Future Mining Engineers Educational Development Strategy

M Scoble1 and D Laurence2

ABSTRACT
Significant developments in future mining systems, technology and best
practices are emerging that are driven by issues relating to human
resources, competitiveness, environmental and social responsibility,
within the dynamics of globalisation. It is proposed that the definition of
the role and attributes of the mining engineer in the mine life cycle needs
to be viewed more holistically in the face of increasingly more diverse
and complex responsibilities. These developments are motivating the
need to consider a fresh approach to mining education and training at all
levels for industry.
A growing diversity and complexity of professional responsibilities is
extending the mining engineers broadly based skill set and reinforcing
the need to play a central role within increasingly interdisciplinary teams.
On the other hand, the imminent new technologies that will transform the
mining process are prompting the assumption that more focused and
specialised skill sets will be needed. A way forward is suggested that
would first define a blueprint for the future mine, as an attempt to
characterise the systems architecture, processes and organisation of the
next generation mine. This can be the basis for assessing the nature of the
workforce and distribution of responsibilities, from which can be inferred
the skills and training requirements. In the context of the mining
engineer, the paper explores how understanding such future requirements
will enable more proactive development of a strategy for educational
development. The paper then concludes by considering issues and lessons
learned from some recent mining educational development initiatives
underway in Australia and Canada that are shaping significant change.

INTRODUCTION
Ten years ago the Minerals Council of Australia published Back
from the brink Reshaping minerals tertiary education
(Minerals Council of Australia, 1998). Without changes, it was
suggested that Australias minerals education could be:
pushed over the brink of viability as a long
term supplier of the graduates that Australian
industry will need in years ahead.
The paper pointed out:
graduates often have a poor understanding of
how their theoretical knowledge can be applied
in practice. They also tend to be unaware of the
importance of communication and people skills,
how business decisions are made, OHS, the
demands of life in (often remote) operational
settings and other significant issues facing
industry
and:
undergraduate education should deliver
technical excellence in the fundamental
principles of science and engineering, an
understanding of broader issues facing the
industry and the ability to continue to learn.

1.

Professor and R E Hallbauer Chair in Mining Engineering,

Department of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia,
5th Floor, 6350 Stores Road, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
Email: malcolms@interchange.ubc.ca

2.

FAusIMM, Director Postgraduate Studies and International

Development, School of Mining Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Sydney NSW 2052. Email: d.laurence@unsw.edu.au

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This discussion paper was the catalyst for change in mining

engineering education in Australia and one of its tangible
outcomes is Mining Education Australia, the joint venture
between the top three Australian mining schools. This and other
initiatives have eased the supply shortages in terms of quantity
and quality but challenges will need to be met in the future.
The world of mining has changed dramatically in the past ten
years with the economic development of China and India; record
commodity prices; stability in some resource-rich countries
(eg South-East Asia); instability in others (eg Africa); greater
recognition of the need for community engagement; and so on.
Thus it is timely to analyse and attempt to describe what skill
sets a mining engineer needs to thrive in this dramatically
changing environment.
The industry has expressed a greater commitment to new
technology and practices as part of the quest towards improved
health and safety, competitiveness, sustainable development and
corporate social responsibility. Mining engineers who are
strongly grounded in enabling technologies and systems
engineering, as well as in change management and innovation,
will be key prerequisites to success in technology transfer and
process transformation for the next generation mine. New mining
systems technology, as well as process adaptation for best
practices, in the hands of a next generation of innovative mining
engineers offers the solution to addressing the new interactive
issues that are emerging, for example, related to globalisation,
human resources, automation and control, water and energy
issues and climate change.
The current issues in recruitment and retention of human
resources, compounded by the ongoing global mining boom and
demographics-based HR crisis, have prompted significant recent
initiatives, although these have yet to look too far in the future. In
Canada this has resulted in the formation of the Mining Industry
Human Resources Council (2008), funded by the Canadian
government. The council collaborates with all communities of
interest (employers, educators, organised labour, Aboriginal
groups and others) to address human resources challenges facing
the Canadian minerals and metals sector. A related initiative in
Australia is the Mining Industry Skills Centre (2008). This has
a vision to create a one stop shop for both industry and
government on all matters relating to the training and
development of a sustainable workforce to meet the mining
industrys current and future needs. The HR crisis also underlines
the priority need to address mining education, not only from the
point of view of product quantity but also quality, relevance and
alignment. Re-engineering the mining education process is
getting underway in some schools and recognised to be a
challenge that needs to be shared together by industry and
academia.
Mining engineering curricula in Australia historically evolved
by focusing on the academic requirements associated with a
mine managers statutory certificate of competency (Laurence
and Galvin, 2006). It is no longer adequate to just educate
mining engineers in how to design and operate mines safely.
There remains a necessity for a strong focus on these skills, but
this potentially risks the exclusion of other knowledge and skill
sets which are becoming increasingly relevant. The expectations
of the capabilities of the future mining engineer, on the part of
both industry and society, are shifting in response to the need to
accommodate the dynamics of technology advances as well as
changing real world issues and the paradigm of sustainable
mining.

