Creating Gratitude 3

Psychology is the study of mind and behavior.
[1][2] It is an academic discipline

and an applied science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by esta
blishing general principles and researching specific cases.[3][4] In this field,
a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be c
lassified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt
to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, w
hile also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cog
nitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion
, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behav
ior, and interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family
resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also conside
r the unconscious mind.[5] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causa
l and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, o
r in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, someespecially cli
nical and counseling psychologistsat times rely upon symbolic interpretation and
other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[6]
with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the socia
l sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities, and philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment o
f mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving
problems in many different spheres of human activity. By many accounts psycholog
y ultimately aims to benefit society.[7][8] The majority of psychologists are in
volved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or
school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related t
o mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology dep
artments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals).
Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[
9] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well a
s in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Beginning of experimental psychology
2.2 Disciplinary consolidation
2.3 Behaviorism
2.4 Psychoanalysis
2.5 Existential-humanistic theories
2.6 Cognitive revolution
3 Subfields
3.1 Biological
3.2 Clinical
3.3 Cognitive
3.4 Comparative
3.5 Developmental
3.6 Educational and school
3.7 Evolutionary
3.8 Industrialorganizational
3.9 Personality
3.10 Social
3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
4.2 Controlled experiments
4.3 Survey questionnaires
4.4 Longitudinal studies
6
7
8
4.5 Observation in natural settings

4.6 Qualitative and descriptive research
4.7 Neuropsychological methods
4.8 Computational modeling
4.9 Animal studies
Criticism
5.1 Replication crisis
5.2 Theory
5.3 Practice
5.4 Ethical standards
5.5 Systemic bias
See also
References
7.1 Sources
External links
Etymology
The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or sou
l ( ps kh, "breath, spirit, so l" and - -i, "study f" r "reserch").[10] The
rd psychi ws first used by the Crtin humnist nd Ltinist Mrk Mru
i in his bk, Psichii de rtine nime humne in the te 15th century r
ery 16th century.[11] The eriest knwn reference t the wrd psychy in
Enish ws by Steven Bnkrt in 1694 in The Physic Dictinry which refers
t "Antmy, which trets the Bdy, nd Psychy, which trets f the Su."[1
2]
Histry
Min rtice: Histry f psychy
The ncient civiiztins f Eypt, Greece, Chin, Indi, nd Persi ened
in the phisphic study f psychy. Histrins nte tht Greek phisphe
rs, incudin Thes, Pt, nd Aristte (especiy in his De Anim tretise)
,[13] ddressed the wrkins f the mind.[14] As ery s the 4th century BC, Gr
eek physicin Hippcrtes therized tht ment disrders hd physic rther th
n superntur cuses.[15]
In Chin, psychic understndin rew frm the phisphic wrks f Lzi
nd Cnfucius, nd ter frm the dctrines f Buddhism. This bdy f knwede
invves insihts drwn frm intrspectin nd bservtin, s we s techniqu
es fr fcused thinkin nd ctin. It frmes the universe s divisin f, nd
interctin between, physic reity nd ment reity, with n emphsis n p
urifyin the mind in rder t increse virtue nd pwer. An ncient text knwn
s The Yew Emperr's Cssic f Intern Medicine identifies the brin s the
nexus f wisdm nd senstin, incudes theries f persnity bsed n yinyn
bnce, nd nyzes ment disrder in terms f physiic nd sci diseq
uiibri. Chinese schrship fcused n the brin dvnced in the Qin Dynsty
with the wrk f Western-educted Fn Yizhi (16111671), Liu Zhi (16601730), nd W
n Qinren (17681831). Wn Qinren emphsized the imprtnce f the brin s th
e center f the nervus system, inked ment disrder with brin diseses, inve
stited the cuses f drems nd insmni, nd dvnced thery f hemispheric
teriztin in brin functin.[16]
Distinctins in types f wreness pper in the ncient thuht f Indi, infu
enced by Hinduism. A centr ide f the Upnishds is the distinctin between
persn's trnsient mundne sef nd their etern unchnin su. Diverent Hi
ndu dctrines, nd Buddhism, hve chened this hierrchy f seves, but hve
emphsized the imprtnce f rechin hiher wreness. Y is rne f t
echniques used in pursuit f this . Much f the Snskrit crpus ws suppress
ed under the British Est Indi Cmpny fwed by the British Rj in the 1800s
. Hwever, Indin dctrines infuenced Western thinkin vi the Thesphic Sc
iety, New Ae rup which becme ppur mn Eur-Americn inteectus.[17
]
Psychy ws ppur tpic in Enihtenment Eurpe. In Germny, Gttfried Wi
hem Leibniz (16461716) ppied his principes f ccuus t the mind, ruin
tht ment ctivity tk pce n n indivisibe cntinuummst ntby, tht m
n n infinity f humn perceptins nd desires, the difference between cnsciu
s nd uncnscius wreness is ny mtter f deree. Christin Wff identifi
ed psychy s its wn science, writin Psychi empiric in 1732 nd Psych
i rtinis in 1734. This ntin dvnced further under Immnue Knt, wh
estbished the ide f nthrpy, with psychy s n imprtnt subdivisi
n. Hwever, Knt expicity nd ntriusy rejected the ide f experiment p
sychy, writin tht "the empiric dctrine f the su cn s never ppr
ch chemistry even s systemtic rt f nysis r experiment dctrine, fr
in the mnifd f inner bservtin cn be seprted ny by mere divisin in
thuht, nd cnnt then be hed seprte nd recmbined t wi (but sti ess
des nther thinkin subject suffer himsef t be experimented upn t suit u
r purpse), nd even bservtin by itsef redy chnes nd dispces the st
te f the bserved bject." Hvin cnsuted phisphers Ger Friedrich Wihe
m Hee nd Jhnn Friedrich Herbrt, in 1825 the Prussin stte estbished psy
chy s mndtry discipine in its rpidy expndin nd hihy infuenti
eductin system. Hwever, this discipine did nt yet embrce experimentti
n.[18] In Ennd, ery psychy invved phreny nd the respnse t sc
i prbems incudin chism, vience, nd the cuntry's we-pputed me
nt syums.[19]
Beinnin f experiment psychy
Wihem Wundt (seted) with ceues in his psychic brtry, the firs
t f its kind.
Gustv Fechner ben cnductin psychy reserch in Leipzi in the 1830s, stu
dyin psychphysics nd rticutin the principe tht humn perceptin f st
imuus vries rithmicy ccrdin t its intensity.[20] Fechner's 1950 Ee
ments f Psychphysics chened Knt's stricture inst quntittive study f
the mind.[18] In Heideber, Hermnn vn Hemhtz cnducted pre reserch
n sensry perceptin, nd trined physiist Wihem Wundt. Wundt, in turn, c
me t Leipzi University, estbishin the psychic brtry which bru
ht experiment psychy t the wrd. Wundt fcused n brekin dwn ment p
rcesses int the mst bsic cmpnents, mtivted in prt by n ny t rece
nt dvnces in chemistry, nd its successfu investitin f the eements nd s
tructure f mteri.[21] Pu Fechsi nd Emi Krepein sn creted nther
infuenti psychy brtry t Leipzi, this ne fcused n mre n experi
ment psychitry.[18]
Psychists in Germny, Denmrk, Austri, Ennd, nd the United Sttes sn
fwed Wundt in settin up brtries.[22] G. Stney H wh studied with
Wundt, frmed psychy b t Jhns Hpkins University in Mrynd, which be
cme interntiny infuenti. H, in turn, trined Yujir Mtr, wh bru
ht experiment psychy, emphsizin psychphysics, t the Imperi Universi
ty f Tky.[23] Wundt ssistnt Hu Mnsterber tuht psychy t Hrvrd t
students such s Nrendr Nth Sen Guptwh, in 1905, funded psychy deprt
ment nd brtry t the University f Ccutt.[17] Wundt students Wter Di
Sctt, Lihtner Witmer, nd Jmes McKeen Ctte wrked n devepin tests f
r ment biity. Cte, wh s studied with euenicist Frncis Gtn, went
n t fund the Psychic Crprtin. Wittmer fcused n ment testin f
chidren; Sctt, n seectin f empyees.[24]
Anther student f Wundt, Edwrd Titchener, creted the psychy prrm t C
rne University nd dvnced dctrine f "structurist" psychy. Structur
ism suht t nyze nd cssify different spects f the mind, primriy th
ruh the methd f intrspectin.[25] Wiim Jmes, Jhn Dewey nd Hrvey Crr
dvnced mre expnsive dctrine ced functinism, ttuned mre t humnen

