Topic

Tenses and
Aspect

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Describe the formal characteristics of English tense and aspect; and

2.

Explain the meanings expressed by tense and aspect such as present,

past, future, non-future, perfect, non-perfect, progressive and nonprogressive.

X INTRODUCTION
Tense and aspect are closely related categories in that both of them concern the
presentation of situations. Tense is defined as grammatically expressed
assignment to situations according to the location in time. For example, by
using the inflection {s}, the speaker instructs the listener to identify a situation
that applies to the moment the utterance is made, and in using the inflection {-ed}
the listener is to identify a situation before the moment of utterance.
Aspect is defined as grammatically expressed assignment of situational focus
and can be illustrated, for example, by using the auxiliary was and the
inflectional ending {-ing}, the speaker instructs the listener to select an internal
focus, i.e., a perspective of viewing the situation as unfolding. In English, tense
and aspect are tightly interwoven. We, therefore, treat them together and operate
with a fused tense aspect system. The meanings belonging to this system may be
expressed by a verbal inflection, an auxiliary or a combination. The tense and
aspect system in English involves four ordered choices: present and past, future
and non-future, perfect and non-perfect, progressive and non-progressive.

208 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

9.1

TENSE AND ASPECT

Figure 9.1: The auxiliary of a non-imperative English sentence structure

According to Celce (2000), the auxiliary of a non-imperative English sentence

must have either a modal or a tense marker (which a later rule specifies as either
past or present), and it may have several optional components: phrasal modals,
perfect aspect, and progressive aspect. The expression future tense was viewed
as inappropriate, since in English finite verb stems are not inflected to express
future time. In other words, English does not have a future tense, but it does not
mean that English speakers cannot speak about future events. They use other
relevant structures such as modals, phrasal modals, and adverbials of time.
In English, basically, there are three time periods: present, past and future. We
will discuss this in terms of two tenses, present and past, aspects, perfect and
progressive, modals and phrasal modals, and the passive voice. Since the precise
mapping of form, meaning and use constantly changes from language to
language, mastering the English tense-aspect system requires noticeable effort on
the part of ESL learners. In this topic, we will study the form, meaning, and use
of the English tense-aspect system at the sentence level, which is the way most
teachers first introduce the forms. However, to comprehend how the system
functions, it is necessary to describe its application at the suprasentential or
discourse level in order to fully understand the various patterns of tense-aspect
combinations.
When discussing forms at the sentence level, we will introduce tense and show
students how tense contrasts with aspect, and how it fits into the system as a
whole. In order to see how the system functions, we first describe its form and
suggest a core meaning for each of the tenses and aspects of the system. Later, we
will illustrate how the core meaning applies when tenses are used by themselves
and when they are integrated with aspect. Finally, we contrast the uses of some
of the most perplexing combinations of tense and aspect.

TOPIC 9

9.2

TENSES AND ASPECT

209

FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

TENSE-ASPECT SYSTEM IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE

The distinction between tense and aspect is a very controversial issue. Many
English teachers would say that English has 12 tenses (Celce-Murcia & LarsenFreeman) or 16 tenses (Bache, 1997). However, in the introduction of this topic
we stated that English has only two tenses, which relates to time and aspect. This
has to do with the internal structure of the action occurring at any time, dealt
with separately at first. The system that results from their subsequent
combination is much easier to see and, therefore, easier to learn. Table 9.1 is a
summary of the English tenses and aspect, according to Celce-Murcia and
Larsen-Freeman. We can see the two tenses, present and past, along the vertical
axis, together with the future tenses. Although there are no verb inflections for
future time, any description of the English tense-aspect system needs to account
for the form-meaning combinations that do exist that relate to the future time.
The four aspects: simple (sometimes called zero aspect), perfect, progressive, and
their combination, perfect progressive, are arrayed along the horizontal axis. The
tense-aspect is illustrated by the combinations of the irregular verb write and the
regular verb walk.
Table 9.1: The 12 Combinations of Tense and Aspect
Perfect
have + -en

Progressive
be + -ing

Perfect Progressive
have + -en be + -ing

write/writes

has/have
written

am/is/are
writing

has/have been writing

walk/walks

has/have
walked

am/is/are
walking

has/have been walking

wrote

had written

was/were
writing

had been writing

walked

had walked

was/were
walked

had been walking

will write

will have
written

will be writing

will have been writing

will walk

will have
walked

will be walking

will have been walking

Simple

Present

Past

Future

210 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

From Table 9.1, Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) shows that the traditional
12 tenses are actually 12 combinations of tense and aspect. They are named by
combining a tense with an aspect or aspects, such as present perfect or past
perfect progressive. Only the forms in the first column receive their names by
first specifying the simple aspect and then the tense, such as simple present.
The simple present remains in its base form (write, walk) with one exception-the
third person singular form, which is made by adding an {-s} to the verb (writes,
walks). The present perfect is formed with the verb have (has for third person
singular) and the past participle, here symbolised by {-en}. It is important to
remember that {-en} is only a symbol. Sometimes the past participle does indeed
end in {-en}, as does the irregular verb example, written. Other times, the past
participle is identical to the past tense form of the verb, as you can see in our
other example, where the regular verb walk has the past participle walked. The
present progressive form (sometimes called the present continuous) combines
with a form of the be verb (am, is, are), depending on the person and number of
the subject, with the present participle, {-ing} form. Finally, the present perfect
progressive can be seen to be a combination of the perfect form, with have + {en}
and the progressive form with be +{-ing}. In this case, the be verb of the
progressive carries the {-en} perfect ending. In other words, it is in its past
participle form, been.
Reading down Table 9.1, you can see that the various combinations between past
tense and aspect pattern in much the same way as the present tense. The past
tense in its simple form in English is formed by using its past irregular form, as
in the irregular verb in our chart, wrote, or with a regular verb such as walk by
adding an {-ed} to give us walked. One difference from the simple present is that
the form of the simple past remains invariant for all persons and numbers. The
past perfect form is made with the past form of the have verb (i.e., had) followed
by the past participle of the main verb. The past progressive form combines the
past form of the be verb here in two forms  first and third person singular forms
precede was, and all other persons and numbers precede were followed by the
present participle. The past perfect progressive is formed with the past form of
the verb have (i.e. had) followed by the past participle of the verb be (i.e., been)
and the present participle of the main verb, for example, writing or walking.
For the future time, the matrix shows the use of modal will, since there is no
inflection that marks the future tense on the verb in English. However, English
uses a number of ways in addition to the use of will to indicate that an action or
event is to take place in the future. The future adheres to the same patterns as the
present and past in terms of its combination of aspect markers: will with the base
form for the simple future, will + have + -{-en} for the future perfect, will with be