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M SCOBLE AND D LAURENCE

A future mine blueprint would attempt to clearly show the

integration of the next generation mining systems architecture,
technologies and processes. If this next generation mine can be
characterised reliably then it should be a basis for identifying not
only the human capital, in terms of the distribution of employees
and work responsibilities, but also what then can be inferred as
the skill set and capability requirements. This in turn should be a
model on which to construct an educational development
strategy. It seems logical that industry would be best served by
relating future mining systems to sustainability drivers and
technology advances. There is then an ability to account for
human resources implications in its strategic planning. From the
university viewpoint, it is important to plan more strategically
and anticipate the future mining needs through proactive
educational development.

A HOLISTIC VIEW OF MINING ENGINEERING

A more holistic view of mining engineering, based upon a strong
framework of more diverse systems for mine design and planning
needs to be promoted. It is important to anchor the core systems
of mining, mineral processing and geology in the context of
mining engineering. The core systems traditionally bring
together the interaction between the mineral resources, mining
and processing systems. Other engineering and applied science
contributions support the technologies and practices that account
for equipment, power, water, etc. Also, it is becoming
increasingly important to recognise the interdependence that
exists between environmental and social factors that now need to
be related to traditional technical and economic factors in mine
design, planning and management (see Figure 1). It appears to be
sensible that this more holistic framework could be rooted in a
paradigm of sustainable mineral resources development. The
need to account for social licence, environmental and social
impact assessment, regulatory and permitting constraints, risk
assessment and management in mine design and planning is
becoming paramount. Also, the concept of the mine life
cycle needs to be reflected in that framework, encompassing
exploration, development, construction, production, rehabilitation/
reclamation and closure. In this context, the mining engineer
needs to become even more an integrator of diverse skill sets
and best practices, and a coordinator of an increasingly
interdisciplinary team. The management of projects and people
based upon strong leadership and social intelligence are
fundamental to success in this role.

INFUSION OF OTHER DISCIPLINES INTO

MINING ENGINEERING
Interdisciplinary collaboration can leverage synergies between
university researchers and teachers that can enhance the capacity

