Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays - Electrical Notes & Articles

3/21/2015
TypesandRevolutionofElectricalRelays|ElectricalNotes&Articles
ElectricalNotes&Articles
SharingAbstracts,NotesonvariousElectricalEngineeringTopics.
TypesandRevolutionofElectricalRelays
DECEMBER1,2012 4COMMENTS
(HTTPS://ELECTRICALNOTES.WORDPRESS.COM/2012/12/01/TYPESANDREVOLUTIONOF
ELECTRICALRELAYS/#COMMENTS)
Introduction:
Protectiverelaysworkinconcertwithsensingandcontroldevicestoaccomplishtheir
function.Undernormalpowersystemoperation,aprotectiverelayremainsidleandservesno
activefunction.ButwhenfaultorundesirableconditionarrivesRelaymustbeoperatedand
functioncorrectly.
APowerSystemconsistsofvariouselectricalcomponentslikeGenerator,transformers,
transmissionlines,isolators,circuitbreakers,busbars,cables,relays,instrumenttransformers,
distributionfeeders,andvarioustypesofloads.Faultsmayoccurinanypartofpowersystem
asashortcircuit&earthfault.FaultmaybeSingleLinetoGround,DoubleLinetoGround,
LinetoLine,threephaseshortcircuitetc.Thisresultsinflowofheavyfaultcurrentthrough
thesystem.Faultlevelalsodependsonthefaultimpedancewhichdependsonthelocationof
faultreferredfromthesourceside.Tocalculatefaultlevelatvariouspointsinthepower
system,faultanalysisisnecessary.
Theprotectionsystemoperatesandisolatesthefaultysection.Theoperationoftheprotection
systemshouldbefastandselectivei.e.itshouldisolateonlythefaultysectionintheshortest
possibletimecausingminimumdisturbancetothesystem.Also,ifmainprotectionfailsto
operate,thereshouldbeabackupprotectionforwhichproperrelaycoordinationisnecessary.
Failureofaprotectiverelaycanresultindevastatingequipmentdamageandprolonged
downtime.
WorkingofProtectiveScheme:
https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesandrevolutionofelectricalrelays/
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Protectiverelayingsensestheabnormalconditioninapartofpowersystemandgivesan
alarmorisolatesthatpartfromhealthysystem.ProtectiverelayingisateamworkofCT,PT,
protectiverelays,timedelayrelays,tripcircuits,circuitbreakersetc.
Protectiverelayingplaysanimportantroleinminimizingthefaultsandalsoinminimizingthe
damageintheeventoffaults.
(https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesandrevolution
ofelectricalrelay/141/)
Figureshowsbasicconnectionsofcircuitbreakercontrolfortheopeningoperation.The
protectedcircuitXisshownbydashedline.Whenafaultoccursintheprotectedcircuitthe
relayconnectedtoCTandPTactuatesandclosesitscontacts.
Currentflowsfrombatteryinthetripcircuit.Asthetripcoilofcircuitbreakerisenergized,the
circuitbreakeroperatingmechanismisactuatedanditoperatesfortheopeningoperation.
Thusthefaultissensedandthetripcircuitisactuatedbytherelayandthefaultypartis
isolated.
WhatisRelay:
Arelayisautomaticdevicewhichsensesanabnormalconditionofelectricalcircuitandcloses
itscontacts.Thesecontactsinturnscloseandcompletethecircuitbreakertripcoilcircuit
hencemakethecircuitbreakertrippedfordisconnectingthefaultyportionoftheelectrical
circuitfromrestofthehealthycircuit.
FunctionsofprotectiveRelay:
TosoundanalarmortoclosethetripcircuitofacircuitbreakersoastodisconnectFaulty
Section.
Todisconnecttheabnormallyoperatingpartsoastopreventsubsequentfaults.Fore.g.
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OverloadprotectionofamachinenotonlyprotectsthemachinebutalsopreventsInsulation
failure.
Toisolateordisconnectfaultedcircuitsorequipmentquicklyfromtheremainderofthe
systemsothesystemcancontinuetofunctionandtominimizethedamagetothefaultypart.
ForexampleIfmachineisdisconnectedimmediatelyafterawindingfault,onlyafewcoils
mayneedreplacement.Butifthefaultissustained,theentirewindingmaygetdamagedand
machinemaybebeyondrepairs.
Tolocalizetheeffectoffaultbydisconnectingthefaultypartfromhealthypart,causingleast
disturbancetothehealthysystem.
Todisconnectthefaultypartquicklysoastoimprovesystemstability,servicecontinuityand
systemperformance.Transientstabilitycanbeimprovedbymeansofimprovedprotective
relaying.
Tominimizehazardstopersonnel
Desirablequalitiesofprotectiverelaying:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Selectivity,
Discrimination
Stability
Sensitivity,
Powerconsumption
SystemSecurity
Reliability
Adequateness
Speed&Time
Terminologyofprotectiverelay:
Pickuplevelofactuatingsignal:Thevalueofactuatingquantity(voltageorcurrent)whichis
onthresholdabovewhichtherelayinitiatestobeoperated.Ifthevalueofactuatingquantityis
increased,theelectromagneticeffectoftherelaycoilisincreasedandaboveacertainlevelof
actuatingquantitythemovingmechanismoftherelayjuststartstomove.
Resetlevel:Thevalueofcurrentorvoltagebelowwhicharelayopensitscontactsandcomes
inoriginalposition.
OperatingTimeofRelay:Justafterexceedingpickuplevelofactuatingquantitythemoving
mechanism(forexamplerotatingdisc)ofrelaystartsmovinganditultimatelyclosetherelay
contactsattheendofitsjourney.Thetimewhichelapsesbetweentheinstantwhenactuating
quantityexceedsthepickupvaluetotheinstantwhentherelaycontactsclose.