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

211

+ {-ing} for the future progressive, and will + have + {-en} + be + {-ing} for the
future perfect progressive.
Bache (1997) provides 16 tense-aspect forms in English, as applied to the verb
happen such as the following. It is important to remember that this list contains
instructions reflecting the basic semantics of the tense-aspect system. As we have
seen, specific constructions may express derived meanings and/or have special
uses, depending on actional and aspectual properties.

happens

(1)

The present
[Present [ situation]]
Tag a situation of happening on to world-n
now.

(2)

The past
[Past [situation]]
Tag a situation of happening on to world-b
before-now.

(3)

The present future

will happen
[Present [future [situation]]]
now and then look ahead to a situation of happening.
Tag on to world-n

(4)

The past future

would happen
[Past [future [situation]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now and then look ahead to a situation of
happening

(5)

has happened
The present perfect
[Present [anterior [situation]]]
Tag on to world-n
now and then look back at a situation of happening.

(6)

The past perfect

had happened
[Past [anterior [situation]]] Tag on to world-b
before-now and then look
back at a situation of happening.

(7)

The present future perfect

will have happened
[Present [future [anterior [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-n
now, then look ahead to a future time and finally look
back at a situation of happening..

(8)

The past future perfect

would have happened
[Past [future [anterior [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now, then look ahead to a posterior time and
finally look back at a situation of happening.

happened

212 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

(9)

The present progressive

is happening
[Present [progressing [situation]]]
Tag on to world-n
now, and then look here at a simultaneously progressing
situation of happening

(10)

The past progressive

was happening
[Past [progressing [situation]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now and then look here at a simultaneously
progressing situation of happening.

(11)

The present future progressive

will be happening
[Present [future [progressing [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-n
now, then look ahead to a future time and finally look
here at a simultaneously progressing situation of happening.

(12)

The past future progressive

would be happening
[Past [future [progressing [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now, then look ahead to a posterior time and
finally look here at a simultaneously progressing situation of happening.

(13)

The present perfect progressive

has been happening
[Present [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-n
now, then look back at an anterior time and finally look
at a situation of happening progressing simultaneously with the
anterior-present period (i.e. towards resent time).

(14)

had been happening

The past perfect progressive
[Past [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now, then look back at an anterior time and
finally look at a situation of happening progressing simultaneously with
the anterior-past period i.e. towards the past time).

(15)

The present future perfect progressive

will have been happening
[Present [future [anterior [progressing [ situation]]]]]
Tag on to world-n
now, then look ahead to a future time, then look back at
an anterior time and finally look at a situation of happening progressing
simultaneously with the future-anterior period (i.e. towards the future
time).

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

213

The past future perfect progressive

would have been happening
[Past [future [anterior [progressing [situation]]]]]
Tag on to world-b
before-now, then look ahead to a posterior time, then
look back at an anterior time and finally look at a situation of happening
progressing simultaneously with the posterior-anterior period (i.e.
towards the posterior time).

(16)

SELF-CHECK 9.1
1.

2.

9.3

Apply the following verbs, to the system advocated by (i) CelceMurcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) and (ii) Bache (1997).
(a)

run

(b)

read

(c)

sleep

What are the differences between tense-aspects forms provided by

Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) as compared to the one
provided by Bache (1997)? Discuss. Which one do you prefer?
Why?

MEANING IN THE ENGLISH TENSE

ASPECT SYSTEM

This is an exceedingly important dimension in helping students manage the

tense-aspect system. If students are able to develop a feel for the meanings
conveyed by the components of the system, they will have a tremendous
advantage in learning to cope with the boundary problems introduced above and
discussed in detail below.
As we have asserted earlier, understanding the semantics of the tenses in terms
of time is inadequate. In English, there are many ways of talking about events in
the future. Many students find it difficult to decide which form to use in a
particular situation. The following section explains the differences between the
four main forms which we use when referring to the future time.

214 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

9.3.1

Basic Meanings of the Four Forms

Most students know that will and going to are used to talk about future time
in English. However, we also use the present progressive (be + {ing}) and the
present simple tense. The basic rules of these forms are presented in the
following table.
Table 9.2: Basic Rules of the Four Forms
Form

Meaning/Usage

Example

Will

to volunteer to do something
deciding at the time of speaking to
do something

Ali:
Siti:

I need a pencil.
Ill lend you mine.

Going to

to talk about something that is

already decided

Ali:

Have you registered for the

class yet?
Not yet. Im going to
register tomorrow.

Siti:
Present
Continuous

to talk about something that is

already arranged

Ali:
Siti:

Present
simple

to talk about a schedule, timetable

or programme

Ali:
Siti:

9.4

Do you want to go to the

movies tonight?
Sorry, I cant. Im playing
soccer.
What time does the next
bus leave?
It leaves at six.