MINERAL
RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT

ENGINEERING
SCIENCES
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES

GEOSCIENCES
MINING
SCIENCES

POLICY AND
LAW

ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCES
SOCIAL
SCIENCES

of relatively insular and small mining schools. The last decade

has seen a movement in mining education and research towards
more interdisciplinary collaboration to focus more diverse
expertise on issues such as environmental stewardship and
sustainable development. History, however, shows us some
notable contributions from outside the mining discipline, for
example, in mine ventilation, explosives and blasting.
UBC Mining led an application to the Canadian government
for research funding in 1997 to form a Canadian Network for
Sustainable Mining, involving several universities integrating
expertise in mining, environmental and social sciences. In some
respects it was ahead of its time. Persistence over subsequent
years met with significant successes but not on the scale of a
large national network. Mining research (and education) has not
politically been on Canadian government radar screens and our
branch of engineering has few stellar researchers to compete
with the more appealing life scientists. That initial dedication to
interdisciplinarity, however, grew into an independent model
centred on the UBC campus in mining sustainability. A core
group of professors and postgraduate students interacted to
coalesce into what came to be called the Sustainability Working
Group (SWG). This grew into a group of researchers,
government and industry practitioners who shared a dedication to
informal collaboration in a flexible learning mode. Members
originating from diverse disciplines were needed to support
credibility and the required range in capacity. This model built a
legacy of capacity to relate all aspects of mining engineering to
sustainability. Our aim for the mining school through SWG was
to develop the capacity to integrate sustainability principles
widely into our teaching, in parallel with a world-class program
of research. The model required that students from other relevant
disciplines as well as mining engineering are infused to add the
diversity to fuel the growth of the initiative. Considerable work
went in to developing the commitment of academics from other
disciplines at UBC and other universities to join the graduate
student supervisory teams and to fill critical gaps. The last link
was to bridge to industrial, government and NGO partners in
what proved to be a collaborative, interactive learning mechanism
(Costa and Scoble, 2006). In addition to high-quality research,
the postgraduates from these non-engineering points of origin
have been very successful in gaining excellent employment
opportunities in mining and consulting companies, academia and
government. The mining school has also greatly benefited from
the legacy of their intellectual capital. These efforts continue to
account for around 20 per cent of the 85 total postgraduate
student population in the mining engineering department.
Similarly, the University of New South Wales (UNSW)
School of Mining Engineering has hosted a sustainable mining
resources research group since 2000. Students working in this

OHS
GEOMECHANICS
VENTILATION
WATER, ENERGY

MINERAL
PROCESSING

MINE
LIFE CYCLE:
DESIGN --PLANNING &
OPERATION

GROUND
EXCAVATION,
MATERIALS
HANDLING

ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSET
& SOCIAL
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES

FIG 1 - A more holistic view of mining engineering.

238

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FUTURE MINING ENGINEERS EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

area generally have prior education in non-mining engineering

disciplines. Research areas include mine closure, risk and safety
management, sustainable development indicators in mining,
sustainable mining in developing countries and so on. Active
collaboration is taking place both within Australia and more
particular with mining schools in India, China and South-East
Asia. The school also hosts postgraduate coursework programs in
mining engineering, designed principally for those in the mining
industry who wish to pursue mining engineering careers without
having to complete a full four year undergraduate degree or
those who need a mining qualification to satisfy the Mine
Managers Certificate educational requirements or simply other
professionals looking to enter the mining industry. These
alternative pathways to mining engineering have grown
enormously in popularity over the past five years.

FUTURE MINE BLUEPRINT

The mining engineer designs and plans the systems architecture
of a mine through its life cycle and assumes a range of
responsibilities for its development and operation to post-closure.
Figure 2 demonstrates a classification of these areas of
responsibility and reflects the observation of the diversity and
complexity of the required personal skill sets, tools and
knowledge of best practices. Three classes of responsibility are
shown: social, environmental and technological. Legislation,
which in itself is a moving target, will often determine the nature
of these responsibilities. Although the mining engineer is
required to possess a reasonable professional competency to deal
with responsibilities in all three of these areas, assisted by the
integration of interdisciplinary specialists, the significant level of
proficiency needs to remain in the core, mining technological
responsibilities. These interdisciplinary specialists for industry,
for example in community relations, law, environmental sciences,
civil, electrical and mechanical engineering may exist on mine
site, in corporate headquarters or in internal or external
consulting groups. The future mine is likely to see an increasing
dependency on interdisciplinary support within the responsibility
areas shown.

The current human resources crisis has created a dire shortage

of experienced specialists but this will be compounded further by
the need for a new breed of specialists as new technologies
become implemented. The implementation of automation and
control in both underground and surface mining systems is a
particularly significant example, following on from the well
established advances in process control in mineral processing
plants. Underground automated drill-blast-transport systems in
hard rock mines, particularly in block caving systems, are on the
verge of widespread operational implementation (albeit after
more than 20 years of sporadic research). The underground coal
industry faces renewed advances in automated excavation, anticollision and process control technologies. Autonomous truck
haulage is imminent in surface mines. Having the professional
expertise to deal with these forms of excavation and transport
automation, in addition to further mineral processing and
environmental impact mitigation technologies will test the ability
to take competitive advantage of the new technological advances.
The same could be said for communications and information
systems technologies in facilitating mine wide information
systems for enhanced production planning and control. These
technological changes to the operational environment are in the
area of the core responsibilities for the mining engineer. The
reliability and cost effectiveness of such systems will impact
significantly on the mining engineers responsibilities. Above all,
the considerations of systems safety and human factors will be
paramount, particularly with respect to the potential interaction
between automated systems and the workforce.
Figure 2 demonstrates the diverse and complex challenges to
educational development for future mining. The next generation
of educational programs need to generate a bachelors graduate
with the ability to understand the holistic nature of mining
engineering but with three professional priorities. The first
priority is to seek excellence in the ability to deal with the core
technological responsibilities. The second priority is to develop
a fundamental understanding of the skill sets, tools and
best practices to shoulder the environmental and social
responsibilities. The third priority it to develop personal qualities

