = 0}.
Proof. If (2) does not hold true then there exists a K such that f (a) = 0 for
every f A , that is, A {f C(K) : f (a) = 0}. Since {f C(K) : f (a) = 0} is
closed in C(K), we must have A {f C(K) : f (a) = 0}. Now let f C(K) be
such that f (a) = 0. By Stones Theorem, the algebra B generated by A and 1 is
dense in C(K). Thus there exists a sequence {fn } in B such that kfn f k 0

UNIFORM CONVERGENCE AND POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION

as n . Note that fn = gn + n for gn A . Also, fn (a) f (a) = 0, and hence

n 0. It follows that kgn f k kfn f k + |n | 0 as n .

Exercise 5.9 : Let A := {x2 p(x) : p is a polynomial}. Show that
A = {f C[0, 1] : f (0) = 0}.
Exercise 5.10 : Show that the subalgebra A := {p(x2 ) : p is a polynomial} is not
dense in C[1, 1].
Hint. If possible then there exists sequence {pn } of polynomials such that
kpn (x2 ) xk 0 as n . In particular,
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
2
pn (x2 )dx =
pn (x2 )dx
xdx = 0.
1

However,

R1
0

pn (x )dx

R1
0

xdx = 1, which is absurd.

Exercise 5.11 : Show that for any a > 0, A := {p(|x|) : p is a polynomial} is not
dense in C[a, a].
Corollary 5.12. Let f C(K) be such that f (x) > 0 for all x K. Let A be a
subalgebra of C(K) that contains f. If f is injective then A = C(K).
Proof. Note that f A satisfies (1) and (2) of Stones Theorem.

Remark 5.13 : Let X = [a, b]. Consider the algebra A of functions of the form
p(f ), where p is a polynomial such that p(0) = 0. The last corollary is applicable
to f (x) = x for > 0, f (x) = ex , f (x) = 1/x if 0
/ [a, b].
6. A Proof of Stones Theorem
We start with some elementary properties of subalgebras of CR (K).
Exercise 6.1 : Let A be a subalgebra of CR (K). If f1 , , fk A then so are
max{f1 , , fk } and min{f1 , , fk }.
Hint. max{f1 , f2 } =
induction.

f1 +f2
2

|f1 f2 |
2

A by Exercise 4.6. Now apply finite

Lemma 6.2. Under the assumptions of Theorem 5.1, for distinct points x1 , x2 of
K and (real) scalars c1 , c2 , there exists f A such that f (x1 ) = c1 and f (x2 ) = c2 .
Proof. By assumptions there exist g, h, k A such that g(x1 ) 6= g(x2 ) and h(x1 ) 6=
0 6= h(x2 ). Then u := (g g(x1 ))k and v := (g g(x2 )h belong to A , and f :=
c1 v
c2 u

v(x1 ) + u(x2 ) does the job.
Proof of Stones Theorem. Fix x K and  > 0. For x and every y K, by the
preceding lemma, there exists fy A such that fy (x) = f (x) and fy (y) = f (y).
Note that fy f is continuous such that (fy f )(x) = 0. Thus there exists an open
neighbourhood Uy of y such that fy (t) f (t) >  for every t Uy . Now {Uy } is an
open cover of K and K is compact. Thus, for some y1 , , yk K, K ki=1 Uyi .
Also, for gx := max{fy1 , , fyk } A (Exercise 6.1) and
(6.1)

gx (t) > f (t)  for every t K.

SAMEER CHAVAN

Now we vary x. Note that gx (x) = max{fy1 (x), , fyk (x)} = f (x). Hence, by the
continuity of gx , there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x such that gx (t)f (t) <
 for every t Vx . Now {Vx } is an open cover of K and K is compact. Thus, for
some x1 , , xl K, K li=1 Vxi . Also, for h := min{gx1 , , gxl } A and
h(t) < f (t) +  for every t K.
Also, by (6.1), h(t) > f (t) +  for every t K. That is, kh f k < .

ntz-Sza
sz Theorem
7. Mu
In this section, we see another remarkable generalization of Weierstrass Theorem, which relates the topological property of density of polynomials with divergence of certain Harmonic series of positive scalars.
Theorem 7.1. Suppose 0 < 1 < 2 <P . Then the closed linear span of

{1, t1 , t2 , } equals C[0, 1] if and only if k=1 1k = .

Remark 7.2 : The choice k = k gives the conclusion of Weierstrass Theorem.
Note that for any
l 1, the closed linear span of {1, tl , tl+1 , } equals
Pinteger

1
C[0, 1] provided k=1 k = .
Corollary 7.3. The closed linear span of the constant function 1 and monomials
{tp : p is a prime number} equals C[0, 1].
P
Proof. This follows from the fact that p 1/p = , where the sum is taken over
the set of prime numbers.

Corollary 7.4. Suppose 0 < 1 < 2 < . Then
Pthe closed linear span of
{t1 , t2 , } equals {f C[0, 1] : f (0) = 0} provided k=1 1k = .
Proof. Clearly, the closed linear span of {t1 , t2 , } is contained in {f C[0, 1] :
f (0) = 0}. Let f C[0, 1] be such that f (0) = 0. Then, by M
untz-Szasz Theorem,
there exists a sequence {pn } in the closed linear span of {1, t1 , t2 , } such that
kpn f k 0 as n . But then pn (0) f (0) = 0, and hence qn (t) :=
pn (t) pn (0) in the linear span of {t1 , t2 , } converges uniformly to f.