PREDICTING THE FUTURE

In predicting what we think will happen in the future, we should choose the
form based on how certain we are. If we are not sure, it is fine to use will, but if
we are only nearly certain about something, it is best to use going to:
For example:
(17)

(a)

I think it will rain.

(Im not sure, but it looks like it might.)

(b)

I think its going to rain.

(Im quite sure its going to rain, I can see black clouds in the sky.)

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

215

We could cite many other examples. The point is that in order to understand the
meaning of the tenses, we must go to a deeper level of abstraction than that of
temporal meaning. By so doing, we will see what core meaning underlies the use
of the future tense in the preceding examples and in all other sentences in which
it occurs. The core meaning of a particular form is the meaning that is most
central, primary or invariant (Hatch and Brown 1995 cited in Celce-Murcia &
Larsen-Freeman 1999). We begin by analysing the core meanings of the tenses
with the simple aspect.
Thus, one of the reasons for displaying the tense aspect combinations in this
manner is to demonstrate that the 12 or 16 tenses are simply combinations of
tense and aspect. Since the perfect and progressive aspect markers contribute
consistent meanings regardless of tense, in effect, ESL students have to learn only
the form and meaning of the three tenses (in their simple form) and the two
aspects (perfect and progressive) to develop an understanding of the tense-aspect
system of English. This is why we say that by viewing the tenses and aspects as a
system, the learning burden is lessened.

9.5

THE MEANING OF TENSE

Tense is defined as the linguistic expression of time relations realised by verb

forms. Time is independent of language and is common to all human beings.
Most grammarians conceptualise it, as being divided into past time, present time
and future time.
Tense systems are language specific and vary from one language to another as
you have seen in Malay and English. Tenses distinguish in ways that reflect
temporal reference. In English, for instance, it would be erroneous to imagine
that the Past Tense reflects exclusively to events in past time, that there is a
Present Tense to refer exclusively to events in present time and a Future Tense
(e.g. modal will/would) to refer exclusively to events in future time. In the
following examples, the forms often thought to correspond to past and future
time reference, respectively, in fact, refer to the moment of speaking, for example:
(18)

(a)
(b)
(c)

I thought you were in the hall.

Will you park there, please?
I was wondering whether you needed a drink.

216 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

On the contrary, the Present Tense forms used in the following examples do not
refer exclusively to the moment of speaking, for example:
(19)

(a)
(b)
(c)

These trees look dead in drought.

We leave for Kuala Lumpur tonight.
Temperatures rise to 100 degree F.

In addition to the tensed forms of verbs, other linguistic forms, particularly

adverbs of time such as now, then, tomorrow and Prepositional Phrases such as
in 2004 can make reference to time; English, in fact, relies extensively on such
words to make the temporal reference clear.

9.6

POINTS IN TIME AND POINTS OF

REFERENCE

Tense is how we express events that occur at points situated along the linear flow
of time. Within the linear flow, a point of reference must be established, with
respect to which past events precede and future events follow. The normal,
universal and therefore unmarked point of reference is the moment of speaking.
This is the now, which is implicitly understood in everyday interaction. It can
be diagrammed as follows:

Figure 9.2: Tenses timeline

Further distinctions such as remote past and immediate future can then be
additionally made.

ACTIVITY 9.1
Construct a dialogue, in context, to demonstrate:
(a)

Remote past

(b)

Immediate future

TOPIC 9

9.7

TENSES AND ASPECT

217

THE PRESENT AND PAST TENSES IN

ENGLISH

In everyday use, at present and at the present time have a wider application
than simply referring to the present moment of speech time. Thus, the example
The sun rises in the east includes in its time reference the present moment but
also past and future time. It can be diagrammed in the following way:

Figure 9.3: Timeline for The sun rises in the east

Present time in this sense can therefore mean (a) at all times, or (b) at no
particular time. The grammatical tense used in the examples above is the
unmarked form, having no modification, consisting of the lexical verb alone with
no grammatical meaning beyond that of verb. Thus, it can cover a wide range
of temporal references. We can retain the traditional term Present or Nonprogressive Present for convenience, rather than the term Non-past, preferred by
some grammarians; it is with the recognition that as a tense it only rarely has a
direct relation to speech time.
The Non-past as an alternative term to the Present tense is based on the
following reasoning: while the Present tense can refer to future time as in We
leave for Penang tomorrow or When do we arrive? It cannot normally be used
with a time expression which refers specifically to an event in the past: *I listen to
that story last week instead of He listened to that story last week. The unmarked
form therefore can be used to make specific reference to a future event but not
normally to a past event.

SELF-CHECK 9.2
1.

To what extent do the Present and Past Tenses of English

correspond to the present and past time?

2.

What grammatical devices are used in English to refer to future

events, and how is the choice between these conditioned by the
way the speaker visualises the future events?

218 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

9.8

MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY THE

NON-PROGRESSIVE PRESENT

Stative verbs such as be, seem, belong, or dynamic verbs, such as kick, eat, write
express the verb in the non-progressive present tense differently compared to the
dynamic verbs. In other words, the meaning of non-progressive depends on
whether the verb is being used statically or dynamically, since many verbs lend
themselves to both interpretations. Stand in the hut stands on a hill, for instance,
expresses a state, whereas the phrasal verb stand up is used dynamically in All

the soldiers stood up.

In general, dynamic but not static meanings occur after, as seen in the following
examples:
(19)

(a)
(b)

9.9

What the children did was stand up.

What the house does is stand on a hill.

PRESENT AND TIMELESS STATES

The meanings of the Present static verb can express timeless statements, that is,
statements which apply to all time, including speech time. These include
scientific, mathematical and descriptive statements, as in the following examples:
(20)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Cat is a mammal.
Gold has a relatively low melting point.
Two and two make four.
Silk feels smooth to the touch.