Ecosystem Integrity
Workforce Health and Safety
Environmental Footprint
Skills & Training: Lifelong Learning
Waste Management
Workplace Quality of Life
Reclamation-Closure
Community Relations - Social Licence
Energy Efficiency-Power
Geomechanical-Hydrological Control
VentilationEmergency Response

Water Quality-Conservation
CO2 Emissions-Sequestration

Rock Fragmentation Transport

Geological reserves-grade control
In situ mining-processing

Minewide Information Systems

Automation & Control Systems
Systems Safety-Human Factors

DESIGN & PLANNING

Integrated Mine-Mill Processes

OPERATIONAL CONTROL

Asset Management

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
FIG 2 - Mining engineering classification of areas of responsibility.

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M SCOBLE AND D LAURENCE

and social intelligence, especially to gain the capability to excel

in an interdisciplinary environment. The bachelors degree is thus
a foundation qualification to enter the industry for the next stage
of lifelong learning. That professional development will likely
see further educational and training episodes, potentially
undertaken within industry or returning to university for graduate
programs. Companies are increasingly recognising the need to
adopt this approach, not only to develop but also to retain their
human capital. These programs will likely continue to evolve to
generate the ability for the mining generalist to assume a form of
specialism, for example, focusing on applied mining (such as
geostatistics, rock mechanics and blasting), environmental (such
as groundwater, tailings management and acid rock drainage),
social (such as policy and regulation, community relations) or
management sciences.
A particular emerging challenge is how to deal with the
professional support in-house required for implementing and
maintaining advanced technology mining systems. There appears
to be at least four routes, not necessarily mutually exclusive, to
meeting this challenge. For example, returning to the subject of
underground mining automation, the first route is to develop
further the existing concept whereby mining engineering and/or
electro-mechanical-computer engineering undergraduates could
take double degrees or minors. This generates a versatile
graduate with complementary strength in both fields: mining
engineering and automation-robotics.
The second route would be to implement focused Masters
programs that transition mining engineering graduates from the
aforementioned mining generalist into an automated mining
systems (AMS) specialist. This is to develop a basic capacity in
communications, robotics, monitoring and control technologies
so as to ground the mining engineer in the fundamentals of such
subject areas. The emphasis in such development would be to
gain professional capacity to manage the operation and
maintenance of automated mine production systems and their
associated personnel, legitimately taking responsibility for their
production performance and systems safety. The mine will still
be dependent upon the specialist automation engineer and
technician (SAET), but that person will be focused on the
architecture, hardware and software infrastructure, in terms
of technical integrity. SAET personnel would be recruited
from conventional electro-mechanical-computer technology
backgrounds. In contrast, the AMS specialist should be able to
relate mining production performance parameters (eg rock mass
behaviour, fragmentation, grade control, production rates and costs)
to technology performance and risk (eg availability, utilisation and
maintainability of the automated mining system). Communications
and teamwork between the AMS and SAET personnel would be
critical.
A third route would be to recruit SAET personnel with electromechanical-computer technology backgrounds and transition
them through a diploma or masters in mining engineering with a
production focus. Finally, a fourth route that might supplement
the other three, would be to facilitate distance education
and short course programs to enable mine site personnel to
cross-train and develop capacity, integrated into employment.
These programs would be dependent upon automation expertise
being available from electro-mechanical-computer educational
specialists with some mining experience.

