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Research article
Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, 2 School of Education, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia, 3 Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA
Abstract
The specific aim of this study was to examine whether motivational climate, perceived physical competence, and exercise
motivation predict enjoyment in school physical education
within the same sample of adolescents across three years of
secondary school. A sample of 639 students (girls = 296, boys =
343) aged between 13- to 15-years at the commencement of the
study completed the Intrinsic Motivation Climate in Physical
Education Questionnaire, Physical Self-Perception Profile,
Physical Education Motivation Scale, and Physical Education
Enjoyment Scale. Results derived from path analyses indicated
that task-involving motivational climate predicted enjoyment in
physical education via perceived physical competence and
intrinsic motivation in both girls and boys. In particular, these
results supported previous findings of Vallerand et. al (1997)
with the self-determination theory and the achievement goal
theory. Ego-involving climate was not a significant predictor
either in girls or boys. The current results provide continuing
support for the investigation of Vallerands model in the physical education setting, and highlight that motivational climate is
an area that requires further evaluation as a contributing factor
in the improvement of physical education teaching. A better
understanding of the role of motivational climate may assist
efforts to promote childrens and adolescents perceived physical competence, intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment in the
school physical education setting.
Key words: enjoyment, motivation, school, physical education,
path analysis.
Introduction
According to the recommendations of health experts, all
primary school-aged children and secondary school
adolescents should accumulate at least 60 minutes of
moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (PA)
daily (World Health Organization, 2012). The review of
recent studies (Adolescents Health and Lifestyle Survey,
2005; Finnish Board of Educations Physical Education
Evaluation, 2010; School Health Promotion Study, 2010),
shows that a large part of Finnish adolescents fail to
achieve the recommended levels of daily PA. A number
of studies have revealed that the level of PA declines
during adolescence as they transfer from childhood into
adulthood (e.g. Corbin, Pangrazi and Le-Masurier, 2004;
Currie et al., 2008). It is generally believed that exercise
motivation is one crucial factor behind PA (Chen, 2001;
Ntoumanis et al., 2004; Yli-Piipari, 2011). Furthermore, a
plethora of studies have demonstrated that enjoyment
represents a key factor underlying the exercise motivation
for children and adolescents to maintain positive
Received: 29 November 2011 / Accepted: 18 February 2012 / Published (online): 01 June 2012
Grstn et al.
261
Methods
Participants
The participants of this study were recruited from eight
secondary schools located in the region of Central Finland
and sourced through direct contact with the school
principals. The grade seven students were members of 32
different PE groups. All children in each PE class were
invited to participate. The sample comprised 639 students
(girls = 296, boys = 343) aged between 13- to 15-years at
the commencement of the study. Data collection was
262
Prediction of enjoyment in PE
Grstn et al.
263
Results
Descriptive statistics, internal consistencies and Pearsons
correlations between variables were examined (Table 1).
Descriptive statistics show that adolescents perceived PE
motivational climate was more task-involving than egoinvolving.
Task-involving
climate
demonstrated
significant positive correlations with enjoyment, intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation, and perceived physical
competence for both boys and girls. Ego-involving
climate did not correlate significantly with any variables
for girls but significant correlations were found for boys
in both extrinsic motivation and task-involving climate.
Path analysis
The hypothesized motivational model revealed a nonacceptable fit for the data of girls and boys together. The
next step was to formulate the most reasonable model for
both groups by removing all non-significant path
coefficients from the model. The final model had a good
fit for the girls data (2 = [4] = 1.514, p > 0.05; RMR =
0.010; RMSEA = 0.000; NFI = 0.99; CFI = 1.0; GFI =
1.0; AGFI = 0.99) and an acceptable fit to the model for
the boys data (2 = [3] = 7.188, p > 0.05; RMR = 0.014;
Table1. Descriptive statistics, internal consistencies and Persons correlations (girls = 296, boys = 343).