Humans usually engage in activities whose time span is not endless, indicated in
verbs such as know, seem, belong. They are nevertheless states, in which no
change or limitation into the past or future is implied:
(21)

(a)
(b)
(c)

He knows Penang quite well.

This land belongs to the Keretapi Malaysia.
Those exercises look difficult.

Here, too, the temporal reference includes speech time.

TOPIC 9

9.10

TENSES AND ASPECT

219

REPEATED EVENTS IN THE PRESENT

A series of events which cover an unspecified time can be expressed by dynamic

verbs to show the Present. Speech time is not necessarily stated or even included,
as such statements are valid at speech time:
(22)

(a)
(b)
(c)

He sleeps in the hall.

Many families lose their homes in floods.
They spend most of their time studying.

Adjuncts of time, frequency, place, destination, etc., in the Present often

accompany statements which express repeated or recurrent events. Indeed, many
such statements as They spend most of their time are incomplete without a
circumstantial specification.

9.11

INSTANTANEOUS EVENTS IN THE

PRESENT

In certain situations the event coincides, or is presented as coinciding, with the

moment of speaking, and without having any duration beyond speech time. The
Present is used in such situations, which are classified as specific types:
(23)

Performatives:
I warn you that this knife is sharp.

(24)

Exclamations with initial directional adverb:

Off they fly!

(25)

Commentaries:
Santokh passes and Mokhtar heads the ball into the net!

(26)

Demonstrations:
I place the coffee in the cup, stir it gently, and then sip slowly.

220 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

9.12

REFERENCE TO PAST EVENTS

The Present can be used to refer to past events in certain limited ways, as shown
in the following examples (Downing et al., 1992).
(a)

In Newspaper Headlines
(27)

Hard Cash sends back a blank Czech. (Pat Cash beats Ivan Lendl at
Wimbledon)

(28)

Thousands flee persecution.

The effect of the Present in such cases is to dramatise the event, making it
appear before the readers eyes as if it was in fact an instance of the
instantaneous Present.
(b)

In Relating Incidents
(29)

He was only an average athlete, and then unexpectedly he wins two

Olympic medals.

(30)

I was just about to go to work when all of a sudden theres a knock

at the door and Samad rushes in.

This use of historic present is used by a desire to achieve dramatic effect,

in this case to highlight the main point in a narrative by bringing it into the
moment of speaking. Instances of the historic present in casual
conversation tend to be inserted into discourse containing Past Tenses and
are often preceded by an Adjunct signalling immediacy such as suddenly
or all of a sudden.
(c)

In Reporting Information
With communicating verbs (say, tell) and of perception (see, hear,
understand), the use of the Present implies that the reported information is
still operative, even though the communicative process took place in the
past. If a past verb is used, e.g. said, announced, the present validity of the
information is not stressed:
(31)

(a)
(b)
(c)

RTM forecasts heavy showers in the north Peninsula.

Pak Samad says he has changed his tyres.
I understand that you would like to move to Tanjong Malim.

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

221

ACTIVITY 9.2
Write five sentences to represent a state or event. If it is an event, is it
repeated, instantaneous, past or future?

9.13

MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY THE

NON-PROGRESSIVE PAST TENSE

The global meaning of the Past Tense in English is to demonstrate remoteness

or distancing from the moment of speaking, whether in time, towards the past, or
with regard to potential or hypothetical events which have not yet occurred in
the present or the future.

9.13.1

Definite Events in the Past

Non-progressive Past Tense is used to refer to a past event or state, the Past in
English contains two semantic features:
(a)

To visualise the event as having occurred at some specific time in the past.

(b)

To show the event was completed in the past, and a gap in time separates
its completion from the present.

These features are illustrated in the following examples:

(32)

(a)
(b)
(c)

I bought some biscuits yesterday

Tun Perak was born in Pahang.
He lived in Kuala Lumpur until 1890 and spent the rest of his life in
exile.

The criteria require a fairly rigid distinction in English between what can be
expressed by the Past and what can be expressed by the Present Perfect. The
meanings of specific occurrence, completed event and disconnectedness from
present time are not normally expressed by the Present Perfect; the above
examples, for instance, are unacceptable with the verb in the Perfect:
(33)

(a)
(b)
(c)

*I have bought some biscuits yesterday.

*He has been born in Pahang.
*We have met four years ago.

222 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

Adjuncts of specific past time such as yesterday and in 2002 naturally combine
well with the Past, but not with the Perfect, since their function is to signal the
past moment in time explicitly.
We do not need to specify a past occurrence by means of an Adjunct; however, as
long as we have a specific time in mind and can assume that the hearer
understands this, from inference or from the situational context, the Past tense
can be used alone, as in:
(34)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Did you see that object coming down?

You didnt tell me you met Maria at the mall.
Did Kamal remember to buy the books?

The events referred to in these examples are situationally definite, the

definiteness of the event being in many cases confirmed by the definiteness of the
participants (that object, my letters) or the circumstance (at the mall).
The definiteness of the event expressed by the Past does not require that the time
in question be specified, only that it is mentioned. For this reason, even
unspecific adverbs such as once, when and conjunctions such as while and as
soon as can introduce Past tense verbs:
(35)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Latif knew football from the KL club.

When did you learn Swahili?
While we walked along, he told me about his assignment.
As soon as they saw us, they came to greet us.

SELF-CHECK 9.3
What is the basic meaning of progressive and non-progressive aspects?