student recruitment significantly as well as industry and B C

government financial support to form the N B Keevil Institute for
Mining Engineering (2008). Its staff are currently working with
both the students and its Industry Advisory Committee to
reappraise its curriculum to meet a new definition for the future
mine and its mining engineer.
Mining Education Australia, the national school of mining
engineering is a formal partnership between the Curtin
University of Technology, the University of New South Wales,
and the University of Queensland, supported by the Mineral
Council of Australias (MCA) Minerals Tertiary Education
Council (MTEC). In the words of the MCAs Chief Executive,
Mr Mitchell H Hooke:
developing the collaborative university
program is part of the MCAs nationally
coordinated strategy for the minerals industry to
overcome the well-documented global shortage
of professionals and tradespeople. Mining
Education Australia is being designed to
strengthen our alliance with Australias premier
suppliers of mining engineering graduates and
help alleviate the skills crisis by providing a
dependable source of well qualified mining
engineers into the next decade (Hooke, 2005).
MEA in a nutshell provides a common curriculum for the final
two years of mining engineering education across the three
institutions, which represent the three largest mining states. It is
now in its second year and overall, the program has succeeded in
its goal of providing the best education for its participating
students of any mining program in the world. Initiatives include
project-based learning in many of the subjects, elimination of
exams, group work and peer reviews.
The general engineering fraternity at universities worldwide
has been evaluating the quality of their educational experience
provided to students in recent years. In a new approach to
measuring Australasian higher education quality, a survey was
conducted in 2007 by the Australian Council for Educational
Research (ACER) on student engagement, defined as students
involvement with activities and conditions likely to generate
high-quality learning. This built upon an earlier North American
National Survey of Student Engagement. Measures of student
engagement are aimed to provide information about an
individuals intrinsic involvement with their learning, and the
extent to which they are making use of available educational
opportunities (ACER, 2008). The survey used six scales in a
questionnaire, designed to tap a range of what were considered
to be key educational Performance parameters that relate to
engagement, see Table 1. These scales demonstrate the increased
efforts on the part of academia to understand students and to
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of their educational
efforts.
TABLE 1
Six scales of student engagement (ACER, 2008).
Scale
Academic challenge

Extent to which expectations-assessments

challenge students to learn

Active learning

Students efforts to actively construct their

knowledge

Student and staff

interactions

Level and nature of students contact with

teaching staff

MINING EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Canada, Australia and other developed countries
Mining schools globally have traditionally seen recruitment and
survival at risk during industry down cycles, for example at the
turn of 2000 many North American, as well as Australian schools
were close to extinction (Scoble, 2003). Many are now in a state
of renaissance, after decades of being the Cinderella on Campus.
At UBC a concerted development effort has raised mining

240

Description

Enriching educational
experiences
Supportive learning
environment
Work integrated
learning

Sydney, NSW, 19 - 21 November 2008

Participation in broadening educational

activities
Feelings of legitimation within the university
community
Integration of employment-focused work
experiences into study

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FUTURE MINING ENGINEERS EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

One ACER scale, work integrated learning, has been seen in

Canada to significantly reinforce the university learning
experience through the implementation of a cooperative
education (COOP) model. Students are formally tutored in work
related skill sets by a central campus COOP professional group
which also coordinates successively more responsible four month
work terms spent in industry. The UBC mining engineering
COOP bachelors degree involves eight academic terms and five
work terms, resulting in a five year degree period (UBC
Engineering Co-op, 2008). The value of such carefully managed
work term experience, however, is significant in terms of
personal and professional development.
Many engineering academics are looking to the masters
degree as becoming the professional engineering degree of the
future because of difficulties of cramming enough of the diverse
courses into the bachelor degree curriculum over four years
(Galloway, 2007). (The mining engineering undergraduate
degree at UBC like many others was reduced from five to four
years in length in the 1990s.) Other strategies include appending
blocks of courses in relevant disciplines onto a mining
engineering degree, for example as a minor in management, or a
specialist area such as a minor in automation and control, or
environmental management, or community relations. Another
strategy, as discussed earlier, may be to recruit engineers or
scientists from advanced technology areas who themselves have
completed minors in mining engineering. UBC offers a
certificate in mining studies, aimed to enable cross-training, later
in the career to acquire new skill sets for upward or lateral
mobility in a professional career (Scoble, 2007). The certificate
is based on a blend of internet-based courses and conventional
short courses (Infomine Inc, 2008). This enables the integration
of learning into employment patterns. The recognition of the
value of lifelong learning in developing the mines human capital
is beginning to be appreciated, as companies begin to promote
professional development opportunities with employees. This
process will likely gain momentum as the future mine transforms
into a learning organisation (Scoble, 2007).