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ResettimeofRelay:Thetimewhichelapsesbetweentheinstantwhentheactuatingquantity
becomeslessthantheresetvaluetotheinstantwhentherelaycontactsreturnstoitsnormal
position.
ReachofRelay:Adistancerelayoperateswheneverthedistanceseenbytherelayislessthan
theprespecifiedimpedance.Theactuatingimpedanceintherelayisthefunctionofdistance
inadistanceprotectionrelay.Thisimpedanceorcorrespondingdistanceiscalledreachofthe
relay.
HistoryofProtectiveRelay:
Theevolutionofprotectiverelaysbeginswiththeelectromechanicalrelays.Overthepast
decadeitupgradedfromelectromechanicaltosolidstatetechnologiestopredominateuseof
microprocessorsandmicrocontrollers.
Thetimelineofthedevelopmentofprotectiverelaysisshownbelow
1900to1963
1963to1972
1972to1980
1980to1990
ElectromechanicalRelay.
StaticRelay
DigitalRelay
NumericalRelay
1925=SingleDiscType
Relay(SingleInput)
1963=StaticRelay
(AllPurpose)
1961=SingleCupType
Relay(ImpedanceRelay)
1972=StaticRelay
withselfchecking
(AllPurpose)
1980=Digital
TypeRelay
(AllPurpose)
1990=Numerical
TypeRelay(All
Purpose)
TypesofRelays:
Typesofprotectionrelaysaremainly
(A)BasedonCharacteristic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
DefinitetimeRelays.
InversedefiniteminimumtimeRelays(IDMT)
InstantaneousRelays
IDMTwithInstantaneous.
SteppedCharacteristic
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6. ProgrammedSwitches
7. Voltagerestraintovercurrentrelay
(B)Basedonlogic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Differential
Unbalance
NeutralDisplacement
Directional
RestrictedEarthFault
OverFluxing
DistanceSchemes
BusbarProtection
ReversePowerRelays
Lossofexcitation
NegativePhaseSequenceRelaysetc.
(C)BasedonActuatingparameter:
1.
2.
3.
4.
CurrentRelays
VoltageRelays
FrequencyRelays
PowerRelaysetc.
(D)BasedonOperationMechanism:
(A)ElectroMagneticRelay
(B)StaticRelay
AnalogRelay
DigitalRelay
Numerical/MicroprocessorRelay
(C)Mechanicalrelay.
(1)Thermal
(a)OTTrip(OilTemperatureTrip)
(b)WTTrip(WindingTemperatureTrip)
(C)BearingTempTripetc.
(2)FloatType
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(a)Buchholz
(b)OSR
(c)PRV
(d)WaterlevelControlsetc.
(3)PressureSwitches.
(4)MechanicalInterlocks.
(5)PolediscrepancyRelay.
(E)BasedonApplications:
1. PrimaryRelays.
2. BackupRelays
TypeofRelaybasedonRelayOperation
Mechanism:
(1)ElectromagneticRelay:
Electromagneticrelaysarefurthercategorizedundertwofollowingcategories.
(A)ElectromagneticAttractionRelay:
ThisRelayworksonElectromagneticAttractionPrinciple
(B)ElectromagneticInductionRelay:
ThisRelayworksonElectromagneticInductionPrinciple
(2)SolidState(Static)Relay:
Solidstate(andstatic)relaysarefurthercategorizedunderfollowingdesignations.
(A)AnalogRelay:
InAnalogrelaysaremeasuredquantitiesareconvertedintolowervoltagebutsimilarsignals,
whicharethencombinedorcompareddirectlytoreferencevaluesinleveldetectorsto
producethedesiredoutput.
(B)DigitalRelay:
InDigitalrelaysmeasuredacquantitiesaremanipulatedinanalogueformandsubsequently
convertedintosquarewave(binary)voltages.Logiccircuitsormicroprocessorscomparethe
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phaserelationshipsofthesquarewavestomakeatripdecision.
(C)NumericalRelay:
InNumericalrelaysmeasuredacquantitiesaresequentiallysampledandconvertedinto
numericdataform.Amicroprocessorperformsmathematicaland/orlogicaloperationsonthe
datatomaketripdecisions.
(1)ElectromechanicalRelay:
HistoryofRelay:Thisisthefirstgenerationoldestrelayingsystemandtheyhavebeeninuse
formanyyears.Theyhaveearnedawelldeservedreputationforaccuracy,dependability,and
reliability.Therearetwobasictypesofoperatingmechanisms:theelectromagneticattraction
relayandelectromagneticinductionrelay.
MeasuringPrinciples:Theelectromechanicalprotectiverelayconvertsthevoltagesand
currentstomagneticandelectricforcesandtorquesthatpressagainstspringtensionsinthe
relay.Thetensionofthespringandtapsontheelectromagneticcoilsintherelayarethemain
processesbywhichausersetsinarelay.
FunctionofRelay:Theserelaysareusuallyinstantaneousinaction,withnointentionaltime
delay,closingassoonafterpickupasthemechanicalmotionpermits.Wecanaddtimedelay
bymeansofabellows,dashpot,oraclockworkescapementmechanism.However,thetiming
accuracyisconsiderablylessprecisethanthatofinductiontyperelays.Assuch,usersseldom
choosetheserelayswithtimedelayinswitchgearapplications.
ElectromechanicalRelayscanoperatewitheitherACorDConthecoils.Therefore,theDC
componentofanasymmetricalfaultdefinitelyaffectstheserelaysusingthisprinciple.
Mostrelayscomeenclosedinasemiflushmountingdrawoutcase.Installerstypicallyinstall
relaysusuallyonthedooroftheswitchgearcubicle.Theybringsensorandcontrolwiringto
connectionsonthecase.Therelayinsertsintothecaseandconnectsbymeansofsmall
switchesorabridgingplug,dependingonthemanufacturer.