9.14

THE PAST TENSE WITH PRESENT AND

FUTURE REFERENCES

The Past tense can refer to time zone other than the past in the following three
ways:
(a)

In reported speech or thought: after a reporting verb in the Past tense, the
reported verbs in the dependent clauses are also in the Past. This
phenomenon is known as backshift (Downing et al., 1992). Present Tense

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

223

forms are optional as in She said she would/will be glad to see us, as long
as the situation is still valid, and are sometimes preferred when a resulting
temporal contrast would be undesirable, as in:
I didnt realise that you were/are the president of the tennis club.
(b)

In polite requests and enquiries the Past form distances the proposed
action, so making the imposition on the listener less direct:
(36)

(c)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Would you just sit here, please?

Did you want to tell me now?
I wondered whether you needed drink.

Hypothetical subordinate clauses express a counterfactual belief or

expectation on the part of the speaker. The Past in such expressions was
originally a subjunctive whose only relic remains in the form were for all
persons of be.
(37)

(a)
(b)
(c)

He speaks as if he owned the house.

If only we had more time!
I often wish I were richer.

Referring to Future Events

Future events cannot be referred as facts, as past and present situations, since
events in the future have not yet happened. We can predict with more or less
confidence what will happen, we can plan for events to take place, express our
intentions and promises with regard to future events.
Here we simply outline the main syntactic means of referring to future events as
seen from the standpoint of present time.
Safe Predictions
These are predictions which do not involve the subjects volition, and include
cyclical events and general truths. Will + infinitive is used, but shall for I and
we:
(38)

(a)
(b)

Jamila will be nineteen tomorrow.

The best will soon be with us.

224 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

Prediction of generalities can include speech time:

(39)

If people have the opportunity, theyll take it.

Will/Shall + Progressive combine the meaning of futurity with that of
limited duration, at the same time avoiding the implication of promise
associated with these modals when the subject is I or we:

(40)

(a)
(b)

Ill be seeing him tomorrow at about ten.

We shall be studying your application shortly.

Programmed Events
Future events seen as certain because they have been programmed can be
expressed by the Present + Time Adjunct or by be + due to + infinitive:
(41)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Our holidays start next Saturday.

The sun sets at 20.15 hours tomorrow.
She is due to retire in two months time.

Intended Events
Intended events can be expressed by be + going to + infinitive, or simply by
the Present Progressive + Time Adjunct:
(42)

(a)
(b)

I am going to try to get more information about this.

Pete says hes changing his job next month.

Imminent Events
An event which is seen as occurring in the immediate future is expressed by
be + going to or by be + about to + infinitive:
(43)

(a)
(b)

It looks as if theres going to be a storm.

This company is about to be taken over by a multinational.

A prediction or expectation oriented to past time is expressed by these same

forms in the past:
(44)

(a)
(b)

Its not what I thought it was going to be.

She looked as if she was about to collapse.

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

225

Future Anterior Events

A future event anterior to another event is expressed by the Future Perfect:
(45)

(a)
(b)

The program will have ended long before we get back.

By the time he is twenty-two, hell have taken his degree.

Otherwise, the Future Perfect expresses the duration or repetition of an event in

the future. The addition of the Progressive emphasises the stretching out of the
sequence.
(46)

(a)
(b)

9.15

Well have lived here for ten years by next July.

Well have been living here for ten years by next July.

THE MEANING OF ASPECT

As you have seen, tense is primarily related to the event at speech time, or to a
reference point in the past. Aspect is concerned with the internal character of the
event as it is presented by the speaker; it focuses on such contrasts as durative
(extending in time) or non-durative, whether the event is seen in its initial stage
or its final stage, whether it is completed or uncompleted. We have already had
the occasion to refer to the stative / dynamic contrast in describing the meanings
of the tenses in English and to the perfective / imperfective contrast expressed to
some extent in some complex Verb phrases. Having fewer aspectual inflections,
English has fewer aspectual choices than some languages. The one obligatory
choice is that of the progressive (is/was going) versus the non-progressive forms
(goes, went). We shall treat progressiveness as a type of imperfectivity, or
incompletion. Perfectivity is not to be confused with the Present Perfect as in
Aspect.

9.15.1

Perfectivity and Imperfectivity

The term perfective aspect is used to indicate that the situation expressed by
the predication is viewed as a single whole, without attention being drawn to the
separate phases that make up the situation. Certain uses of the Present (Jamal
passes the ball; We start tomorrow) can be considered the perfective or zero
aspect. The problem is that habitual meanings, which are a form of imperfectivity
(He works at night; He works on and off), are expressed in English by the same
base form of the verb, the imperfectivity being conveyed by circumstantial
expressions (at night, on and off) or deduced from the co-text (On Saturdays he
works on the night-shift. He gets home at 8 a.m., has breakfast and goes to bed).

226 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

With past time reference, a perfective interpretation is equally dependent on

outside information. The verb spoke, for instance, in the sentence He knew he
spoke too fast can have a perfective interpretation if it is understood to refer to
one specific occasion, but an imperfective interpretation if it is understood as
repeated, that is that he habitually spoke too fast. In many languages, these
distinctions would be signaled morphologically.
Imperfectivity illustrates the internal structure of the event or situation. It is a
wide category, which can include such aspects as habituality, discontinued habit,
interactivity and progressiveness. While habituality is signalled by adverbs or the
co-text, and interactivity partly by lexical items in verb phrase complexes (kept
on shouting) and by phrasal verb particles (he hammered away), English does
have a specific form to express discontinued habit or state. This is the lexical
auxiliary used to + infinitive as in He knew he used to speak too fast.
Expressing discontinued habit or state used to + infinitive is illustrated in the
following examples:
(47)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Faris used to be a friend of mine.

There used to be trees all round this square.
This car used to belong to my sister.
An old house used to stand on this hill.
We used to visit each other quite often.

This structure has the following features:

(a)

It is used with both stative verbs (be, remain, stand) and dynamic verbs
(speak, call) to express either a state or a series of events which were
discontinued before speech time.

