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Universal grammar: a set of principles and rules common to all human languages + a set of parameters whose value is set

by experience
and which can vary from a language to another
Principle: structure dependency the relations between words (ex. SAI Subject Auxiliary Inversion Can you speak Englih?)
-

Parameters: have different values set by experience and can vary from a language to another (ex. Null/overt subject subiectul subneles,
head-directionality the most important word in a sentence)
Lexicon: system of organizing grammar (functional categories) & vocabulary (lexical categories).
Projection principle: all information found in the lexicon should be projected in a sentence. Both LEXICAL and FUNCTIONAL categories
expand according to the same general format: X-BAR SCHEMA

P phrase (expresie, locuiune)


X0 projection (usually the head of the sentence)
X1 first projection
Spec specifier (DETERMINERS the, a, this, QUANTIFIERS no, some, every, and POSSESSIVES Johns and my mothers)
XP maximal projection (extended projection of the head)
The Innateness hypothesis: children are born with some innate knowledge which guides them in the process of acquisition.
Simple sentence: an independent clause containing a subject and a verb.Ex: Some students like to study in the mornings.
Compound sentence: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Ex: I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
Complex sentence: independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses by the means of a subordinator such as because, since,
after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.
Ex: The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.
Finite clause: its verb is marked for tense
Ex: John studies English. (indicative, present tense)
Non-finite clause: dependent clause whose verb is non-finite
Ex: To live is to suffer in silence. / To learn is to know. (infinitive)
Small clause: are subject-predicate structures
Ex: Jane marry? Over my dead body!
Jim called me a liar (to be a liar).
a)
-

LEXICAL CATEGORIES (PRILE DE VORBIRE): open class with an increasing number of entries
Noun
determiner (a, an, the, this, that)
number
gender
case (Nominative, Genitive, Accusative, Dative, Vocative)

b)
-

Adjective
degree of comparison
gender (same with noun)
preceded by other words (very, too, quite, rather..)

c)
-

Adverb
degree of comparison .ex:
Modify a verb

d)
-

Verb
Mood
Tense
Subject-Verb agreement
Voice
Aspect

e)
-

Prepositions
Can be followed by a determiner/noun
Can be preceded by right or straight

a)
b)
c)
d)

FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES: close class with a definite number of entries (the glue that holds sentences together)
Determiners (definite/indefinite articles, demonstratives, possessives, numbers, question words, etc)
Quantifiers (a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc)
Conjunctions (and, but, so, etc)
Auxiliaries (be, do, have)

The IMMEDIATE constituents of a sentence are PHRASES (expresii, locuiuni) (ex: a book of biology; drink water; on the desk)

The ULTIMATE constituents of a sentence are WORDS (ex: car, covered, discover, incredibly)

PHRASE = a group of words related to each other (ex: an expensive book)


A phrase is the projection of a HEAD;
Phrases are built around their head
Eat an apple verb phrase VP (the verb eat is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Read a book verb phrase VP (the verb read is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Boring lecture noun phrase NP (the noun lecture is the dominant element THE HEAD)
A girl noun phrase NP (the noun girl is the dominant element THE DEAD)

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Above the sky prepositional phrase PP (the preposition above is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Quite dramatically adverbial phrase AP (the adverb dramatically is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Head ph:
Park a car verb phrase VP (the verb park is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Extremely polite adjectival phrase AP (the adjective polite is the dominant element THE HEAD)
This breath-taking and mind-blowing tale of love noun phrase NP (the noun tale is the dominant element THE DEAD)
Whether the statement is true or false COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (whether THE HEAD)
That room was empty COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (that THE HEAD)
For him to be the winner COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (for THE HEAD)
AUXILIARIES (be, do, have, modals)
Do not denote events
I am reading a book. (am nu exprim o aciune, ci este auxiliar pentru vb read)
Allow SAI (Subject Auxiliary Inversion)
She will come soon.
Will she come soon?
Can occur in TAGS and CODAS
Mary speaks English, and so do I.
Allow NEGATION
She will not/wont come soon.
Cannot assign a -role (they are semantically light) = DO NOT SELECT THEIR COMPLEMENT
Nu poate ndeplini niciunul din rolurile tip THETA.
DOESN'T INCLUDE AUXILIARY DO IN EMPHASIS
You havent written the homework, but I have.
LEXICAL VERBS (jump, love, see)
Denote events
I read a book every week. (read exprim o aciune)
Dont allow SAI (DO insertion)
She speaks English.
Does she speak English?
Cannot occur in TAGS and CODAS
Mary speaks English, and so speak I. (GREIT)
Dont allow NEGATION (DO NOT insertion)
She doesnt speak English.
Can assign a -role = SELECT THEIR COMPLEMENT (Agent/Patient/Experiencer/Benefective)
Agent: I speak English very well.
Patient: I speak English very well.
Experiencer: You are happy.(state)
Benefective: You play the piano for me. (beneficiar)
EMPHASIS INCLUDES AUXILIARY DO IN EMPHASIS
You dont write your homework, but I do

a)
b)
c)
d)