Assuch,wecandisconnectandwithdrawitfromthecasewithoutdisturbingthewiring.
Whentherelayisdisconnected,thecurrenttransformer(CT)connectionsinthecaseare
automaticallyshortedtoshortcircuittheCTsecondarywindingandprotecttheCTfromover
voltageanddamage.
OperationofElectromagneticattractionRelay:Figureshowsatypicalelectromechanical
relay.Aninputvoltageisappliedtothecoilmechanism.Theinputvoltagemagnetizesthe
corewhichpullsthearmtowardsit.Thisactioncausestheoutputcontactstotouch,closing
theloadcircuit.Whentheinputvoltageisremoved,thespringleverwillpushthecontacts
awayfromeachother,breakingtheloadcircuitconnection.
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(https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesandrevolutionofelectricalrelay/227/)
OperationofElectromagneticInductionRelay:Inductionrelaysareavailableinmany
variationstoprovideaccuratepickupandtimecurrentresponsesforawiderangeofsimpleor
complexsystem.
Theyareactuallylikeinductionmotors.Ontherelay,themovingelement(rotor)isusuallya
metaldisk,althoughsometimesitsametalcylinderorcup.Thestationarypart(stator)isone
ormoreintegralelectromagnets,withcurrentorpotentialcoilsinducingcurrentsinthedisk,
causingittorotate.Untiltherotationalforcesaregreatenoughtoturnthediskandbringits
movingcontactagainstthestationarycontact,aspringrestrainsthediskmotion
(https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesandrevolutionof
electricalrelay/320/)
Thisclosesthecircuittherelayiscontrolling.Thegreaterthesensedfault,thegreaterthe
currentinthecoils,andthefasterthediskrotates.
Acalibratedadjustmentcalledthetimedialsetsthespacingbetweenthemovingand
stationarycontacts;thisvariestheoperatingtimeoftherelayfromfast(contactsonlyslightly
open)toslow(contactsnearlyafulldiskrevolutionapart).Resetactionbeginsuponremoving
therotationalforce,eitherbyclosingtherelaycontactthattripsabreakerorbyotherwise
removingthemalfunctiontherelayissensing.Therestrainingspringresetsthedisktoits
originalposition.Thetimerequiredtoresetdependsonthetypeofrelayandthetimedial
setting(contactspacing).
MostelectromechanicalRelaysaretypicallyratedforminimuminputtooutputisolation
voltagesof1500to2000VAC.
LimitationsofElectromagneticrelays:
Lowspeedofoperation.
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Changeincharacteristicsoveraperiodduetoageingeffect.
Componentfailureleadingtorelayfailure.
RelayisBulky:Becausethereareinternalmechanicalcomponentswithphysicaldimension
restraints,thepackagesizeofanelectromechanicalRelaycanlimitthesizeofaPCBdesign
Excessivepowerconsumption.
ImposeshighburdenonCT
Nofaultdataavailableexceptphaseindication.
Inherentinitsdesign,theElectromechanicalRelaymustmakemechanicalcontactsinorderto
switchaload.Atthepointofthesecontacts,oxidationbreakdownoccursoverextendedlife
cycling(typically106operations),andtherelaywillneedtobereplaced.
WhenanelectromechanicalRelayisactivated,bounceoccursatthecontactsite.Bouncecreates
awindowoftimewheretheloadcircuitisflickeringbetweenopenandclosed,acondition
whichmayneedtobeconsideredinloaddesign.
IsolationvoltageisanotherareawhereElectromechanicalRelaysarelimited.
(2)TheSolidStateRelay(StaticRelay):
HistoryofRelay:Thestaticrelayarenextgenerationrelays.TheSolidStaticrelayswasfirst
introducedin1960s.Thetermstaticimpliesthattherelayhasnomovingmechanicalpartsin
it.ComparedtotheElectromechanicalRelay,theSolidStaticrelayhaslongerlifespan,
decreasednoisewhenoperatesandfasterrespondspeed.However,itisnotasrobustasthe
ElectromechanicalRelay.
Staticrelaysweremanufacturedassemiconductordeviceswhichincorporatetransistors,ICs,
capacitors,smallmicroprocessorsetc.
Thestaticrelayshavebeendesignedtoreplacealmostallthefunctionswhichwerebeing
achievedearlierbyelectromechanicalrelays.
Measuringprinciples:TheworkingprincipleoftheSolidStaticrelaysissimilartothatofthe
ElectromechanicalRelaywhichmeanstheSolidStaticrelayscanperformtasksthatthe
ElectromechanicalRelaycanperform.
TheSolidStaticrelaysuseanalogueelectronicdevicesinsteadofmagneticcoilsand
mechanicalcomponentstocreatetherelaycharacteristics.themeasurementiscarriedoutby
staticcircuitsconsistingofcomparators,leveldetectors,filteretcwhileinaconventional
electromagneticrelayitisdonebycomparingoperatingtorque(orforce)withrestraining
torque(orforce).Therelayingquantitysuchasvoltage/currentisrectifiedandmeasured.
Whenthequantityundermeasurementattainscertainwelldefinedvalue,theoutputdeviceis
triggeredandtherebythecircuitbreakertripcircuitisenergized.
Inasolidstaterelay,theincomingvoltageandcurrentwaveformsaremonitoredbyanalog
circuits,notrecordedordigitized.Theanalogvaluesarecomparedtosettingsmadebythe
userviapotentiometersintherelay,andinsomecase,tapsontransformers.