(b)

It is particularly helpful in being able to express, without an accompanying

time adjunct, the fact that the state or habit no longer occurs. The time
expression can be added; for instance, many years ago could be added to
all the above examples, but the implicit meaning of not any longer is so
strong that an additional expression is unnecessary.

(c)

It is used to make an event into a sequence of events, that is a habit. In

other words, it makes a potentially perfective expression into an
imperfective one.
(48)

(a)
(b)

He visited me.
We went to the theatre.

He used to visit me.

We used to go to the theatre.

TOPIC 9

(d)

TENSES AND ASPECT

227

It is not to be confused with be used to + {-ing} ( = be accustomed to +

{-ing}) as in He is not used to working late hours.

To illustrate the meaning of used to + infinitive, two examples are given below,
the first as an elliptical response:
(49)

Youre the football player, Duli said. The Premier League. You played
with the Terengganu Club.
Used to. Dont play anymore.

SELF-CHECK 9.4
1.

What is perfectivity and imperfectivity?

2.

Discuss the differences between perfect tense and prefectivity.

3.

Define stative and dynamic verbs.

9.15.2

Duration, Boundedness and Agency

We can understand the meanings expressed by the progressive in English, and

the restrictions on its use by elaborating on the stative / dynamic distinction
already made in treating the verb. We are concerned mainly with the duration or
non-duration (punctuality) of the verbal situation, whether or not it is agentive
and finally, whether or not it is bounded by an end point.
Static Verbs
States are durative, in that they last throughout time; they are unbounded in that
no end point is implied in the verb itself, and they do not have agentive Subjects.
Static verbs can be grouped into the following classes:
(a)

relational verbs: be, belong, consist, cost, depend, own, possess, seem

sound, etc.
(b)

verbs of involuntary perception: see, hear, smell, taste, feel.

(c)

verbs of cognition: know, think, understand, recognise, etc.

(d)

verbs of affectivity: like, dislike, hate, detest, love.

228 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

Verbs such as stand, lie, live are intermediate between static and dynamic. With
inanimate subjects a static interpretation is common (The farm lies in a valley,
The monastery stands on the hill); with animate subjects a tentative
interpretation would be normal in They were lying on the beach, They were
standing in the rain, He lived till the age of eighty-five. When an end-point is
established, expressed by a directional adverb, the situation is evidently
dynamic, as in Lie down on the ground!, Stand up!, Hell never live down the

disgrace.
Dynamic Verbs
Dynamic verbs are classified as either durative or punctual. Durative verbs
represent dynamic situations which extend through time such as rain, read,
sleep, ripen. Punctual verbs do not extend through time: kick, blink, jump, drop.
Durative verbs can be either agentive (play, sing, whisper) or non-agentive

(ripen, grow, rain, snow):

(50)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The children have gone off to play. (agentive)

Doesnt she sing beautifully? (agentive)
Weeds grow even faster in this climate. (non-agentive)
Grapes wont ripen without some sun. (non-agentive)

Punctual verbs can likewise be either agentive (kick, hit, swat, jump) or nonagentive (drop, blink, sneeze, explode):
(51)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I smacked his face with a newspaper. (agentive)

The dog jumped out of the window. agentive)
The weather made me sneeze. (non-agentive)
The bomb exploded in the car. (non-agentive)

The action of smacking a face is always agentive, whereas that of hitting

something need not be, as in The car hit a tree. Similarly, it is not only animate
beings that jump, but also inanimate such as profits, temperatures, prices and
populations. In this very general outline of verb types, it must be remembered
that a great many verbs can be associated with many different types of Subject
and express a wide variety of situations. Only the most prototypical associations
are presented for our current purpose.
Durative and punctual verbs, both can either have an end-point or have no endpoint, that is, be bounded or unbounded. Here, again, certain verbs, such as boil,
can be either bounded (come to the boil) or unbounded (boil continuously).

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

229

Unbounded verbs can become bounded by means of an adverbial particle (boil

away) or a resulting Attribute (boil dry). Rather than the verb, it is, of course, the
situation as it is expressed linguistically that is bounded (The water has boiled
away) or unbounded (The water is boiling), and a number of devices, including
the adverbial particles of phrasal verbs, expounded or unexpounded Objects,
Progressive aspect and so on, are exploited to establish the differences.
(52)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I dont mind which one; Ill let you decide. (durative + bounded)
He runs every morning to keep fit. (durative, unbounded)
The traffic lights changed to red. (punctual, bounded)
The ambulance light flashed, warning motorists to give way.
(punctual, unbounded)

Durative verbs which have an end point are either agentive such as write out, eat
up, decide (bounded activities), or non-agentive such as grow up, improve, ripen
(bounded processes).
Durative verbs without an end-point are either agentive such as sew, whisper
and play (unbounded activities), or non-agentive such as rain, shine, boil
(unbounded processes).
(53)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Eat up your food! (agentive, durative, bounded)

Youll find the tree have grown up in your absence. (non- agentive,
durative, bounded)
Its not advisable to speak while listening to a lecture. (agentive,
durative, unbounded)
She polished her car till it shone. (non-agentive, durative,
unbounded)

Punctual verbs which have an end-point are transitions; the agentive type
includes sit down, stop (bounded transitional acts); the non-agentive type
includes die, catch a cold (bounded transitional events).
Unbounded punctual events are momentary, either agentive such as tap, nod,
pat (unbounded momentary acts), or non-agentive such as flash, bounce, flap
(unbounded momentary events). Both types will frequently be interpreted in
context as iterative.
(54)

(a)
(b)
(c)

I sat down anxiously on the edge of the wall. (agentive, punctual,

bounded)
The countrys foremost cartoonist died unexpectedly in his home
last night. (non-agentive, punctual, bounded)
The child patted the cat. (agentive, punctual, unbounded, probably
iterative)