Gender
Mean
SD
1
2
3
4
5
1 Enjoyment
3.47
.92
.92
.49***
.26***
.40***
.41***
3.54
.76
.87
.44***
.22***
.29***
.45***
2 Intrinsic motivation
3.13
.79
.96
.64***
.41***
.44***
3.20
.65
.95
.63***
.39***
.44***
3 Extrinsic motivation
2.75
.76
.90
.37***
.19***
2.95
.65
.91
.29***
.14**
4 Physical competence
3.16
.78
.90
.26***
3.43
.81
.89
.25***
5 Task involving climate
3.56
.74
.86
3.61
.71
.87
6 Ego- involving climate
2.93
.79
.87
3.18
.63
.73
** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001
6
.03
-.01
.02
.10
.10
.16
-.04
.09
.02
.23***
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Prediction of enjoyment in PE
Discussion
Enjoyment has been identified as a significant factor
underlying exercise motivation for children and
adolescents to maintain their positive engagement in both
PA and PE (Prochaska et al., 2003; Sallis, Prochaska and
Taylor, 2000; Wallhead and Buckworth, 2004; Yli-Piipari
et al., 2009). However, previous studies have revealed
that adolescents PA decreases across the secondary
school years (Corbin, Pangrazi and Le-Masurier, 2004;
Currie et al., 2008; Yli-Piipari, 2011). Therefore, it is
important to understand how motivational climate,
perceived physical competence and exercise motivation
influence enjoyment in school PE. The aim of this study
was to examine whether motivational climate, perceived
physical competence, and exercise motivation variables
predict enjoyment in school PE. It was hypothesized that
the perception of task-involving climate at Grade 7 would
be a positive predictor of PE enjoyment at Grade 9 via
perceived physical competence and intrinsic motivation.
Additionally, it was hypothesized that ego-involving
climate at Grade 7 would be a negative predictor of PE
enjoyment at Grade 9 via perceived physical competence
and extrinsic motivation.
This study was the first, in which the effects of
social-cognitive motivational factors (i.e. motivational
climate, perceived physical competence, and intrinsic
motivation) on PE enjoyment were analysed across the
secondary school years among the same sample of
adolescents. A large sample of 639 students were
monitored across their entire involvement at secondary
school and assessed at several key measurement points.
Previous studies have been designed as available cohort
investigations with samples changing across various time
Grstn et al.
periods (e.g. Neumark-Sztainer, 2003) or relatively shortterm interventions (e.g. Digelidis et al., 2003; Wallhead
and Ntoumanis, 2004).
The findings of the current study support existing
suggestions of Vallerands (1997) model in which social
factors mediated by a psychological mediator, and
exercise motivation are related to positive consequences
in the PE context such as fundamental movement skills
(Kalaja et al., 2009), intentions to participate in optional
PE courses (Ntoumanis, 2005), self-regulated motivation
(Ommundsen and Eikanger-Kvalo, 2007), and
concentration levels in PE (Standage, Duda and
Ntoumanis, 2005). The hypothesized motivational model
revealed a non-acceptable fit for the data with girls and
boys together. In previous studies, PE enjoyment (Carroll
and Loumidis, 2001), perceived physical competence
(Carroll and Loumidis, 2001; Fairclough, 2003), extrinsic
motivation (Yli-Piipari, 2011), and ego-involving
motivational climate (Moreno-Murcia et al., 2011) have
been shown to have statistically significant gender
differences. Therefore, we used gender as a grouping
variable in subsequent path analyses. As hypothesized,
task-involving motivational climate predicted PE
enjoyment via perceived physical competence and
intrinsic motivation in both girls and boys. In particular,
these results supported previous findings associated with
the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985;
1991; 2000) and the achievement goal theory (Nicholls,
1989) as demonstrated by the linking of task-involving
climate in PE to perceived physical competence
(Wallhead and Ntoumanis, 2004), intrinsic motivation
(Digelidis and Papaioannou, 1999), and PE enjoyment
(Digelidis and Papaioannou, 2002; Soini, 2006; Wallhead
and Ntoumanis, 2004). The current results provide
continuing support for the investigation of the Vallerands
model in the PE setting, and highlights that motivational
climate is an area that requires continuing evaluation as a
contributing factor in improving PE teaching.