Insomesolidstaterelays,asimplemicroprocessordoessomeoftherelaylogic,butthelogic
isfixedandsimple.Forinstance,insometimeovercurrentsolidstaterelays,theincomingAC
currentisfirstconvertedintoasmallsignalACvalue,andthentheACisfedintoarectifier
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andfilterthatconvertstheACtoaDCvalueproportionatetotheACwaveform.Anopamp
andcomparatorisusedtocreateaDCthatriseswhenatrippointisreached.Thenarelatively
simplemicroprocessordoesaslowspeedA/DconversionoftheDCsignal,integratesthe
resultstocreatethetimeovercurrentcurveresponse,andtripswhentheintegrationrises
aboveasetpoint.Thoughthisrelayhasamicroprocessor,itlackstheattributesofa
digital/numericrelay,andhencethetermmicroprocessorrelayisnotaclearterm.
FunctionofRelay:Earlyversionsuseddiscretedevicessuchastransistorsanddiodesin
conjunctionwithresistors,capacitors,inductors,etc.,butadvancesinelectronicsenabledthe
useoflinearanddigitalintegratedcircuitsinlaterversionsforsignalprocessingand
implementationoflogicfunctions.Whilebasiccircuitsmaybecommontoanumberofrelays,
thepackagingwasstillessentiallyrestrictedtoasingleprotectionfunctionpercase,while
complexfunctionsrequiredseveralcasesofhardwaresuitablyinterconnected.
Userprogrammingwasrestrictedtothebasicfunctionsofadjustmentofrelaycharacteristic
curves.Thereforeitcanbeviewedinsimpletermsasananalogueelectronicreplacementfor
electromechanicalrelays,withsomeadditionalflexibilityinsettingsandsomesavinginspace
requirements.
Insomecases,relayburdenisreduced,makingforreducedCT/VToutputrequirements.ina
staticrelaythereisnoarmatureorothermovingelementandresponseisdevelopedby
electronic,magneticorothercomponentswithoutmechanicalmotion.
Arelayusingcombinationofbothstaticandelectromagneticunitsisalsocalledastaticrelay
providedthatstaticunitsaccomplishtheresponse.
Additionalelectromechanicalrelayunitsmaybeemployedinoutputstageasauxiliaryrelays.
Aprotectivesystemisformedbystaticrelaysandelectromechanicalauxiliaryrelays.
Theperformanceofstaticrelayisbetterthanelectromagneticrelaysastheyarefastactingand
accuracyofmeasurementisbetterthanelectromagneticrelay.
Theconstraintinstaticrelayislimitedfunction/features.Inthelastdecade,somemicro
processorswereintroducedinthisrelaytoachievethefunctionslike(i)Fusefailurefeatures
(ii)Selfcheckfeature(iii)DeadPoledetectionandiv)Carrieraidedprotectionfeatures.
OperationofRelay:Theessentialcomponentsofstaticrelaysareshowninfig.Theoutputof
CTandPTarenotsuitableforstaticcomponentssotheyarebroughtdowntosuitablelevelby
auxiliaryCTandPT.ThenauxiliaryCToutputisgiventorectifier.Rectifierrectifiesthe
relayingquantityi.e.,theoutputfromaCTorPToraTransducer
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Therectifiedoutputissuppliedtoameasuringunitcomprisingofcomparators,level
detectors,filters,logiccircuits.Theoutputisactuatedwhenthedynamicinput(i.e.,the
relayingquantity)attainsthethresholdvalue.Thisoutputofthemeasuringunitisamplified
byamplifierandfedtotheoutputunitdevice,whichisusuallyanelectromagneticone.The
outputunitenergizesthetripcoilonlywhenrelayoperates.
AdvantagesofSolidStateRelay:
StaticRelayburdenislessthanElectromagnetictypeofrelays.Henceerrorisless.
LowWeight
RequiredLessSpacewhichresultsinpanelspacesaving.
Arclessswitching
Noacousticalnoise.
Multifunctionintegration.
Fastresponse.
Longlife(HighReliability):morethan109operations
HighRangeofSettingcomparedtoelectromechanicalRelay
MoreAccuratecomparedtoelectromechanicalRelay
LowElectromagneticInterference.
Lesspowerconsumption.
Shockandvibrationresistant
Nocontactbounce
Microprocessorcompatible.
IsolationofVoltage
Nomovingparts:Therearenomovingpartstowearoutorarcingcontactstodeterioratethat
areoftentheprimarycauseoffailurewithanElectroMechanicalRelay.
Nomechanicalcontactbounceorarcing:Asolidstaterelaydoesntdependonmechanical
forcesormovingcontactsforitsoperationbutperformselectronically.Thus,timingisvery
accurateevenforcurrentsaslowasthepickupvalue.Thereisnomechanicalcontactbounce
orarcing,andresettimesareextremelyshort.
Lowinputsignallevels:IdealforTelecommunicationormicroprocessorcontrolindustries.
Solidstaterelaysarefastbecomingthebetterchoiceinmanyapplications,especially
throughoutthetelecommunicationandmicroprocessorcontrolindustries.
CostIssues:Inthepast,therehasbeenaratherlargegapbetweenthepriceofan
electromechanicalrelayandthepriceofasolidstaterelay.Withcontinualadvancementin
manufacturingtechnology,thisgaphasbeenreduceddramaticallymakingtheadvantagesof
solidstatetechnologyaccessibletoagrowingnumberofdesignengineers.
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Limitationsofstaticrelays:
AuxiliaryvoltagerequirementforRelayOperation.
Staticrelaysaresensitivetovoltagetransientswhicharecausedbyoperationofbreakerand
isolatorintheprimarycircuitofCTsandPTs.
Seriousovervoltageisalsocausedbybreakingofcontrolcircuit,relaycontactsetc.Such
voltagespikesofsmalldurationcandamagethesemiconductorcomponentsandalsocause
maloperationofrelays.
Temperaturedependenceofstaticrelays:Thecharacteristicsofsemiconductordevicesare
affectedbyambienttemperature.
Highlysophisticatedisolationandfiltercircuitsarerequiredtobebuiltintotherelaydesignto
takecareofelectromagneticinterferenceandtransientswitchingdisturbancesinthepower
system.
Highlyreliablepowersupplycircuitsarerequired.