virnment ctins. In 1890 Jmes wrte n infuenti bk, The Principes f Ps
ychy, which expnded n the rem f structurism, memrby described the
humn "strem f cnsciusness", nd interested mny Americn students in the em
erin discipine.[26][27][25] Dewey interted psychy with sci issues, m
st ntby by prmtin the cuse prressive eductin t ssimite immirnt
s nd incucte mr vues in chidren.[28]
A different strin f experimentism, with mre cnnectin t physiy, emer
ed in Suth Americ, under the edership f Hrci G. Pier t the University
f Buens Aires.[29] Russi, t, pced reter emphsis n the biic bsis
fr psychy, beinnin with Ivn Sechenv's 1873 essy, "Wh Is t Devep P
sychy nd Hw?" Sechenv dvnced the ide f brin refexes nd ressive
y prmted deterministic (cntr free wi) viewpint n humn behvir.[30]
Wfn Kher, Mx Wertheimer nd Kurt Kffk c-funded the sch f Gestt
psychy (nt t be cnfused with the Gestt therpy f Fritz Pers). This
pprch is bsed upn the ide tht individus experience thins s unified wh
es. Rther thn brekin dwn thuhts nd behvir int smer eements, s i
n structurism, the Gesttists mintined tht whe f experience is imprtn
t, n differs frm the sum f its prts. Other 19th-century cntributrs t the
fied incude the Germn psychist Hermnn Ebbinhus, pineer in the exper
iment study f memry, wh deveped quntittive mdes f ernin nd fre
ttin t the University f Berin,[31] nd the Russin-Sviet physiist Ivn
Pvv, wh discvered in ds ernin prcess tht ws ter termed "cssic
cnditinin" nd ppied t humn beins.[32]
Discipinry cnsidtin
One f the eriest psychy scieties ws L Scit de Psychie Physiique
in Frnce, which sted 18851893. The first meetin f the Interntin Cnres
s f Psychy tk pce in Pris, in Auust 1889, midst the Wrd's Fir ce
ebrtin the centenni f the French Revutin. Wiim Jmes ws ne f three
Americns mn the fur hundred ttendees. The Americn Psychic Asscit
in ws funded sn fter, in 1892. The Interntin Cnress cntinued t be
hed, t different ctins in Eurpe, with wider interntin prticiptin.
The Sixth Cnress, Genev 1909, incuded presenttins in Russin, Chinese, nd
Jpnese, s we s Espernt. After hitus fr Wr Wr I, the Seventh Cnr
ess met in Oxfrd, with substntiy reter prticiptin frm the wr-victri
us An-Americns. In 1929, the Cnress tk pce t Ye University in New
Hven, Cnnecticut, ttended by hundreds f members f the Americn Psychic
Asscitin[22] Tky Imperi University ed the wy in brinin the new psyc
hy t the Est, nd frm Jpn these ides diffused int Chin.[23][16]
Ery prctitiners f experiment psychy distinuished themseves frm pr
psychy, which in the te nineteenth century enjyed ret ppurity (inc
udin the interest f schrs such s Wiim Jmes), nd indeed cnstituted th
e buk f wht pepe ced "psychy". Prpsychy, hypntism, nd psychi
sm were mjr tpics f the ery Interntin Cnresses. But students f thes
e fieds were eventuy strctized, nd mre r ess bnished frm the Cnres
s in 19001905.[22] Prpsychy persisted fr time t Imperi University, wi
th pubictins such s Cirvynce nd Thuhtrphy by Tmkichi Fukuri, bu
t here t it ws msty shunned by 1913.[23]
After the Russin Revutin, psychy ws heviy prmted by the Bsheviks
s wy t enineer the "New Mn" f sciism. Thus, university psychy dep
rtments trined re numbers f students, fr whm psitins were mde vib
e t schs, wrkpces, cutur institutins, nd in the miitry. An especi
fcus ws pedy, the study f chid devepment, rerdin which Lev Vyt
sky becme prminent writer. Athuh pedy fe ut f fvr in 1936, psyc
hy mintined its privieed psitin s n instrument f the Sviet stte.[
30] In Germny fter Wrd Wr I, psychy hed institutin pwer thruh th
e miitry, nd subsequenty expnded n with the rest f the miitry under
the Third Reich.[18]
In 1920, durd Cprde nd Pierre Bvet creted new ppied psychy rniz
tin ced the Interntin Cnress f Psychtechnics Appied t Vctin
Guidnce, ter ced the Interntin Cnress f Psychtechnics nd then the
Interntin Asscitin f Appied Psychy.[22] The wrd federtin f n
tin psychic scieties is the Interntin Unin f Psychic Scien
ce, funded in 1951 under the uspices f UNESCO, the United Ntins cutur n
d scientific uthrity.[33][22] Psychy deprtments hve since priferted
rund the wrd, bsed primriy n the Eur-Americn mde.[17][33] Since 1966,
the Unin hs pubished the Interntin Jurn f Psychy.[22] Membership
in the Americn Psychic Asscitin incresed frm 5,000 in 1945 t 100,0
00 in the present dy.[25]
Behvirism
Skinner's techin mchine, mechnic inventin t utmte the tsk f prr
mmed instructin
An ery resercher int psychic cnditinin ws Ivn Pvv, knwn best
fr inducin ds t sivte in the presence f stimuus previus inked with
fd. As the str f psychy rse ver the Sviet Unin, Pvv becme e
din fiure nd ttrcted mny fwers, wh ppied his theries t humns.[30
] In the United Sttes, "cnnectinism" studies were cnducted by Edwrd Lee Th
rndike, wh trpped nims in "puzze bxes" nd rewrded them fr escpin. Li
ke Pvv, Thrndike fcused nrrwy n stimuus-respnse (SR) pirins. He bei
eved tht the fied f humn psychy shud fcus n utwrd behvir, writin
in 1911: "There cn be n mr wrrnt fr studyin mn's nture uness the s
tudy wi enbe us t cntr his cts."[34] Jhn B. Wtsn, techin t Jhns
Hpkins, ed risin tide f sentiment in the United Sttes inst the ide th
t psychy hd t study cnsciusness itsef. Frm 19101913 the Americn Psych
ic Asscitin went thruh se chne f pinin, wy frm mentism
nd twrds "behvirism", nd in 191 Wtsn cined the term behvirism fr th
is sch f thuht.[35] Behvirism, embrced nd extended by Crk L. Hu, E
dwrd C. Tmn, Edwin Guthrie nd mny thers, fcused n the wy rnisms res
pnd t envirnment stimui eicitin pin r pesure.[25]
Behvirism becme dminnt sch f thuht in the midcentury United Sttes,
with B.F. Skinner its edin inteectu. Skinner's behvirism shred with i
ts predecessrs phisphic incintin twrd psitivism, determinism, nd
the study f bservbe behvir.[36][37] In ieu f prbin n "uncnscius min
d" tht underies unwreness, behvirists spke f the "cntinency-shped beh
virs" in which unwreness becmes utwrdy mnifest.[36] Ntbe incidents i
n the histry f behvirism re Jhn B. Wtsn's Litte Abert experiment which
ppied cssic cnditinin t the devepin humn chid, nd the crific
tin f the difference between cssic cnditinin nd pernt (r instrument
) cnditinin, first by Mier nd Knrski nd then by Skinner.[38][39] Skin
ner's versin f behvirism emphsized pernt cnditinin, thruh which beh
virs re strenthened r wekened by their cnsequences.
Nm Chmsky deivered n infuenti critique f behvirism n the runds th
t it cud nt dequtey expin the cmpex ment prcess f nue cquisi
tin.[40][41] Mrtin Seimn nd ceues discvered tht the cnditinin f
ds ed t utcmes ("erned hepessness") tht ppsed the predictins f b
ehvirism.[42][43] Skinner's behvirism did nt die, perhps in prt becuse i
t enerted successfu prctic ppictins.[40]
The Asscitin fr Behvir Anysis Interntin ws funded in 1974 nd by 2
003 hd members frm 42 cuntries. The fied hs been especiy infuenti in
Ltin Americ, where it hs rein rniztin knwn s ALAMOC: L Ascicin
Ltinmericn de Anisis y Mdificcin de Cmprtmient. Behvirism s i