We will only sketch the outline of the proof of the sufficiency part. Let us first
collect all the ingredients required for a proof of M
untz-Szasz Theorem.
Lemma 7.5. Let M be a closed subspace of C[0, 1]. If M 6= C[0, 1] then there exists
a non-zero bounded linear map : C[0, 1] C such that (f ) = 0 for every f M .
Proof. Let f C[0, 1] \ M and let Y = M + {f : C}. Define (g + f ) =
d (f, M ) for g M and C. Clearly, = 0 on M and (f ) = d (f, M ) > 0.
The desired conclusion now follows from Hanh-Banach Extension Theorem.

RLemma 7.6. Every bounded linear map : C[0, 1] C is given by (f ) =
f (t)d(t) for a complex Borel measure on [0, 1].
[0,1]
Lemma 7.7. If f is bounded
Pholomorphic function defined on the open unit disc D
with zeros 1 , 2 , then n=1 (1 |n |) = implies that f (z) = 0 for all z D.

UNIFORM CONVERGENCE AND POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION

Proof of M
untz-Sz
asz Theorem. Suppose there exists a bounded linear map :
C[0, 1] C such that (f ) = 0 for every
f M. By Lemma 7.6, for some complex
R
Borel measure on [0, 1], (tk ) = [0,1] tk d(t) = 0 for every positive integer k.
In view of Lemma 7.5, it suffices
R to check that = 0. By Weierstrass Theorem, it
suffices to check that (tk ) = [0,1] tk d(t) = 0 for every positive integer k.
We now define a function g on the open right half plane H by setting
Z
g(z) =
ez log t d(t) (z H).
(0,1]
z log t

log t<z

Since |e
|=e
1 for all z H and t (0, 1], by the dominated convergence theorem, g is continuous on H. By theorems of Fubini and Morera, it is easily
seen that g is holomorphic in H such that g(k ) = 0 for every integer k 1.
Recall that the zeros of any non-zero holomorphic function on a connected domain are isolated. If {k } is a bounded sequence then by the Identity Theorem,



1+z
,
g = 0. So suppose that k as k . Define h : D C by h(z) = g 1z


k 1
and note that h is a bounded holomorphic function such that g k +1 = 0 for every

P
P 
P
1
integer k 1. Also, since k=0 1k = , n=1 1 kk 1
n=1 k +1 = .
+1 = 2

By Lemma 7.7, we must have h = 0, and hence g = 0. It follows that g(k) = 0, and
therefore (tk ) = 0 for every integer k 1.

We separate out one important technique employed in the preceding proof, which
can be used to prove many approximation results (e.g. Stones Theorem).
Exercise 7.8 : Let S be a subset of
R C(K). Show that S = C(K) if and only
if
for
any
complex
Borel
measure,
f (t)d(t) = 0 for every f S implies
K
R
f
(t)d(t)
=
0
for
every
f

C(K).
K
Hint. Use Lemmas 7.5 and 7.6.
8. Nowhere Differentiable Continuous Function
By Weierstrass Theorem, any continuous function on [0, 1] is a uniform limit of
infinitely differentiable functions. It is quite striking that there exists a nowhere
differentiable continuous function on [0, 1]. In particular, uniform limit of infinitely
real differentiable functions could be nowhere differentiable.
Theorem 8.1. Let (x) = |x| for x [1, 1], which is extended periodically (with
period 2) to R by setting (x + 2) = (x) (x R). Then the function f : R R
given by
 n
X
3
f (x) =
(4n x)
4
n=0
is continuous. However, for every x R, there exists a sequence {m } converging
to 0 such that
|(f (x + m ) f (x))/m | as m .
Proof. Clearly, is a continuous function such that 0 (x) 1 (x R). Also,


k  n
 n
 n


X
X
X
3
3
3

n 
n
(4 x)
(4 x)
0.
f (x)


4
4
4
n=0
n=k+1

n=k+1

10

SAMEER CHAVAN

n
Pk
Thus, n=0 34 (4n x) converges uniformly to f on R, and hence f is continuous.
Let x R and let m be a positive integer. Set m = 12 4m , where the sign is
so chosen that no integer lies between 4m x and 4m x + m . Define
n := ((4n (x + m )) (4n x))/m .
If n > m then (4n (x + m )) = (4n x + 4nm /2) = (4n x), and hence n = 0.
Note that |m | = 4m . When 0 n < m,
|4n m |
||4n (x + m )| |4n x||

= 4n .
|m |
|m |
Now we complete the argument. Note that
 
 


 n
m  n
 n
 X
 m1

X
3
3
 
 X 3

m
n  = 
n  = 
n + 3 
|(f (x + m ) f (x))/m | = 
 
 


4
4
4
|n | =

n=0

n=0

3m

m1
X
n=0

3n =

n=0

1 m
(3 + 1),
2

which blows up as m .


References

[1] R. Boas, A Primer of Real Functions, The mathematical association of America, 1981.
[2] J. Burkill, Lectures on Approximation by Polynomials, Lecture Notes, Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Bombay, 1959.
[3] N. Carothers, Real Analysis, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000.
[4] W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1976.
[5] W. Rudin, Real and Complex Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, 1987.