Effectofenvironmentalconditionslikehumidity,highambienttemperature,dust
accumulationonPCBleadingtotracking.
Thecomponentfailure.
Nonavailabilityoffaultdata.
Characteristicvariationswithpassageoftime.
(A)DigitalRelay:
HistoryofRelay:Around1980sthedigitalrelayenteredthemarket.ComparedtotheSolid
StateRelay,thedigitalrelaytakestheadvantagesofthedevelopmentofmicroprocessorsand
microcontrollers.Insteadofusinganalogsignals,thedigitalrelayconvertsallmeasured
analogquantitiesintodigitalsignals.
DigitalprotectionrelaysisarevolutionstepinchangingRelaytechnology.InDigitalRelay
Microprocessorsandmicrocontrollersareusedinreplacementofanaloguecircuitsusedin
staticrelaystoimplementrelayfunctions.Digitalprotectionrelaysintroducedin1980.
However,suchtechnologywillbecompletelysupersededwithinthenextfiveyearsby
numericalrelays.
Bythemid1990sthesolidstateandelectromechanicalrelayhadbeenmostlyreplacedby
digitalrelayinnewconstruction.Indistributionapplications,thereplacementbythedigital
relayproceededabitmoreslowly.Whilethegreatmajorityoffeederrelaysinnew
applicationstodayaredigital,thesolidstaterelaystillseessomeusewheresimplicityofthe
applicationallowsforsimplerrelays,andwhichallowsonetoavoidthecomplexityofdigital
relays
Measuringprinciples:Comparedtostaticrelays,digitalrelaysintroduceAnaloguetoDigital
Convertor(A/Dconversion)ofallmeasuredanaloguequantitiesanduseamicroprocessorto
implementtheprotectionalgorithm.Themicroprocessormayusesomekindofcounting
technique,orusetheDiscreteFourierTransform(DFT)toimplementthealgorithm.
TheMicroprocessorsusedinDigitalRelayhavelimitedprocessingcapacityandmemory
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comparedtothatprovidedinnumericalrelays.
FunctionofRelay:Thefunctionalitytendsthereforetobelimitedandrestrictedlargelytothe
protectionfunctionitself.Additionalfunctionalitycomparedtothatprovidedbyan
electromechanicalorstaticrelayisusuallyavailable,typicallytakingtheformofawiderrange
ofsettings,andgreateraccuracy.Acommunicationslinktoaremotecomputermayalsobe
provided.
(https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesandrevolutionofelectricalrelay/6
11/)
Thelimitedpowerofthemicroprocessorsusedindigitalrelaysrestrictsthenumberof
samplesofthewaveformthatcanbemeasuredpercycle.This,inturn,limitsthespeedof
operationoftherelayincertainapplications.Therefore,adigitalrelayforaparticular
protectionfunctionmayhavealongeroperationtimethanthestaticrelayequivalent.
However,theextratimeisnotsignificantintermsofoveralltrippingtimeandpossibleeffects
ofpowersystemstability.
OperationofRelay:Digitalrelayconsistsof:(1)Analogueinputsubsystem,(2)Digitalinput
subsystem,(3)Digitaloutputsubsystem,(4)AprocessoralongwithRAM(datascratchpad),
mainmemory(historicaldatafile)andPowersupply
(https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/typesand
revolutionofelectricalrelay/710/)
Digitalrelayinginvolvesdigitalprocessingofoneormoreanalogsignalsinthreesteps:
ConversionofanaloguesignaltodigitalformProcessingofdigitalformBooleandecisionto
tripornottotrip
AdvantagesofDigitalRelay:
Highleveloffunctionalityintegration.
Additionalmonitoringfunctions.
Functionalflexibility.
Capableofworkingunderawiderangeoftemperatures.
Theycanimplementmorecomplexfunctionandaregenerallymoreaccurate
Selfcheckingandselfadaptability.
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Abletocommunicatewithotherdigitalequipment(peartopear).
Lesssensitivetotemperature,aging
Economicalbecausecanbeproducedinvolumes
MoreAccurate.
planefordistancerelayingispossible
Signalstorageispossible
LimitationsofDigitalRelay:
Shortlifetimeduetothecontinuousdevelopmentofnewtechnologies.
Thedevicesbecomeobsoleterapidly.
Susceptibilitytopowersystemtransients.
Asdigitalsystemsbecomeincreasinglymorecomplextheyrequirespeciallytrainedstafffor
Operation.
Propermaintenanceofthesettingsandmonitoringdata.
(B)NumericalRelay:
HistoryofRelay:Thefirstprotectiondevicesbasedonmicroprocessorswereemployedin
1985.Thewidespreadacceptanceofnumericaltechnologybythecustomerandthe
experiencesoftheuserhelpedindevelopingthesecondgenerationnumericalrelaysin1990.
Conventionalelectromechanicalandstaticrelaysarehardwiredrelays.Theirwiringisfixed,
onlytheirsettingcanbemanuallychanged.Numericrelaysareprogrammablerelays.The
characteristicsandbehaviouroftherelayarecanbeprogrammed.
Firstgenerationnumericalrelaysweremainlydesignedtomeetthestaticrelayprotection
characteristic,whereasmodernnumericprotectiondevicesarecapableofprovidingcomplete
protectionwithaddedfunctionslikecontrolandmonitoring.Numericalprotectiondevices
offerseveraladvantagesintermsofprotection,reliability,andtroubleshootingandfault
information.
Thedistinctionbetweendigitalandnumericalrelayrestsonpointsoffinetechnicaldetail,
andisrarelyfoundinareasotherthanProtection.Theycanbeviewedasnatural
developmentsofdigitalrelaysasaresultofadvancesintechnology.Typically,theyusea
specializeddigitalsignalprocessor(DSP)asthecomputationalhardware,togetherwiththe
associatedsoftwaretools.