230 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

9.16

THE MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE

English has a progressive aspect realised by verbal periphrasis: some form of be

and the {ing} participle. It combines with both Present and Past Tenses, and also
with the Perfect, with modals, with lexico-modals and with the passive:
(55)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

He is reading
He was reading
He has been reading
He will be reading
He is bound to be reading
It is being read

Present + Progressive
Past + Progressive
Perfect + Progressive
Modal + Progressive
Lexico-modal + Progressive
Present + Progressive + Passive

The fundamental purpose of the English Progressive aspect is to indicate a

dynamic action in the process of happening. Attention is focused on the middle
of the process, which is seen as essentially dynamic.
Unlike some languages which also have a Progressive, English makes a
grammatical contrast with the non-progressive, as in What are you doing? as
opposed to *What do you do? That is to say, there is an obligatory choice
between viewing the action as in the process of happening (What are you doing?)
and not viewing it in this way.
Inherent Verbal Meanings and the Progressive
The Progressive aspect is essentially dynamic in character, it lends a dynamic
interpretation to whatever verbal action it is applied to. For this reason, not all
types of verbal situation admit the Progressive, and those that do admit it are
affected in different ways.
States and the Progressive
Many stative situations are incompatible with the Progressive. Permanent
qualities such as Peter is tall, states of the weather such as Its quite hot today and
relations expressed by such verbs as own, belong, seem, sound are visualised in
English as invariable and therefore non-dynamic. We would not find instances
such as (Downing et al., 1992):
(56)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

*Peter is being tall.

*Its being quite hot today.
*He is owning/possessing land in Sabah.
*Your hay fever is seeming a bit less severe lately.
*That music is sounding too loud.

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

231

Be and look as copula verbs linking the subject with a temporary attribute are
more versatile and can take on dynamic meanings, often indicating attitude on
the part of the speaker:
(57)

(a)
(b)

Puthu is being unusually patient with the children.

You are looking a little unhappy.

Verbs of involuntary perception (see, hear, smell, taste) are incompatible with the
Progressive, whether the subject is the one who perceives (the Experiencer in
semantic terms, such as I in I saw the match on television, we in We heard the
radio commentary), or the thing perceived (the Carrier/Phenomenon, such as
this fish in This fish doesnt smell too good, and it in It tastes even worse).
When our senses are subjects, an imperfective interpretation is made possible by
means of can/could with the verb of perception:
(58)

(a)
(b)

I can smell something burning. (not I am smelling. . .)

We could see the flamingoes wheel overhead and (could) hear the
noise of their wings. (not *we were seeing. . . hearing)

See, smell, feel and taste have regular dynamic, agentive uses which combine
easily with the progressive. In such uses these verbs refer to a deliberate action
rather than involuntary perception:
(59)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Im seeing the doctor tomorrow. (visiting)

Who will be seeing to the sandwiches? (attending to)
Janet must be seeing her friends off. (taking leave of)
We have been tasting the pudding.
Experts were smelling the fungi in order to identify them.
I am feeling the childs foot to see if any bones are broken.

Verbs of cognition (know, believe, understand, wonder, suppose, realise) do not

normally admit the progressive:
(60)

(a)
(b)

I believe you are right. *I am believing you are right.

He knows the answer. *He is knowing the answer.

232 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

However, with wonder, suppose and understand the progressive can stretch
the state, while verbs such as understand and realise can combine with the
progressive of begin to express the stretched out initiation of the mental state:
(61)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Im wondering whether it was a good idea after all.

Im supposing that the money will be returnable without interest.
Im understanding Arabic a little better now.
We are beginning to understand the intricacies of the plan.
He is beginning to realise the implications of all this.

Affective verbs (like, dislike, love, hate) do not combine easily with the
Progressive, with the exception of enjoy, which is dynamic. They sometimes
occur with the Progressive, however; the question How are you liking X seems to
be more indirect and therefore more polite than the non-progressive How do you
like X:
(62)

(a)
(b)
(c)

How are you liking your visit to Disneyland?

Oh, Im just loving it.
Frankly, Im hating it.

Durative Situations and the Progressive

Durative process verbs are already inherently dynamic (dance, write, sew,
whisper, rain, ripen, ache, etc.). The use of the progressive with durative verbs
which have an end-point (decide, write out, grow up, ripen) is to stretch out the
durative phase of the process before the end point:
(63)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

He is deciding about his future.

We are writing out the invitations.
She is growing up into a beautiful girl.
The apricots are ripening well.

Durative verbs which have no end point (sew, whisper, play, rain), including
verbs of bodily sensation (ache, hurt, itch, feel cold), the progressive has the
effect of limiting the duration of the process, so that it includes speech time (or
orientation time if this is in the past):
(64)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Who is whispering over there?

It was raining hard when I left
Wheres Ken? Hes playing golf.

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

233

With this type of verbs, unlimited duration is expressed by the simple past.
Compare the following sentences:
(65)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Lamps were glowing in the dark -- Lamps glowed in the dark.

Snow was falling gently. -- Snow fell gently.
My back is aching. -- My back aches.

Acts, Events and the Progressive

With act and event verbs the use of the progressive results in a stretching out of
the verbal action, it becomes a sequence. With transitional events (those which
have an end point, such as arrive, die, catch a cold) and agentive transitional acts
(sit down, catch a ball) the progressive has the effect of stretching out the stage
before the end point:
(66)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Just as I was sitting down, the dog barked.

Hurry! The taxi is arriving.
I think I am catching a cold.
The old warrior is dying.

With momentary verbs (those which have no end-point, whether agentive such
as tap, kick, fire or non-agentive such as sneeze, bounce, flash), the use of the
Progressive must be interpreted as a repetition of the act or event. The sequence
is an iterative sequence:
(67)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Someone is tapping on the wall next door.