ned strn fthd in Jpn, where it ve rise t the Jpnese Sciety f An
im Psychy (1933), the Jpnese Asscitin f Speci Eductin (1963), th
e Jpnese Sciety f Bifeedbck Reserch (1973), the Jpnese Asscitin fr
Behvir Therpy (1976), the Jpnese Asscitin fr Behvir Anysis (1979),
nd the Jpnese Asscitin fr Behvir Science Reserch (1994).[44] Tdy t
he fied f behvirism is s cmmny referred t s behvir mdifictin r
behvir nysis.[44]
Psychnysis
Beinnin in the 1890s, Austrin psychists incudin Jsef Breuer Afred Ad
er, Ott Rnk, nd mst prminenty Simund Freud, deveped n infuenti sch
f thuht nd cinic prctice ced psychnysis. Psychnysis cmpri
ses methd f investitin the mind nd interpretin experience; systemtiz
ed set f theries but humn behvir; nd frm f psychtherpy t tret ps
ychic r emtin distress, especiy uncnscius cnfict.[45] Freud's
psychnytic thery ws rey bsed n interpretive methds, intrspectin
nd cinic bservtins. It becme very we knwn, rey becuse it tcked
subjects such s sexuity, repressin, nd the uncnscius mind s ener spe
cts f psychic devepment. These were rey cnsidered tb subjects
t the time, nd Freud prvided ctyst fr them t be peny discussed in p
ite sciety. Cinicy, Freud heped t pineer the methd f free sscitin
nd therpeutic interest in drem interprettin.[46][47]
Grup pht 1909 in frnt f Crk University. Frnt rw: Simund Freud, G. Stn
ey H, Cr Jun; bck rw: Abrhm A. Bri, Ernest Jnes, Sndr Ferenczi.
Freud hd sinificnt infuence n Swiss psychitrist Cr Jun, whse therie
s f nytic psychy incude such we-knwn cncepts s the cective un
cnscius. Mdifictin f Jun's theries ed t the rchetyp nd prcess-ri
ented schs. Other we-knwn psychnytic schrs f the mid-20th century
incude Erik Eriksn, Menie Kein, D.W. Winnictt, Kren Hrney, Erich Frmm,
Jhn Bwby, nd Simund Freud's duhter, Ann Freud. Thruhut the 20th centu
ry, psychnysis evved int diverse schs f thuht which cud be ced
Ne-Freudin. Amn these schs re e psychy, bject retins, nd int
erpersn, Lcnin, nd retin psychnysis.
Psychnytic thery nd therpy were criticized by psychists such s Hns
Eysenck, nd by phisphers incudin Kr Ppper. Ppper, phispher f sci
ence, rued tht psychnysis hd been misrepresented s scientific discip
ine,[48] wheres Eysenck sid tht psychnytic tenets hd been cntrdicted b
y experiment dt. By the end f 20th century, psychy deprtments in Ameri
cn universities hd becme scientificy riented, mrinizin Freudin the
ry nd dismissin it s "desiccted nd ded" histric rtifct.[49] Menwhi
e, hwever, reserchers in the emerin fied f neur-psychnysis defended
sme f Freud's ides n scientific runds,[50] whie schrs f the humnitie
s mintined tht Freud ws nt "scientist t , but ... n interpreter."[49
]
Existenti-humnistic theries
Psychist Abrhm Msw in 1943 psited tht humns hve hierrchy f need
s, nd it mkes sense t fufi the bsic needs first (fd, wter etc.) befre
hiher-rder needs cn be met.[51]
Humnistic psychy ws deveped in the 1950s in rectin t bth behvirism
nd psychnysis.[52] By usin phenmeny, intersubjectivity, nd first-pe
rsn cteries, the humnistic pprch suht t impse the whe persnnt ju
st the frmented prts f the persnity r cnitive functinin.[53] Humnis
m fcused n fundmenty nd uniquey humn issues, such s individu free wi
, persn rwth, sef-ctuiztin, sef-identity, deth, neness, freed
m, nd menin. The humnistic pprch ws distinuished by its emphsis n sub
jective menin, rejectin f determinism, nd cncern fr psitive rwth rthe
r thn pthy.[cittin needed] Sme f the funders f the humnistic sch