Measuringprinciples:Theinputanaloguesignalsareconvertedintoadigitalrepresentation
andprocessedaccordingtotheappropriatemathematicalalgorithm.Processingiscarriedout
usingaspecializedmicroprocessorthatisoptimizedforsignalprocessingapplications,known
asadigitalsignalprocessororDSPforshort.Digitalprocessingofsignalsinrealtimerequires
averyhighpowermicroprocessor.
Themeasuringprinciplesandtechniquesofconventionalrelays(electromechanicalandstatic)
arefewerthanthoseofthenumericaltechnique,whichcandifferinmanyaspectslikethetype
ofprotectionalgorithmused,sampling,signalprocessing,hardwareselection,software
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discipline,etc.Thesearemicroprocessorbasedrelaysincontrasttootherrelaysthatare
electromechanicallycontrolled.
FunctionofRelay:Modernpowersystemprotectiondevicesarebuiltwithintegrated
functions.Multifunctionlikeprotection,control,monitoringandmeasuringareavailable
todayinnumericpowersystemprotectiondevices.Also,thecommunicationcapabilityof
thesedevicesfacilitatesremotecontrol,monitoringanddatatransfer.
Traditionally,electromechanicalandstaticprotectionrelaysofferedsinglefunction,single
characteristics,whereasmodernnumericprotectionoffersmultifunctionandmultiple
characteristics.
Themeasuringprinciplesandtechniquesofconventionalrelays(electromechanicalandstatic)
arefewerthanthoseofthenumericaltechnique,whichcandifferinmanyaspectslikethetype
ofprotectionalgorithmused,sampling,signalprocessing,hardwareselection,software
discipline,etc.
Firstgenerationnumericalrelaysweremainlydesignedtomeetthestaticrelayprotection
characteristic,whereasmodernnumericprotectiondevicesarecapableofprovidingcomplete
protectionwithaddedfunctionslikecontrolandmonitoring.Numericalprotectiondevices
offerseveraladvantagesintermsofprotection,reliability,andtroubleshootingandfault
information.Numericalprotectiondevicesareavailableforgeneration,transmissionand
distributionsystems
Numericalrelaysaremicroprocessorbasedrelaysandhavingthefeaturesofrecordingof
parameterusedasdisturbancerecorderflexibilityofsetting&alarms&canbeusedonerelay
foralltypeofprotectionsofoneequipmenthencelessareaisrequired.WideRangeofsetting,
moreaccurate,LowburdenhencelowVAofCTisrequiredwhichminimizethecost.Numeric
relaystaketheinputanalogquantitiesandconvertthemtonumericvalues.Alloftherelaying
functionsareperformedonthesenumericvalues.
Thefollowingsectionscoverrelayhardware,relaysoftware,multipleprotection
characteristics,adaptiveprotectioncharacteristics,datastorage,instrumentationfeature,self
checkfeature,communicationcapability,additionalfunctions,sizeandcosteffectiveness.
Numericalprotectiondevicesareavailableforgeneration,transmissionanddistribution
systems.Modernpowersystemprotectiondevicesarebuiltwithintegratedfunctions.Multi
functionslikeprotection,control,monitoringandmeasuringareavailabletodayinnumeric
powersystemprotectiondevices.Also,thecommunicationcapabilityofthesedevices
facilitatesremotecontrol,monitoringanddatatransfer.
Theserelaysprovidegreatprecisionandconvenienceinapplicationinthesophisticated
electronicproducts.Bycombiningseveralfunctionsinonecase,numericalrelaysalsosave
capitalcostandmaintenancecostoverelectromechanicalrelays.Thedisadvantagesofa
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conventionalelectromechanicalrelayareovercomebyusingmicrocontrollerforrealizingthe
operationoftherelays.Microcontrollerbasedrelaysperformverywellandtheircostis
relativelylow
Also,thecommunicationcapabilityofthesedevicesfacilitatesremotecontrol,monitoringand
datatransfer.Traditionally,electromechanicalandstaticprotectionrelaysofferedsingle
function,singlecharacteristics,whereasmodernnumericprotectionoffersmultifunctionand
multiplecharacteristics.Someprotectionsalsoofferadaptablecharacteristics,which
dynamicallychangetheprotectioncharacteristicunderdifferentsystemconditionsby
monitoringtheinputparameters.
OperationofRelay:AcurrentsignalfromCTisconvertedintoproportionalvoltagesignal
usingItoVconverter.
Theacvoltageproportionaltoloadcurrentisconvertedintodcusingprecisionrectifierandis
giventomultiplexer(MUX)whichacceptsmorethanoneinputandgivesoneoutput.
Microprocessorsendscommandsignaltothemultiplexertoswitchondesiredchannelto
acceptrectifiedvoltageproportionaltocurrentinadesiredcircuit.
OutputofMultiplexerisfedtoanalogtodigitalconverter(ADC)toobtainsignalindigital
form.MicroprocessorthensendsasignalADCforstartofconversion(SOC),examines
whethertheconversioniscompletedandonreceiptofendofconversion(EOC)fromADC,
receivesthedataindigitalform.Themicroprocessorthencomparesthedatawithpickup
value.Iftheinputisgreaterthanpickupvaluethemicroprocessorsendatripsignaltocircuit
breakerofthedesiredcircuit.
Incaseofinstantaneousovercurrentrelaythereisnointentionaltimedelayandcircuitbreaker
tripsinstantly.Incaseofnormalinverse,veryinverse,extremelyinverseandlonginverseover
currentrelaytheinversecurrenttimecharacteristicsarestoredinthememoryof
microprocessorintabularformcalledaslookuptable.
AdvantagesofNumericalrelays:
CompactSize:ElectromechanicalRelaymakesuseofmechanicalcomparisondevices,which
causethemainreasonforthebulkysizeofrelays.Itusesaflagsystemfortheindication
purposewhethertherelayhasbeenactivatedornot.WhileNumericalRelayisinCompact
SizeanduseIndicationonLCDforRelayactivation.