In contrast, for the hypothesized model, egoinvolving motivational climate had poor fit with the
psychological outcomes in PE. Ego-involving climate did
not fit either the data for the girls or boys. This finding
did not support the model of Vallerand (1997), as PE
lessons based on ego-involving motivational climate did
not significantly influence on the level of PE enjoyment.
This finding is similar to the results of the British study
(Ntoumanis et al., 2005), in which they found that taskinvolving motivational climate was more conducive to the
satisfaction of the three psychological needs compared to
an ego-involving climate. Standage, Duda and Ntoumanis
(2005) evidenced also that a lesser extent of perceptions
of mastery climate positively impacted hypothesized
mediating variables to foster self-determined motivation.
Either extrinsic motivation did not fit into the
hypothesized model, dissimilarly with previous findings
of Ntoumanis (2002) and Standage, Duda and Ntoumanis
(2005), in which non-autonomous types of motivation
have been shown to be related to negative outcomes in
PE. The possible reason for ego-involving climate and
extrinsic motivation being removed from the
hypothesized model might be the setting with several
265
266
Prediction of enjoyment in PE
Conclusion
The present study examined whether motivational climate
at Grade 7, perceived physical competence, and intrinsic
motivation at Grade 8 predict enjoyment in school PE at
Grade 9. The results showed that task-involving
motivational climate at Grade 7 predicted enjoyment in
PE at grade 9 via perceived physical competence, and
intrinsic motivation. A better understanding of the role of
motivational climate may assist efforts to promote
childrens and adolescents perceived physical
competence, intrinsic motivation, and further PE
enjoyment by task-involving climate in PE.
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Key points
The findings of the current study support existing
suggestions of Vallerands (1997) model in which
social factors mediated by a psychological mediator,
and exercise motivation are related to positive consequences in the PE context.
Task-involving motivational climate predicted PE
enjoyment via perceived physical competence and
intrinsic motivation with both girls and boys. Taskinvolving motivational climate in PE lessons at
Grade 7 had a strong association with PE enjoyment
via perceived physical competence and intrinsic motivation at Grade 9 for both girls and boys.
Ego-involving climate did not fit either the data for
the girls or boys, as PE lessons based on egoinvolving motivational climate did not significantly
influence on the level of PE enjoyment.
The results of the current study and previous practical findings support task-involving teaching methods to promote adolescents PE enjoyment through
secondary school years. School PE could be most effective if based on task-involving motivational climate, in which the main objective is increasing students perceived physical competence, intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment.
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
Arto GRSTN
Employment
Researcher, Department of Sport Sciences,
University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
Degree
MEd
Research interests
Motivation, physical activity, physical education
E-mail: agrasten@jyu.fi
Timo JAAKKOLA
Employment
Lecturer, Department of Sport Sciences,
University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Sport and exercise motivation, physical
activity, motor skills
E-mail: timo.jaakkola@jyu.fi
Jarmo LIUKKONEN
Employment
Professor of Sport Pedagogy, Department of
Sport Sciences, University of Jyvaskyla,
Finland
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Motivational climate in school PE, psychosocial determinants of physical activity
E-mail: jarmo.liukkonen@jyu.fi
Grstn et al.
269
Anthony WATT
Employment
Senior Lecturer, School of Education, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Mental imagery, motor learning, assessment
in sport psychology, physical activity participation, physical education pedagogy
E-mail: Anthony.Watt@vu.edu.au
Sami YLI-PIIPARI
Employment
Researcher, Department of Kinesiology,
University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
US
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Motivation, values, peer relationships in
physical education
E-mail: srylipii@uncg.edu
Arto Grstn
University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Sport Sciences, Box 35,
40014 University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
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