f thuht were Americn psychists Abrhm Msw, wh frmuted hierrc
hy f humn needs, nd Cr Rers, wh creted nd deveped cient-centered th
erpy. Lter, psitive psychy pened up humnistic themes t scientific mde
s f exprtin.
In the 1950s nd 1960s, rey infuenced by the wrk f Germn phispher Mr
tin Heideer nd Dnish phispher Sren Kierkerd, psychnyticy trined
Americn psychist R My pineered n existenti brnch f psychy,
which incuded existenti psychtherpy, methd f therpy tht pertes n t
he beief tht inner cnfict within persn is due t tht individu's cnfr
nttin with the ivens f existence. Swiss psychnyst Ludwi Binswner nd
Americn psychist Gere Key my s be sid t ben t the existenti
sch.[54]
Existenti psychists differed frm mre "humnistic" psychists in their
retivey neutr view f humn nture nd their retivey psitive ssessmen
t f nxiety.[55] Existenti psychists emphsized the humnistic themes f
deth, free wi, nd menin, suestin tht menin cn be shped by myths,
r nrrtive ptterns,[56] nd tht it cn be encured by n cceptnce f the
free wi requisite t n uthentic, beit ften nxius, rerd fr deth nd
ther future prspects.
Austrin existenti psychitrist nd Hcust survivr Viktr Frnk drew evid
ence f menin's therpeutic pwer frm refectins rnered frm his wn inter
nment,[57] nd he creted vritin f existenti psychtherpy ced th
erpy, type f existentiist nysis tht fcuses n wi t menin (in
ne's ife), s ppsed t Ader's Nietzschen dctrine f wi t pwer r Freud
's wi t pesure.[58]
Cnitive revutin
Bddeey's mde f wrkin memry
Strtin in the 1950s, the experiment techniques deveped by Wundt, Jmes, Eb
binhus, nd thers re-emered s experiment psychy becme incresiny c
nitivistcncerned with infrmtin nd its prcessinnd, eventuy, cnstitute
d prt f the wider cnitive science.[59] In its ery yers, this devepmen
t ws seen s "revutin,"[59] s cnitive science bth respnded t nd re
cted inst then-ppur theries, incudin psychnytic nd behvirist the
ries.
Nm Chmsky heped t unch "cnitive revutin" in psychy when he cri
ticized the behvirists' ntins f "stimuus", "respnse", nd "reinfrcement"
. Chmsky rued tht such ideswhich Skinner hd brrwed frm nim experiment
s in the brtrycud be ppied t cmpex humn behvir, mst ntby nu
e cquisitin, in ny superfici nd vue mnner. The pstutin tht hu
mns re brn with the instinct r "innte fciity" fr cquirin nue pse
d chene t the psitin tht behvir, incudin nue, is cntine
nt upn ernin nd reinfrcement.[60] Sci ernin therists, such s Aber
t Bndur, rued tht the chid's envirnment cud mke cntributins f its
wn t the behvirs f n bservnt subject.[61]
The MerLyer iusin. Psychists mke inferences but ment prcesses frm
shred phenmen such s ptic iusins.
Menwhie, technic dvnces heped t renew interest nd beief in the men
t sttes nd representtinsi.e., cnitintht hd fen ut f fvr with beh
virists. Enish neurscientist Chres Sherrintn nd Cndin psychist
Dnd O. Hebb used experiment methds t ink psychic phenmen with th
e structure nd functin f the brin. With the rise f cmputer science nd rt
ifici inteience, nies were drwn between the prcessin f infrmtin
by humns nd infrmtin prcessin by mchines. Reserch in cnitin hd pr
ven prctic since Wrd Wr II, when it ided in the understndin f wepns
pertin.[62] By the te 20th century cnitivism hd becme the dminnt pr
dim f psychy, nd cnitive psychy emered s ppur brnch.
Assumin bth tht the cvert mind shud be studied, nd tht the scientific me
thd shud be used t study it, cnitive psychists set such cncepts s su
bimin prcessin nd impicit memry in pce f the psychnytic uncnsci
us mind r the behviristic cntinency-shped behvirs. Eements f behviri
sm nd cnitive psychy were synthesized t frm the bsis f cnitive beh
vir therpy, frm f psychtherpy mdified frm techniques deveped by Am
ericn psychist Abert Eis nd Americn psychitrist Arn T. Beck. Cnit
ive psychy ws subsumed n with ther discipines, such s phisphy f
mind, cmputer science, nd neurscience, under the cver discipine f cnitiv
e science.
Subfieds
Further infrmtin: Outine f psychy nd List f psychy discipines
Min rtice: Subfieds f psychy
Psychy encmpsses mny subfieds nd incudes different pprches t the s
tudy f ment prcesses nd behvir:
Biic
Min rtices: Biic psychy, Neurpsychy, Physiic psychy
nd Cnitive neurscience
MRI depictin the humn brin. The rrw indictes the psitin f the hypth
mus.
Biic psychy r behvir neurscience is the study f the biic
substrtes f behvir nd ment prcesses. There re different specities wit
hin behvir neurscience. Fr exmpe, physiic psychists use nim
mdes, typicy rts, t study the neur, enetic, nd ceur mechnisms t
ht underie specific behvirs such s ernin nd memry nd fer respnses.[
63] Cnitive neurscientists investite the neur crretes f psychic
prcesses in humns usin neur imin ts, nd neurpsychists cnduct
psychic ssessments t determine, fr instnce, specific spects nd exten
t f cnitive deficit cused by brin dme r disese.
Cinic
Cinic psychists wrk with individus, chidren, fmiies, cupes, r sm
rups.
Min rtices: Cinic psychy nd Cunsein psychy
Cinic psychy incudes the study nd ppictin f psychy fr the pur
pse f understndin, preventin, nd reievin psychicy bsed distress
r dysfunctin nd t prmte subjective we-bein nd persn devepment. Ce
ntr t its prctice re psychic ssessment nd psychtherpy, thuh c
inic psychists my s ene in reserch, techin, cnsuttin, fren
sic testimny, nd prrm devepment nd dministrtin.[64] Sme cinic psy
chists my fcus n the cinic mnement f ptients with brin injurythis
re is knwn s cinic neurpsychy. In mny cuntries, cinic psych
y is reuted ment heth prfessin.
The wrk perfrmed by cinic psychists tends t be infuenced by vrius t
herpeutic pprches, f which invve frm retinship between prfes
sin nd cient (usuy n individu, cupe, fmiy, r sm rup). The v
rius therpeutic pprches nd prctices re sscited with different there
tic perspectives nd empy different prcedures intended t frm therpeuti
c ince, expre the nture f psychic prbems, nd encure new wys
f thinkin, feein, r behvin. Fur mjr theretic perspectives re psyc
hdynmic, cnitive behvir, existentihumnistic, nd systems r fmiy the
rpy. There hs been rwin mvement t interte the vrius therpeutic pp
rches, especiy with n incresed understndin f issues rerdin cuture,
ender, spirituity, nd sexu rienttin. With the dvent f mre rbust re
serch findins rerdin psychtherpy, there is evidence tht mst f the mj
r therpies re but f equ effectiveness, with the key cmmn eement bein
strn therpeutic ince.[65][66] Becuse f this, mre trinin prrms
nd psychists re nw dptin n ecectic therpeutic rienttin.[67][68][6
9][70][71]
Cnitive
Min rtice: Cnitive psychy
Green Red Bue
Purpe Bue Purpe
Bue Purpe Red
Green Purpe Green
The Strp effect refers t the fct tht nmin the cr f the first set f w
rds is esier nd quicker thn the secnd.
Cnitive psychy studies cnitin, the ment prcesses underyin ment
ctivity. Perceptin, ttentin, resnin, thinkin, prbem svin, memry, e
rnin, nue, nd emtin re res f reserch. Cssic cnitive psych
y is sscited with sch f thuht knwn s cnitivism, whse dherents
rue fr n infrmtin prcessin mde f ment functin, infrmed by funct
inism nd experiment psychy.
On brder eve, cnitive science is n interdiscipinry enterprise f cn
itive psychists, cnitive neurscientists, reserchers in rtifici inte
ience, inuists, humncmputer interctin, cmputtin neurscience, ici
ns nd sci scientists. Cmputtin mdes re smetimes used t simute ph
enmen f interest. Cmputtin mdes prvide t fr studyin the functi
n rniztin f the mind wheres neurscience prvides mesures f brin c
tivity.
Cmprtive
The cmmn chimpnzee cn use ts. This chimpnzee is usin stick in rder t
et fd.
Min rtices: Cmprtive psychy nd Anim cnitin
Cmprtive psychy refers t the scientific study f the behvir nd ment
prcesses f nn-humn nims, especiy s these rete t the phyenetic
histry, dptive sinificnce, nd devepment f behvir. Reserch in this r
e ddresses mny different issues, uses mny different methds, nd expres th
e behvir f mny different species, frm insects t primtes. It is csey re
ted t ther discipines tht study nim behvir such s ethy.[72] Rese
rch in cmprtive psychy smetimes ppers t shed iht n humn behvir
, but sme ttempts t cnnect the tw hve been quite cntrversi, fr exmp
e the Scibiy f E. O. Wisn.[73] Anim mdes re ften used t study ne
ur prcesses reted t humn behvir, e.. in cnitive neurscience.
Devepment
Min rtice: Devepment psychy
Devepment psychists wud ene chid with bk nd then mke bser
vtins bsed n hw the chid intercts with the bject.
Miny fcusin n the devepment f the humn mind thruh the ife spn, deve
pment psychy seeks t understnd hw pepe cme t perceive, understnd
, nd ct within the wrd nd hw these prcesses chne s they e. This my
fcus n cnitive, ffective, mr, sci, r neur devepment. Reserchers
wh study chidren use number f unique reserch methds t mke bservtins
in ntur settins r t ene them in experiment tsks. Such tsks ften r
esembe speciy desined mes nd ctivities tht re bth enjybe fr the
chid nd scientificy usefu, nd reserchers hve even devised cever methd
s t study the ment prcesses f infnts. In dditin t studyin chidren, de