Digitalprotectioncanbephysicallysmaller,andalmostalwaysrequireslesspanelwiringthan
equivalentfunctionsimplementedusinganalogtechnology.
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Flexibility:Avarietyofprotectionfunctionscanbeaccomplishedwithsuitablemodifications
inthesoftwareonlyeitherwiththesamehardwareorwithslightmodificationsinthe
hardware.
Reliability:Asignificantimprovementintherelayreliabilityisobtainedbecausetheuseof
fewercomponentsresultsinlessinterconnectionsandreducedcomponentfailures.
MultiFunctionCapability:Traditionalelectromechanicalandstaticprotectionrelaysoffers
singlefunctionandsinglecharacteristics.Rangeofoperationofelectromechanicalrelaysis
narrowascomparedtonumericalrelay.
Differenttypesofrelaycharacteristics:Itispossibletoprovidebettermatchingofprotection
characteristicssincethesecharacteristicsarestoredinthememoryofthemicroprocessor.
Digitalcommunicationcapabilities:Themicroprocessorbasedrelayfurnisheseasyinterface
withdigitalcommunicationequipments.FibreopticalcommunicationwithsubstationLAN
Modularframe:Therelayhardwareconsistsofstandardmodulesresultingineaseofservice.
Lowburden:Themicroprocessorbasedrelayshaveminimumburdenontheinstrument
transformers.
Sensitivity:Greatersensitivityandhighpickupratio.
Speed:Withstaticrelays,trippingtimeofcycleorevenlesscanbeobtained.
FastResetting:Resettingisless.
DataHistory:Availabilityoffaultdataanddisturbancerecord.Helpsanalysisoffaultsby
recordingdetailsof(1)Natureoffault,(2)Magnitudeoffaultlevel,(3)Breakerproblem,(4)
C.T.saturation,(5)Durationoffault.
AutoResetting&SelfDiagnosis:Electromechanicalrelaydonothavetheabilitytodetect
whetherthenormalconditionhasbeenattainedonceitisactivatedthusautoresettingisnot
possibleandithastobedonebytheoperatingpersonnel.whileinNumericalRelayauto
ResettingisPossible
Bycombiningseveralfunctionsinonecase,numericalrelaysalsosavecapitalcostand
maintenancecostoverelectromechanicalrelays
Separateconnectionisnotrequired,zerosequencevoltagesandcurrentscanbederivedinside
theprocessor
Basichardwareissharedbetweenmultiplefunctions,thecostofindividualprotection
functionscanbereducedsignificantly.
Lossofvoltagefeaturehelpsblocktherelayincaseofmomentary/permanentlossofvoltage.
LimitationsofNumericalRelay:
NumericalRelayoffersmorefunctionality,andgreaterprecision.Unfortunately,thatdoesnot
necessarilytranslateintobetterprotection.
NumericalRelaycanmakefasterdecisions.However,intherealworld,fasterprotectionitself
isofnovaluebecausecircuitbreakersarestillrequiredtointerruptatthedirectionofthe
protectiveequipment,andtheabilitytomakecircuitbreakersinterruptfasterisverylimited.
NumericalRelayprotectionoftenreliesonnonproprietarysoftware,exposingthesystemto
potentialriskofhacking.
NumericalRelayprotectionsometimeshasexposuretoexternallysourcedtransient
interferencethatwouldnotaffectconventionaltechnology.
NumericalRelayprotectionsharescommonfunctions.Thismeansthattherearecommon
failuremodesthatcanaffectmultipleelementsofprotection.Forexample,failureofapower
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supplyoraninputsignalprocessormaydisableanentireprotectivedevicethatprovides
manydifferentprotectionfunctions.Thisproblemhasreceivealotofdesignattention,and
experiencegenerallyhassupportedthenotionthattheequipmenthasaveryhighreliability
onceitispasttheinfantmortalitystage.Butitremainssomethingtobeawareof.
Amultifunctionnumericrelaycanprovidethreephase,ground,andnegativesequence
directionalornondirectionalovercurrentprotectionwithfourshotrecloser,forwardor
reversepowerprotection,breakerfailure,over/underfrequency,andover/undervoltage
protection,synccheck,breakermonitoringandcontrol,Itwouldtake1011singlefunction
SolidStateorElectromechanicalrelaysatleast5to6timesthecost.AdditionallyNumeric
relayshaveCommunicationscapabilities,sequenceofeventsrecording,faultreporting,rate
ofchangefrequency,andmeteringfunctions,allinanintegratedsystem.
ComparisonofDifferentTypeRelay:
Characteristic
ElectroMechanical
Relay
StaticRelay
DigitalRelay
Technology
Standard
1stgeneration
Relays.
2ndgeneration
Relays.
PresentgenerationRelays.
Operating
Principle
Theyuseprinciple
ofelectromagnetic
principle.
Inthisrelays
transistorsand
ICsrbeenused
TheyuseMicroprocessor.Withinbuilt
softwarewithpredefinedvalues
Measuring
elements/
Hardware
Induction
disc,Electromagnets,
Inductioncup,
BalanceBeam
R,L,C,
Transistors,
AnalogueICs
comparators
Microprocessors,DigitalICs,Digital
SignalProcessors
Measuring
method
Electrical
Qtysconverted
intomechanical
force,torque
Level
detects,comparison
withreference
valueinanalogue
Comparator
A/D
conversion,Numericalalgorithmtechniqu
Surrounding
Environment
Dependupon
gravitationandthe
valuechangestothe
surrounding
magneticfieldsalso.
Therevaluemay
varywithrespect
totemperature
also.
