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7)
We will consider the gas of fermions in the degenerate regime, where the density n
exceeds by far the quantum density nQ, or, in terms of energies, where the Fermi energy
exceeds by far the temperature. We have seen that for such a gas is positive, and well
confine our attention to the limit in which is close to its T=0 value, the Fermi energy EF.
occupancy
~ kBT
/ EF
1
1
T =0
n , T f , T
1
1
exp
k
T
B
kBT/EF
empty states
EF
0
conduction
band
valence
band
electron states
electron states
in an isolated
in metal
atom
The electrons are prevented from escaping from the metal by the net Coulomb attraction to
the positive ions; the energy required for an electron to escape (the work function) is
typically a few eV. The model assumes that the electrons for an ideal Fermi gas confined
within impenetrable walls.
Why can we treat this dense gas as ideal? Indeed, the Coulomb interactions between
electrons at this density must be extremely strong, and in a a solid, the electrons move in
the strong electric fields of the positive ions. The first objection is addressed by the
Landaus Fermi liquid theory. The answer to the second objection is that while the field of
ions alters the density of states and the effective mass of the electrons, it does not
otherwise affect the validity of the ideal gas approximation. Thus, in the case of simple
metals, it is safe to consider the mobile charge carriers as electrons with the mass slightly
renormalized by interactions. There are, however, examples that the interactions lead to
the mass enhancement by a factor of 100-1000 (heavy fermions).
The Fermi
Energy
3/ 2
1 2m
1/ 2
g
2 2 2
3D
N
n g f d
V 0
EF
1 2m
n g f d g d
2
2
2
0
0
2
h2 3
2 2/3
EF
3 n
n
2m
8m
h2 3
EF
8m
2/3
2/3
1 2m
d 2 2
3
6.6 10 110
8 9 10
34 2
29 2 / 3
31
TF EF / k B few eV few 10 K
4
3 / 2 EF
1, EF
f
0, EF
3/ 2
EF 3 / 2
T>0
= EF
J 11018 J 6 eV
U 0 g d
0
3
NEF
5
g 1/ 2
3
4
1.3 1015m A
3
110 44 m-3
For simplicity, we assume that the # of protons = the # of neutrons, hence their
density is
6.6 10
3
44
0
.
5
10
8 1.6 1027
34 2
EF
2/3
EF >>> kBT the system is strongly degenerate. The nucleons are very cold they
are all in their ground state!
The average kinetic energy in a degenerate Fermi gas = 0.6 of the Fermi energy
E 16 MeV
p
h 3
vF F
m 2m
1/ 3
1106 m/s
This velocity is of the same order of magnitude as the orbital velocity of the outer
electrons in an atom, and ~10 times the mean thermal velocity that a non-degenerate
electron gas would have at room temperature. Still, since vF<<c, we can treat the mobile
electrons as non-relativistic particles.
The corresponding momentum:
h 3
pF 2mEF
2
1/ 3
occupancy
Naturally, the entropy of Fermi gas is zero at T=0 we are dealing with a single state
that can undergo no further ordering process.
What happens as we raise T, but keep kBT<<EF so that EF?
~ kBT
Empty states are available only above
(or within ~ kBT ) of the Fermi energy,
thus a very small fraction of electrons
can be accelerated by an electric field
and participate in the current flow.
T =0
The electrons with energies < EF (few) kBT cannot interact with anything
unless this excitation is capable of
raising them all the way to the Fermi energy.
= EF
g 1/ 2
h 2 3N
EF
8m V
(b)
2/3
6.6 10
3
28
8
.
5
10
8 9.11031
34 2
2/3
1.11018 J 6.7 eV
The electrons participate in the current flow if their energies correspond to the
occupancy n() that is not too close to 1 (no empty states available for the
accelerated electrons) and not too small (no electrons to accelerate). At T=300K,
calculate the energy interval that is occupied by the electrons that participate in the
current flow, assuming that for these electrons the occupancy varies between 0.1
and 0.9.