vepment psychists s study in nd prcesses thruhut the ife sp
n, especiy t ther times f rpid chne (such s descence nd d e).
Devepment psychists drw n the fu rne f psychic theries t
infrm their reserch.
Eductin nd sch
Min rtices: Eductin psychy nd Sch psychy
An exmpe f n item frm cnitive biities test used in eductin psych
y.
Eductin psychy is the study f hw humns ern in eductin settins,
the effectiveness f eductin interventins, the psychy f techin, nd
the sci psychy f schs s rniztins. The wrk f chid psychi
sts such s Lev Vytsky, Jen Piet, Bernrd Luskin, nd Jerme Bruner hs bee
n infuenti in cretin techin methds nd eductin prctices. Eductin
psychy is ften incuded in techer eductin prrms in pces such s N
rth Americ, Austri, nd New Zend.
Sch psychy cmbines principes frm eductin psychy nd cinic p
sychy t understnd nd tret students with ernin disbiities; t fster
the inteectu rwth f ifted students; t fciitte prsci behvirs i
n descents; nd therwise t prmte sfe, supprtive, nd effective ernin
envirnments. Sch psychists re trined in eductin nd behvir s
sessment, interventin, preventin, nd cnsuttin, nd mny hve extensive tr
inin in reserch.[74]
Evutinry
Min rtice: Evutinry psychy
Evutinry psychy exmines psychic tritssuch s memry, perceptin,
r nuefrm mdern evutinry perspective. It seeks t identify which hum
n psychic trits re evved dpttins, tht is, the functin prduct
s f ntur seectin r sexu seectin. Evutinry psychists suest t
ht psychic dpttins evved t sve recurrent prbems in humn nces
tr envirnments. By fcusin n the evutin f psychic trits nd thei
r dptive functins, it ffers cmpementry expntins fr the msty prxim
te r devepment expntins deveped by ther res f psychy (tht i
s, it fcuses msty n utimte r "why?" questins, rther thn prximte r "
hw?" questins).
Industrirniztin
Min rtice: Industri nd rniztin psychy
Industri nd rniztin psychy (IO) ppies psychic cncepts nd
methds t ptimize humn ptenti in the wrkpce. Persnne psychy, su
bfied f IO psychy, ppies the methds nd principes f psychy in see
ctin nd evutin wrkers. IO psychy's ther subfied, rniztin psyc
hy, exmines the effects f wrk envirnments nd mnement styes n wrke
r mtivtin, jb stisfctin, nd prductivity.[75]
Persnity
Min rtice: Persnity psychy
Persnity psychy is cncerned with endurin ptterns f behvir, thuht,
nd emtincmmny referred t s persnityin individus. Theries f persn
ity vry crss different psychic schs nd rienttins. They crry di
fferent ssumptins but such issues s the re f the uncnscius nd the imp
rtnce f chidhd experience. Accrdin t Freud, persnity is bsed n the
dynmic interctins f the id, e, nd super-e.[76] Trit therists, in cn
trst, ttempt t nyze persnity in terms f discrete number f key trit
s by the sttistic methd f fctr nysis. The number f prpsed trits h
s vried widey. An ery mde, prpsed by Hns Eysenck, suested tht there
re three trits which cmprise humn persnity: extrversinintrversin, neur
ticism, nd psychticism. Rymnd Ctte prpsed thery f 16 persnity f