Research is not severable from issues surrounding

education Research has a significant role in:

promoting higher quality undergraduate

education,

developing the international standing of

universities,

establishing academic nurseries, and

transferring up to date technology to
undergraduates.
Furthermore, it stated that universities must reward behaviour:
aimed at placing a priority on the development
of teaching excellence in tertiary education.
In Australia, mining academics have struggled to obtain
research funding from government and especially in the case of
non-coal projects, from industry. Mining engineers generally are
attracted to a career in academia if they can pursue their research
interests. Furthermore, universities are increasingly promoting
staff predominantly on the basis of research performance. Without
funding, the research will not be carried out, promotions will not
happen and the talented staff will either leave the profession or not
be attracted to it in the first place. Industry and government need
to support research capacity in the mining schools. Undoubtedly, it
is sensible for a mining company to seek the best world-class
research capacity on campus to undertake a research task to
address its R&D priorities. This capacity may well be located
outside the mining school on that campus. There is a host of
excellent research, however, that can be very successful in more
applied areas that would be extremely supportive to a mining
school. Industry has a role to play in fostering research in and
around mines that generate the highly qualified people that will be
the next generation of employees or academics. It also should
consider investing directly in mining schools in order to ensure
optimum graduate recruitment: high quality graduates that are
aligned with industry needs (Scoble, 2008).

CONCLUSION

Mining schools in the developing world

The context of tertiary minerals education in many developing
countries differs significantly from that of Australia and Canada.
In India, for example, numerous mining schools graduate large
numbers of students. Anecdotally, it is believed that most of
these graduates do not enter the mining industry, preferring to
gain jobs in the information technology or similar industries. In
Chile and Peru, the expanding mining industry is able to provide
employment for most of its graduates. In China, there are large
numbers of both schools and students but again many students do
not enter the industry. Opportunities exist for mining schools in
Canada and Australia, for example, to admit the best of these
students at a postgraduate level to enable the student to:

be exposed to state-of-the-art mining technologies as

practiced in two of the most efficient mining countries,

learn in English,
establish a network of other professionals, and
enable these students to return to their careers with a global
outlook as future mine and general managers.

UniversityIndustry relations
This paper has addressed the skill set required of future mining
engineers. It needs to be remembered that the universities and
mining schools therein are where mining engineers develop those
skills. Without motivated and talented academics teaching these
skills they will not be transferred to the mining engineer of
the future mine. The outcomes of Back from the Brink bear
repeating:

First International Future Mining Conference

The Minerals Council of Australia challenged the status quo with

its discussion paper, Back from the brink Reshaping minerals
tertiary education. It was a catalyst that enabled the industry to
fulfil its requirements for quality mining engineers in the period
since its publication. However, future mining engineers will
require a fresh combination of interdisciplinary technical and
social skill sets, based upon sound knowledge of technology and
leading practice. Equally important, this must also be aligned
with personal characteristics that bring innovation, ethics,
teamwork, leadership and a passion for mining. Looking to the
future, it seems sensible to pursue the ability to understand the
characteristics of the future mine and to start to develop a longer
term vision of a strategy for mining engineering schools to
prepare for the future expectations of industry and society.
Mining is a very distinctive profession that will undoubtedly
be transformed in the coming decades. An important task will be
to reshape mining education to align with the changing needs
that primarily appear to be driven by the dynamics of
technological advances and sustainable development. It will also
be critical to reinvigorate the human and physical resources that
serve the educational process within our mining schools. This is
a collaborative task for academics, alumni, industry and
government together. Also, there is no reason why educational
collaboration cannot involve global schools to the benefit of all.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of students
and staff at the University of New South Wales and the

Sydney, NSW, 19 - 21 November 2008

241

M SCOBLE AND D LAURENCE

University of British Columbia. The views expressed in this

paper are personal and should not be construed to necessarily
represent the formal viewpoints of the universities.

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Production, 14:366-373.
Galloway, P D, 2007. The 21st-century engineer: A proposal for
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Sydney, NSW, 19 - 21 November 2008

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