1
EF
exp
k BT
2kBT ln 9 0.11 eV
EF
1
9
0.9 exp 1
EF
k BT
1
exp 1
k BT
EF 1
1
0.1 exp 2
k
T
2 EF
B
9
1
exp
k BT
1 EF k BT ln 9
2 EF k BT ln 9
occupancy
(b)
(c)
3N
3/ 2
2 EF
- EF
N1
E F / 2
n g d
E F / 2
3N
3/ 2
2 EF
EF 0.5
3
N
N 0.012
4 EF
Thus, at T=300K, the ratio of the current-carrying electrons to all electrons in the
conduction is 0.012 or 1.2 %.
kBT
The fraction of electrons that we transfer to higher energies ~ kBT/EF, the energy
increase for these electrons ~ kBT. Thus, the increase of the internal energy with
temperature is proportional to N(kBT/EF) (kBT) ~ N (kBT)2 /EF.
k B2T
U T
3
k T
CV
N
is much smaller (by B 1) than CV Nk B for an ideal gas
EF
T V
2
EF
The Fermi gas heat capacity is much smaller than that of a classical ideal gas with the
same energy and pressure. This is because only a small fraction kBT/EF of the electrons
are excited out of the ground state. As required by the Third Law, the electronic heat
capacity in metals goes to 0 at T 0.
U T g f , T d
U0
occupancy
2 2
x
2
k BT 2 g EF
U U 0 2 g EF
d 2k BT g EF
dx
exp 1
exp x 1
12 6
0
0
dU T 2
Ce
g EF k B2T
dT
3
1 2m
g E F
2 2 2
3/ 2
EF
1/ 2
3 n
2 EF
Ce
2
2
Nk B
k BT
EF
- much less than the equipartition C. The small heat capacity is a direct consequence
of the Pauli principle: most of the electrons cannot change their energy.
Experimental Results
At low temperatures, the heat capacity of metals can be represented as the sum of
two terms:
3
CV K1T K 2T
due to electrons
due to phonons
At T < 10 K, this linear (electronic) term dominates in the total heat capacity of
metals: the other term due to lattice vibrations dies out at T 0 faster, as T 3.
2 2 N
On the other hand, EF
3
2m
V
2/3
U 0 N ,V g d
0
3 2 N 2 N
U0
3
10 m
V
and
3
N EF
5
2/3
A N 5 / 3V 2 / 3
At T=0, there is no distinction between the free energy F and the internal energy U0:
2 5 / 3 3 2 N 2 N
U 0
P
V
3
10 m
V
V N 3
1 h2 3
P
20 m
2/3
5/ 3
or
2
PV U 0
3
2/3
2/3
1 2n
2
3 2 n
n EF
5 m
5
However, this is a non-zero pressure at T = 0, which does not depend on T at T << EF.
Lets estimate this pressure for a typical metal:
2
nEF 1029 m-3 5 1019 J 5 1010 Pa
5
When an electron is confined in a very small space, it "flies about its tiny cell at high
speed, kicking with great force against adjacent electrons in their cells. This degenerate
motion ... cannot be stopped by cooling the matter. Nothing can stop it; it is forced on the
electron by the laws of quantum mechanics, even when the matter is at absolute zero
temperature" (Thorne 1994).
20 m
2
Pnonrel
2/3
n5 / 3
2
P n EF
5
n Gk F
E pc ck
Prel n 4 / 3
k3
G k 2
3
k F3
n 2
3
k F 3 2 n
EF c 3 n
2
1/ 3
1/ 3
The
relativistic
and
non-relativistic
expressions for electron degeneracy pressure
are equal at about that ne =1036 m-3, about
that of the core of a 0.3 M white dwarf.
As long as the star is not too massive, the Fermi
pressure prevents it from collapsing under gravity
and becoming a black hole.
Star Evolution
stars
in
which
White dwarfs
Nobel 1983
An estimate the upper limit of the white dwarfs mass (the Chandrasekhar mass):
Total number of electrons in the star ~ the number of protons:
Ne
GM 2
Total potential (gravitational) energy of the star: U g C g
R
M
mp
ne
Cg ~ 1
1/ 3
M 2 M 3
K C F N e EF C F
c 3
m p
m p 4R 3
c M 4 / 3
4/3
R
mp
-Ug
c M Ch
4/3
R
mp
4/3
GM
R
2
Ch
M Ch
c
4/3
m G
p
proton mass
energy
M 3
m p 4R 3
3/ 2
MCh
density
4
R 3
3
about three times nuclear density. In terms of the concentration of neutrons, this
corresponds to n = 3 1044 m-3. Let the star be made, instead of neutrons, of protons
and electrons, each with the concentration n ~ 3 1044 m-3, the # of protons = the # of
electrons (the star is electrically neutral). The mass difference between a proton and a
neutron is greater than the mass of an electron:
M n c 2 M p c 2 mec 2