RelaySize
Bulky
Small
Small
Speedof
Response
Slow
Fast
Fast
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Timing
function
Mechanicalclock
works,dashpot
Statictimers
Counter
Timeof
Accuracy
Temp.Dependant
Temp.Dependant
Stable
Reliability
High
Low
High
Vibration
Proof
No
Yes
Yes
Characteristics
Limited
Wide
Wide
Requirement
ofDrawOut
Required
Required
NotRequired
CTBurden
High
Low
Low
CTBurden
8to10VA
1VA
<0.5VA
ResetTime
VeryHigh
Less
Less
Auxiliary
supply
Required
Required
Required
Rangeof
settings
Limited
Wide
Wide
Isolation
Voltage
Low
High
Function
SingleFunction
SingleFunction
MultiFunction
Maintenance
Frequent
Frequent
Low
Resistance
100milleohms
10Ohms
10Ohms
Output
Capacitance
<1PicoFarad
>20PicoFarads
Deterioration
dueto
Operation
Yes
No
No
Relay
Programming
No
Partially
Programmable
SCADA
Compatibility
No
No
Possible
Operational
value
indication
NotPossible
Possible
Possible
Visual
indication
Flags,targets
LEDs
LEDs,LCD
High
>20PicoFarads
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Self
monitoring
No
Yes
Yes
Parameter
setting
Plugsetting,dial
setting
Thumbwheel,dual
inlineswitches
Keypadfornumericvalues,through
computer
Fault
Disturbance
Recording
Notpossible
Notpossible
possible
RelaysNomenclatureasperANSI:
No
TypeofRelay
Timedelayrelay
3CheckingorInterlockingrelay
21
21Distancerelay
25
Checksynchronizingrelay
27
Undervoltagerelay
30
Annunciationrelay
32
Directionalpower(Reversepower)relay
37
Lowforwardpowerrelay
40
Fieldfailure(lossofexcitation)
46
Negativephasesequencerelay
49
MachineorTransformerThermalrelay
50
InstantaneousOvercurrentrelay
51
A.C.IDMTOvercurrentrelay
52
Circuitbreaker
52a
CircuitbreakerAuxiliaryswitchNormallyopen(a
contact)
52b
CircuitbreakerAuxiliaryswitchNormallyclosed
(bcontact)
55
PowerFactorrelay
56
FieldApplicationrelay
59
Overvoltagerelay
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64
Earthfaultrelay
67
Directionalrelay
68
Lockingrelay
74
Alarmrelay
76
D.COvercurrentrelay
78
Phaseanglemeasuringoroutofsteprelay
79
ACAutorecloserelay
80
MonitoringlossofDCsupply
81
Frequencyrelay
81U
Underfrequencyrelay
81O
Overfrequencyrelay
83
Automaticselectivecontrolortransferrelay
85
Carrierorpilotwirereceiverelay
86
TrippingRelay
87
Differentialrelay
87G
Generatordifferentialrelay
87G
TOveralldifferentialrelay
87U
UATdifferentialrelay
87NT
Restrictedearthfaultrelay
95
Tripcircuitsupervisionrelay
99
Overfluxrelay
186A
Autorecloselockoutrelay
186B
Autorecloselockoutrelay
RelaysforTransmission&DistributionLines
protection:
No
Line
Protection
400KV
TransmissionLine
MainI:NonswitchedorNumericalDistanceScheme
MainII:NonswitchedorNumericalDistanceScheme
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220KV
TransmissionLine
MainI:Nonswitcheddistancescheme(FedfromBusPTs)
MainII:Switcheddistancescheme(FedfromlineCVTs)
WithachangeoverfacilityfrombusPTtolineCVTand
viceversa
MainProtection:Switcheddistancescheme(fedfrombus
PT).
132KV
TransmissionLine
33KVLines
NondirectionalIDMT3OverCurrentand1EarthFault
relays
11KVLine
NondirectionalIDMT2OverCurrentand1EarthFault
relays
BackupProtection:3Nos.directionalIDMTO/LRelaysand
1No.DirectionalIDMTE/Lrelay.
Reference:
HandbookofSwitchgearBhel
Digital/NumericalRelaysT.S.M.Rao
FILEDUNDERUNCATEGORIZED
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AboutJignesh.Parmar
JigneshParmarhascompletedhisB.E(Electrical)fromGujaratUniversity.Hehasmorethan11
yearsexperienceinPowerTransmissionPowerDistributionElectricalenergytheftdetection
ElectricalMaintenanceElectricalProjects(PlanningDesigningcoordinationExecution).Heis
PresentlyassociatewithoneoftheleadingbusinessgroupasaAssistantManagerat
Ahmedabad,India.HeisFreelancerProgrammerofAdvanceExcelanddesignusefulExcelSheets
ofElectricalEngineeringasperIS,NEC,IEC,IEEEcodes.HeistechnicalAuthorforElectrical
MirrorandElectricalIndiaMagazines.HeisTechnicalBloggerandFamiliarwithEnglish,
Hindi,Gujarati,Frenchlanguages.HewantstoSharehisexperience&knowledgeandhelp
technicalenthusiaststofindsuitablesolutionsandupdatingthemselvesonvariousEngineering
Topics.
4ResponsestoTypesandRevolutionofElectricalRelays
Engr.BabalolaChristophersays:
December4,2012at10:01am
Ireallyappreciateyourgoodwork.onseveraloccasionsIhavetriedtopurchaseyour
electricalnoteorsoftwarebutyoudidnotincludemycountry(NIGERIA)onthepaypallist.
Pleaseineedtopurchasesomeofyourarticleandsoftware
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PreetiMishrasays:
August30,2013at6:51pm
verywellwritten..clearsthebasics!thanks
Reply
androwregansays:
December2,2013at5:53pm
thankusiriamlearningalot.
Reply
Shubhangisays:
March2,2015at7:31am
Itsverygoodtogetallinoneplace.Thankyouverymuchsir.Thisisagreathelp.
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