ctrs. Dimensin mdes f persnity re receivin incresin supprt, nd
sme versin f dimensin ssessment wi be incuded in the frthcmin DSM-V
.
Sci
Min rtice: Sci psychy
See s: Sci psychy (sciy)
Sci psychy studies the nture nd cuses f sci behvir.
Sci psychy is the study f hw humns think but ech ther nd hw they
rete t ech ther. Sci psychists study such tpics s the infuence
f thers n n individu's behvir (e.. cnfrmity, persusin), nd the frm
tin f beiefs, ttitudes, nd steretypes but ther pepe. Sci cniti
n fuses eements f sci nd cnitive psychy in rder t understnd hw p
epe prcess, remember, r distrt sci infrmtin. The study f rup dynm
ics reves infrmtin but the nture nd ptenti ptimiztin f edershi
p, cmmunictin, nd ther phenmen tht emere t est t the micrsci e
ve. In recent yers, mny sci psychists hve becme incresiny interes
ted in impicit mesures, meditin mdes, nd the interctin f bth persn
nd sci vribes in ccuntin fr behvir. The study f humn sciety is
therefre ptentiy vube surce f infrmtin but the cuses f psych
itric disrder. Sme f the sciic cncepts ppied t psychitric disrd
ers re the sci re, sick re, sci css, ife event, cuture, mirtin
, sci, nd tt institutin.[77]
Psitive
Min rtice: Psitive psychy
Psitive psychy derives frm Msw's humnistic psychy. Psitive psych
y is discipine tht utiizes evidence-bsed scientific methds t study f
ctrs tht cntribute t humn hppiness nd strenth. Different frm cinic p
sychy, psitive psychy is cncerned with imprvin the ment we-bein
f hethy cients. Psitive psychic interventins nw hve received tent
tive supprt fr their benefici effects n cients. In 2010 Cinic Psych
ic Review pubished speci issue devted t psitive psychic interve
ntins, such s rtitude jurnin nd the physic expressin f rtitude. T
here is, hwever, need fr further reserch n the effects f interventins. P
sitive psychic interventins hve been imited in scpe, but their effect
s re thuht t be superir t tht f pcebs, especiy with rerd t hep
in pepe with bdy ime prbems.
Reserch methds
Min rtice: Psychic reserch
Psychy tends t be ecectic, drwin n knwede frm ther fieds t hep
expin nd understnd psychic phenmen. Additiny, psychists mke
extensive use f the three mdes f inference tht were identified by C. S. Pei
rce: deductin, inductin, nd bductin (hypthesis enertin). Whie ften em
pyin deductivenmic resnin, they s rey n inductive resnin t
enerte expntins. Fr exmpe, evutinry psychists ttempt t expi
n psychic tritssuch s memry, perceptin, r nues dpttins, tht
is, s the functin prducts f ntur seectin r sexu seectin.
Psychists my cnduct bsic reserch imin fr further understndin in p
rticur re f interest in psychy, r cnduct ppied reserch t sve p
rbems in the cinic, wrkpce r ther res. Msters eve cinic prrms
im t trin students in bth reserch methds nd evidence-bsed prctice. Pr
fessin sscitins hve estbished uideines fr ethics, trinin, reserc
h methdy nd prfessin prctice. In dditin, dependin n the cuntry,
stte r rein, psychic services nd the tite "psychist" my be ve
rned by sttute nd psychists wh ffer services t the pubic re usuy r
equired t be icensed.
Quittive nd quntittive reserch

Reserch in mst res f psychy is cnducted in ccrd with the stndrds
f the scientific methd. Psychic reserchers seek the emerence f theret
icy interestin cteries nd hyptheses frm dt, usin quittive r qu
ntittive methds (r bth).
Quittive psychic reserch methds incude interviews, first-hnd bserv
tin, nd prticipnt bservtin. Creswe (2003) identifies five min pssibi
ities fr quittive reserch, incudin nrrtive, phenmeny, ethnrphy
, cse study, nd runded thery. Quittive reserchers[78] smetimes im t
enrich interprettins r critiques f symbs, subjective experiences, r sci
structures. Simir hermeneutic nd critic ims hve s been served by "qu
ntittive methds", s in Erich Frmm's study f Nzi vtin[cittin needed]
r Stney Mirm's studies f bedience t uthrity.
Quntittive psychic reserch ends itsef t the sttistic testin f h
yptheses. Quntittivey riented reserch desins incude the experiment, qus
i-experiment, crss-sectin study, cse-cntr study, nd nitudin study.
The mesurement nd pertiniztin f imprtnt cnstructs is n essenti
prt f these reserch desins. Sttistic methds incude the Persn prductm
ment crretin cefficient, the nysis f vrince, mutipe iner reressi
n, istic reressin, structur equtin mdein, nd hierrchic iner m
dein.
Cntred experiments
Min rtice: Experiment
Fwchrt f fur phses (enrment, interventin ctin, fw-up, nd d
t nysis) f pre rndmized tri f tw rups, mdified frm the CON
SORT 2010 Sttement[79]
Experiment psychic reserch is cnducted in brtry under cntre
d cnditins. This methd f reserch reies n the ppictin f the scientifi
c methd t understnd behvir. Experimenters use sever types f mesurements
, incudin rte f respnse, rectin time, nd vrius psychmetric mesuremen
ts. Experiments re desined t test specific hyptheses (deductive pprch) r
evute functin retinships (inductive pprch). A true experiment with
rndm ctin f subjects t cnditins ws reserchers t infer cus r
etinships between different spects f behvir nd the envirnment. In n ex
periment, ne r mre vribes f interest re cntred by the experimenter (
independent vribe) nd nther vribe is mesured in respnse t different
cnditins (dependent vribe). Experiments re ne f the primry reserch met
hds in mny res f psychy, prticury cnitive/psychnmics, mthemti
c psychy, psychphysiy nd biic psychy/cnitive neurscienc
e.
Experiments n humns hve been put under sme cntrs, nmey infrmed nd v
untry cnsent. After Wrd Wr II, the Nurember Cde ws estbished becuse
f Nzi buses f experiment subjects. Lter, mst cuntries (nd scientific j
urns) dpted the Decrtin f Hesinki. In the U.S., the Ntin Institute
s f Heth estbished the Institutin Review Brd in 1966, nd in 1974 dp
ted the Ntin Reserch Act (HR 7724). A f these mesures encured reser
chers t btin infrmed cnsent frm humn prticipnts in experiment studies
. A number f infuenti studies ed t the estbishment f this rue; such st
udies incuded the MIT nd Fernd Sch rdiistpe studies, the Thidmide
tredy, the Wiwbrk heptitis study, nd Stney Mirm's studies f bedi
ence t uthrity.
Reserchers in psychy my s use qusi-experiment desin becuse rnd
m ssinment t riv interventin/tretment cnditins is nt pssibe. Fr ex
mpe, in reserch n the best wy t ffect redin chievement in the first thr
ee rdes f sch, sch dministrtrs my nt permit eductin psychi