The soldiers are firing on the rifle range nearby.
Why is that light flashing?
Hes kicking the ball all over the field.

These categories are approximate, rather than absolute. Some actions appear to
be more punctual than others. Some end points appear to be more final than
others. It would, for instance, be unusual to hear Hes slamming the door for it is
not possible to keep on slamming a door unless you keep on opening it.
Moreover, the type of subject and/or direct object can also lead to a different
interpretation. Arrive, with a singular subject, will be interpreted as a transitional
event, the progressive stretching the stage previous to the end point, as in,
Hurry! The taxi is arriving. With a plural subject and the progressive, arrive will
be interpreted as an iterative sequence, for example, Hurry! The guests are

arriving.

234 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

The Discourse Functions of the Progressive

Since the progressive does not establish time boundaries, it has the effect of
providing a temporal frame around some point of time.
With the present progressive the point of time is typically the time of utterance,
now (What are you doing? Im switching off the answer phone); but it may be
interpreted as repeated as in When he gets out of bed at seven oclock, shes
already doing aerobics, or as a historic present as in We finally reach the

supermarket and they are just closing the doors.

Similarly, the past progressive provides a temporal frame without time
boundaries around some point of time or some bounded act or event:
(68)

(a)
(b)

At half past five, crowds were pouring into the subways. (point of
time)
When we stopped at the door, Pat was shouting to us. (bounded
act)

Within the flow of discourse, especially narrative, the progressive frequently has
the effect of backgrounding certain information in order to highlight or
foreground events expressed in the non-progressive past tense. A series of past
tenses, by contrast, will be interpreted as a sequence of events:
When we stopped at the door, Pat shouted to us.
The progressive may be used alone in a situation made bounded by a time
expression (an on going process within a situation seen as perfective):
(69)

I was working in the garden all afternoon.

Be can be replaced by forms of come and go + {--ing}. The resulting combination

can be both perfective and imperfective:
(70)

The soldiers came running across the fields.

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

235

ACTIVITY 9.3
To illustrate the whole combinations of tense aspects system in a more
simplified manner, we will look at it from the perspective of form,
meaning and function. First, we will look at whole system by analysing
the forms of tenses and aspects as given in the chart below.
Can you provide all the forms, meaning and functions based on the
combination of the following matrix of aspects, forms and tense?

The combination of tense aspect forms, as applied to the verb do and be (main
verb) such as in the above table. We should not forget that this list matrix reflects
the basic meaning of form, and function of English tense aspect system. The
specific constructions may express derived meanings and/or have special uses,
depending on actional and aspectual properties. For example, some forms of
tense aspect of the simple aspect are provided below.
The Simple Aspect
There are two types of the base verb forms; verb do and be (am, is and are). The
other related forms are present, past, tag question, wh-questions, negatives,
modals and passive voices such as in the following examples (Table 9.3):

236 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

Table 9.3: Verb Forms

(71)

(a)

We do our job

(present)

(b)

He does his job very quickly

(present)

(c)

Do you eat rice?

(tag - present)

(d)

Does he play hockey?

(tag  present)

(e)

We do not do our job.

(present  negative)

(f)

We dont do our job.

(present  negative  contraction)

(g)

Dont you do your job?

(present  tag  negative  contraction)

(h)

We will do our job.

(present  modal)

(i)

Our job is done by them

(present  passive)

(j)

Our job will be done by them

(present  modal  passive)

(k)

Teaching is our job

(present)

(l)

Is teaching our job?

(tag - present)

(m)

Teaching is not our job

(present  negative)

(n)

Teaching isnt our job

(present  negative  contraction)

(o)

Isnt teaching our job?

(present  tag  negative  contraction)

(p)

We did our job

(past)

(q)

He did his job very quickly

(past)

(r)

Did you eat rice?

(tag - past)

(s)

Did he play hockey?

(tag  past)

(t)

We did not do our job.

(past  negative)

(u)

We didnt do our job.

(past  negative  contraction)

(v)

Didnt you do your job?

(past  tag  negative  contraction)

(w)

We would do our job.

(past  modal)

(x)

Our job was done by them

past  passive)

(y)

Our job would be done by them

(past  modal  passive)

(z)

Teaching was our job

(past)

(aa)

Was teaching our job?

(tag - past)

(ab)

Teaching was not our job

past  negative)

(ac)

Teaching wasnt our job

(past  negative  contraction)

(ad)

Wasnt teaching our job?

(past  tag  negative  contraction

Organising the tense-aspect system in a very systematic way is very important

for teachers in order to present a suitable teaching syllabus to students.

SELF-CHECK 9.5

TOPIC 9

TENSES AND ASPECT

237

Aspect refers to such contrasts as durative/punctual and perfective/

imperfective.

English has only one obligatory aspectual contrast: progressive/nonprogressive. Progressive is one type of imperfectivity.

Another, that of discontinued habit or state, is expressed by used to + info.

Progressive are realised by be + {-ing}, combined with the inherent verbal
meaning to produce such effects as the stretching of the event, repetition of
the event, etc.

These effects are exploited in discourse.

Perfectivity is not realised unambiguously in English by verbal forms, but

must be interpreted from the whole clause.

Aspect

Progressive

Perfectivity

Tense

Explain how tense and aspect combines to indicate meaning in terms of time of
utterance.

Why did the topic assert that English has no Future tense? Explain further how
future is indicated in sentences.

238 X TOPIC 9 TENSES AND ASPECT

Bache, C. (1997). The study of aspect, tense and action: Towards a theory of the
semantics of grammatical categories, second revised Edition (2nd ed.)
Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, New York, Paris: Peter Lang.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book: An ESL/EFL
teacher's course (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Celce-Murcia. M. & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in language
teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.