sts t rndmy ssin chidren t phnics nd whe nue cssrms, in whi
ch cse the psychists must wrk with preexistin cssrm ssinments. Psyc
hists wi cmpre the chievement f chidren ttendin phnics nd whe
nue csses.
Survey questinnires
Min rtice: Sttistic survey
Sttistic surveys re used in psychy fr mesurin ttitudes nd trits, m
nitrin chnes in md, checkin the vidity f experiment mniputins,
nd fr wide vriety f ther psychic tpics. Mst cmmny, psychis
ts use pper-nd-penci surveys. Hwever, surveys re s cnducted ver the ph
ne r thruh e-mi. Incresiny, web-bsed surveys re bein used in reserc
h fr its cnvenience nd s t et wide rne f prticipnts. Simir meth
dy is s used in ppied settin, such s cinic ssessment nd persnn
e ssessment.
Lnitudin studies
Lnitudin studies re ften used in psychy t study devepment trends
crss the ife spn, nd in sciy t study ife events thruhut ifetimes
r enertins. The resn fr this is tht unike crss-sectin studies, n
itudin studies trck the sme pepe, nd therefre the differences bserved
in thse pepe re ess ikey t be the resut f cutur differences crss
enertins. Becuse f this benefit, nitudin studies mke bservin chne
s mre ccurte nd they re ppied in vrius ther fieds.
Becuse mst nitudin studies re bservtin, in the sense tht they bse
rve the stte f the wrd withut mniputin it, it hs been rued tht they
my hve ess pwer t detect cus retinships thn d experiments. They
s suffer methdic imittins such s frm seective ttritin becuse pe
pe with simir chrcteristics my be mre ikey t drp ut f the study m
kin it difficut t nyze.
Sme nitudin studies re experiments, ced repeted-mesures experiments.
Psychists ften use the crssver desin t reduce the infuence f cnfun
din cvrites nd t reduce the number f subjects.
Observtin in ntur settins
Phines P. Ge survived n ccident in which re irn rd ws driven cmpe
tey thruh his hed, destryin much f his brin's eft frnt be, nd is
remembered fr tht injury's reprted effects n his persnity nd behvir.[8
0]
Min rtice: Nturistic bservtin
Just s Jne Gd studied chimpnzee sci nd fmiy ife by crefu bserv
tin f chimpnzee behvir in the fied, psychists cnduct bservtin s
tudies f nin humn sci, prfessin, nd fmiy ife. Smetimes the pr
ticipnts re wre they re bein bserved, nd ther times the prticipnts d
nt knw they re bein bserved. Strict ethic uideines must be fwed wh
en cvert bservtin is bein crried ut.
Quittive nd descriptive reserch
Artifici neur netwrk with tw yers, n intercnnected rup f ndes, ki
n t the vst netwrk f neurns in the humn brin.
Min rtice: Quittive reserch
Reserch desined t nswer questins but the current stte f ffirs such s
the thuhts, feeins, nd behvirs f individus is knwn s descriptive re
serch. Descriptive reserch cn be quittive r quntittive in rienttin.
Quittive reserch is descriptive reserch tht is fcused n bservin nd de
scribin events s they ccur, with the f cpturin f the richness f
everydy behvir nd with the hpe f discverin nd understndin phenmen
tht miht hve been missed if ny mre cursry exmintins hve been mde.
Neurpsychic methds
Min rtice: Neurpsychy
A rt underin Mrris wter nvitin test used in behvir neurscience
t study the re f the hippcmpus in spti ernin nd memry.
Neurpsychic reserch methds re empyed in studies tht exmine the re
tin f ment ctivity nd behvir t the structure nd functin f the brin
. These methds incude testin (e.., the vrius Wechser sces, Wiscnsin C
rd Srtin Test), functin neurimin, nd trnscrni mnetic stimutin
.
Cmputtin mdein
The experimenter (E) rders the techer (T), the subject f the experiment, t
ive wht the tter beieves re pinfu eectric shcks t erner (L), wh i
s ctuy n ctr nd cnfederte. The subject beieves tht fr ech wrn n
swer, the erner ws receivin ctu eectric shcks, thuh in reity there
were n such punishments. Bein seprted frm the subject, the cnfederte set
up tpe recrder interted with the eectr-shck enertr, which pyed pre
-recrded sunds fr ech shck eve etc.[81]
Cmputtin mdein[82] is t ften used in mthemtic psychy nd c
nitive psychy t simute prticur behvir usin cmputer. This met
hd hs sever dvntes. Since mdern cmputers prcess infrmtin extremey
quicky, mny simutins cn be run in shrt time, win fr ret de
f sttistic pwer. Mdein s ws psychists t visuize hypthese
s but the functin rniztin f ment events tht cudn't be directy
bserved in humn.
Sever different types f mdein re used t study behvir. Cnnectinism us
es neur netwrks t simute the brin. Anther methd is symbic mdein, w
hich represents mny different ment bjects usin vribes nd rues. Other t
ypes f mdein incude dynmic systems nd stchstic mdein.
Anim studies
Min rtices: Cmprtive psychy nd Anim cnitin
Anim experiments id in investitin mny spects f humn psychy, incud
in perceptin, emtin, ernin, memry, nd thuht, t nme few. In the 18
90s, Russin physiist Ivn Pvv fmusy used ds t demnstrte cssic
cnditinin. Nn-humn primtes, cts, ds, piens, rts, nd ther rdents
re ften used in psychic experiments. Idey, cntred experiments in
trduce ny ne independent vribe t time, in rder t scertin its uniqu
e effects upn dependent vribes. These cnditins re pprximted best in
brtry settins. In cntrst, humn envirnments nd enetic bckrunds vry
s widey, nd depend upn s mny fctrs, tht it is difficut t cntr imp
rtnt vribes fr humn subjects. Of curse, there re pitfs in enerizin
findins frm nim studies t humns thruh nim mdes.[83]
Criticism
Repictin crisis
Psychy hs recenty fund itsef t the center f "repictin crisis" due
t sme reserch findins prvin difficut t repicte. Repictin fiures
re nt unique t psychy nd re fund in fieds f science. Hwever, se
ver fctrs hve cmbined t put psychy t the center f the current cntr
versy. Much f the fcus hs been n the re f sci psychy, thuh t
her res f psychy such s cinic psychy hve s been impicted.
Firsty, questinbe resercher prctices (QRP) hve been identified s cmmn
in the fied. Such prctices, whie nt intentiny fruduent, invve cnver
tin undesired sttistic utcmes int desired utcmes vi the mniputin
f sttistic nyses, smpe size r dt mnement, typicy t cnvert nn
-sinificnt findins int sinificnt nes.[84] Sme studies hve suested th
t t est mid versins f QRP re hihy prevent.[85] Fse psitive cncus
ins, ften resutin frm the pressure t pubish r the uthr's wn cnfirmt
in bis, re n inherent hzrd in the fied, requirin certin deree f ske
pticism n the prt f reders.[86]
Secndy, psychy nd sci psychy in prticur, hs fund itsef t th
e center f sever recent scnds invvin utriht fruduent reserch. Mst
ntby the dmitted dt fbrictin by Diederik Stpe[87] s we s et
ins inst thers. Hwever, mst schrs cknwede tht frud is, perhps,
the esser cntributin t repictin crises.
Third, sever effects in psychic science hve been fund t be difficut
t repicte even befre the current repictin crisis. Fr exmpe the scienti
fic jurn Judment nd Decisin Mkin hs pubished sever studies ver the
yers tht fi t prvide supprt fr the uncnscius thuht thery. Repicti
ns pper prticury difficut when reserch tris re pre-reistered nd c
nducted by reserch rups nt hihy invested in the thery under questinin.
These three eements tether hve resuted in renewed ttentin fr repictin
supprted by Khnemn. Scrutiny f mny effects hve shwn tht sever cre be
iefs re hrd t repicte. A recent speci editin f the jurn Sci Psyc
hy fcused n repictin studies nd number f previusy hed beiefs we
re fund t be difficut t repicte.[88] A 2012 speci editin f the jurn
Perspectives n Psychic Science s fcused n issues rnin frm pubi
ctin bis t nu-versin tht cntribute t the repictin crises in psych
y[89]
Schr Jmes Cyne hs recenty written tht mny reserch tris nd met-n
yses re cmprmised by pr quity nd cnficts f interest tht invve bth
uthrs nd prfessin dvccy rniztins, resutin in mny fse psiti
ves rerdin the effectiveness f certin types f psychtherpy.[90]
It is imprtnt t nte tht this repictin crisis des nt men tht psych
y is unscientific. Rther this prcess is hethy if smetimes crimnius p
rt f the scientific prcess in which d ides r thse tht cnnt withstnd c
refu scrutiny re pruned.[91] The cnsequence is tht sme res f psychy
nce cnsidered sid, such s sci primin, hve cme under incresed scruti
ny due t fied repictins.[92]
Thery
Criticisms f psychic reserch ften cme frm perceptins tht it is "s
ft" science. Phispher f science Thms Kuhn's 1962 critique[93] impied psy
chy ver ws in pre-prdim stte, ckin the reement n verrchin
thery fund in mture sciences such s chemistry nd physics.
Becuse sme res f psychy rey n reserch methds such s surveys nd qu
estinnires, critics hve sserted tht psychy is nt n bjective science.
Other cncepts tht psychists re interested in, such s persnity, think
in, nd emtin, cnnt be directy mesured[94] nd re ften inferred frm su
bjective sef-reprts, which my be prbemtic.[95][96]
Sme critics view sttistic hypthesis testin s mispced. Reserch[which?]
hs dcumented tht mny psychists cnfuse sttistic sinificnce with pr
ctic imprtnce. Sttisticy sinificnt but prcticy unimprtnt resuts
re cmmn with re smpes.[97] Sme psychists hve respnded with n in
cresed use f effect size sttistics, rther thn se reince n the Fisheri
n p < .05 sinificnce criterin (whereby n bserved difference is deemed "stt
isticy sinificnt" if n effect f tht size r rer wud ccur with 5% r ess- prbbiity in independent repictins, ssumin the truth f the nu
-hypthesis f n difference between the tretments).[cittin needed]

Smetimes the debte cmes frm within psychy, fr exmpe between brtr
y-riented reserchers nd prctitiners such s cinicins. In recent yers, n
d prticury in the U.S., there hs been incresin debte but the nture f
therpeutic effectiveness nd but the reevnce f empiricy exminin psyc
htherpeutic strteies.[98]
Prctice
Psychy Wiki snp sht
Sme bservers perceive p between scientific thery nd its ppictinin pr
ticur, the ppictin f unsupprted r unsund cinic prctices.[99] Criti
cs sy there hs been n increse in the number f ment heth trinin prr
ms tht d nt insti scientific cmpetence.[100] One skeptic sserts tht prc
tices, such s "fciitted cmmunictin fr infntie utism"; memry-recvery
techniques incudin bdy wrk; nd ther therpies, such s rebirthin nd rep
rentin, my be dubius r even dnerus, despite their ppurity.[101] In 19
84, Aen Neuriner mde simir pint[vue] rerdin the experiment ny
sis f behvir.[102]
Ethic stndrds
Current ethic stndrds f psychy wud nt permit sme studies t be cnd
ucted tdy. These humn studies wud vite the Ethics Cde f the Americn P
sychic Asscitin, the Cndin Cde f Cnduct fr Reserch Invvin Hu
mns, nd the Bemnt Reprt. Current ethic uideines stte tht usin nn-hu
mn nims fr scientific purpses is ny cceptbe when the hrm (physic
r psychic) dne t nims is utweihed by the benefits f the reserch.[
103] Keepin this in mind, psychists cn use certin reserch techniques n
nims tht cud nt be used n humns.
An experiment by Stney Mirm rised questins but the ethics f scient
ific experimenttin becuse f the extreme emtin stress suffered by the pr
ticipnts. It mesured the wiinness f study prticipnts t bey n uthrit
y fiure wh instructed them t perfrm cts tht cnficted with their persn
cnscience.[104]
Hrry Hrw drew cndemntin fr his "pit f despir" experiments n rhesu
s mcque mnkeys t the University f WiscnsinMdisn in the 1970s.[105] The i
m f the reserch ws t prduce n nim mde f cinic depressin. Hrw
s devised wht he ced "rpe rck", t which the feme istes were tie
d in nrm mnkey mtin psture.[106] In 1974, Americn iterry critic Wyne
C. Bth wrte tht, "Hrry Hrw nd his ceues n trturin their nnh
umn primtes decde fter decde, invriby prvin wht we knew in dvnc
etht sci cretures cn be destryed by destryin their sci ties." He writ
es tht Hrw mde n mentin f the criticism f the mrity f his wrk.[107
]
University psychy deprtments hve ethics cmmittees dedicted t the rihts
nd we-bein f reserch subjects. Reserchers in psychy must in pprv
f their reserch prjects befre cnductin ny experiment t prtect the in
terests f humn prticipnts nd brtry nims.[108]
Systemic bis
In 1959 sttisticin Thedre Sterin exmined the resuts f psychic stu
dies nd discvered tht 97% f them supprted their initi hyptheses, impyin
pssibe pubictin bis.[109][110][111] Simiry, Fnei (2010)[112] fu
nd tht 91.5% f psychitry/psychy studies cnfirmed the effects they were
kin fr, nd cncuded tht the dds f this hppenin ( psitive resut) w
s rund five times hiher thn in fieds such s spce- r esciences. Fnei
rues tht this is becuse reserchers in "sfter" sciences hve fewer cnstr
ints t their cnscius nd uncnscius bises.
In 2010, rup f reserchers reprted systemic bis in psychy studies t

wrds WEIRD ("western, educted, industriized, rich nd demcrtic") subjects
.[113] Athuh ny 1/8 pepe wrdwide f int the WEIRD cssifictin, th
e reserchers cimed tht 6090% f psychy studies re perfrmed n WEIRD sub
jects. The rtice ve exmpes f resuts tht differ sinificnty between WE
IRD subjects nd trib cutures, incudin the Mer-Lyer iusin.
See s
Prt icn
Psychy prt
Prt icn
Mind nd Brin prt
Prt icn
Phisphy prt
Grup psychtherpy
List f imprtnt pubictins in psychy
List f psychists
List f psychy rniztins
Medi psychy
Phisphy f psychy
Psychy Wikipedi bk
Sci wrk
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Extern inks
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Creating Gratitude 3

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Psychology is the study of mind and behavior.

[1][2] It is an academic discipline

4.5 Observation in natural settings

dvnced mre expnsive dctrine ced functinism, ttuned mre t humnen

Ltinmericn de Anisis y Mdificcin de Cmprtmient. Behvirism s i

r thn pthy.[cittin needed] Sme f the funders f the humnistic sch

s t study the ment prcesses f infnts. In dditin t studyin chidren, de

ticism, nd psychticism. Rymnd Ctte prpsed thery f 16 persnity f

Quittive nd quntittive reserch

ee rdes f sch, sch dministrtrs my nt permit eductin psychi

-hypthesis f n difference between the tretments).[cittin needed]

In 2010, rup f reserchers reprted systemic bis in psychy studies t

hy: A biic chrcteristic is inked t we-bein". Psychy Tdy.

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