GET lexical verb because it cannot do the inversion with the subject, so it needs the auxiliary DID
John got arrested for theft when he was young.
John often got arrested for theft when he was young.
Did John get arrested for theft when he was young?
John didnt get arrested for theft.
.
A modal auxiliary has the following characteristics: NICE PROPERTIES
N-NEGATION-Takes negation directly (can't, mustn't).
Ex;He cant have done it.
I-INVERSION-Takes inversion without DO (can I? must I?).
Ex;May I ask you a question?
C-CODA-John can swim and so can Bill.
E-EMPHASIS-Ann cant solve the problem, but I can.

Compare the properties of:


Copula BE

AUXILIARIES BE, DO, HAVE

LINKING VERB joins SUBJECT to ADJECTIVE/NOUN COMPLEMENT


He is fast. ("is" links the subject "He" to the adjective "fast".)
He is a driver. ("is" links the subject "He" to the noun complement "driver".)
HELPING VERBS adds grammatical information & mark tense
He was running.
Did you come to school yesterday?
Have you finished?
Copula-like VERBS
LEXICAL VERBS
Connect the SUBJECT to the COMPLEMENT. They are sometimes called linking verbs.
Do not denote events, only states and results.
Semantically select their complements
They do not need auxiliary DO
Cannot assign an EXTERNAL ARGUMENT (Subject) UNNACUSATIVES they select a small clause as an INTERNAL
ARGUMENT
BE, REMAIN, SEEM, APPEAR
Describe the STATE of a thing /person referred to by the subject.
She seems happy.
It was good.
BECOME, TURN, GROW, GET
Describe the RESULT of some change affecting the thing/person referred to by the subject.
She became a teacher.
The soup smelled more delicious than ever. Denote events (watch, play, sing)
Semantically select their complements (play the piano, sing a song, watch a film)
Can assign a -role = SELECT THEIR COMPLEMENT (Agent/Patient/Experiencer/Benefective)
Agent: I speak English very well.
Patient: I wrote the letter.
Experiencer: You are happy.(state)
Benefective: You play the piano for me. (beneficiar)
THETA ROLES = SEMANTIC ROLES = denote the parts that arguments play in the event.
AGENT Initiate the action
I speak English. (I = agent)
PATIENT Undergoes the action of the agent.
I wrote the letter. (the letter = patient)
EXPERIENCER
Experiences a state.
You are happy.(state)
BENEFECTIVE
Its the beneficiary of an action.
You play the piano for me. (beneficiary)
INSTRUMENT
The object used to do the action.
He wrote the letter with a pen.
LOCATIVE/LOCATION
The place where something is situated.
She put the book on the self.
GOAL
Location towards something moves.
They went to the cinema.
SOURCE Location from which something moves.
They came from the cinema.
SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
EXAMPLES
EXTERNAL ARGUMENT
SUBJECT She speaks English very well.
INTERNAL ARGUMENT
DIRECT OBJECT She speaks English very well.
INDIRECT-INTERNAL ARGUMENT
PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (on/for)
She waited for him.
ADJUNCT
Its not an argument of the verb and it can be omitted. She reached home at 6 oclock.

She had bought the most sophisticated I-Phone at the fair two weeks ago.
She = EXTERNAL ARGUMENT
the most sophisticated I-Phone = INTERNAL ARGUMENT
two weeks ago = ADJUNCT
UNACCUSATIVES UNERGATIVES
Intransitive verbs describing TELIC situations (have a natural endpoint, visible results, change of state)Intransitive verbs describing ATELIC situations (without a natural endpoint, no visible results, no change of state)

The argument is the Patient The argument is the Agent


The argument doesnt have control over the action The argument has control over the action
The snow melts.
The lake froze.
The vase broke into pieces. (somebody broke it; it cannot break by itself)
The boys run for 4 hours.

John speaks English.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
UNERGATIVES
UNACCUSATIVES
Have only 1 Argument: Patient or Agent
Do not take Direct Object
They can be UNERGATIVES/UNACCUSATIVES
COPULATIVE PREDICATE = copula-like VERB + PREDICATIVE
She became a teacher.
He is happy
Copula-like VERBS
1)
Connect the SUBJECT to the COMPLEMENT. They are sometimes called linking verbs.
2)
Do not denote events, only states and results.
3)
Semantically select their complements
4)
They do not need auxiliary DO
5)
Cannot assign an EXTERNAL ARGUMENT (Subject) UNNACUSATIVES they select a small clause as an INTERNAL
ARGUMENT
BE, REMAIN, SEEM, APPEAR
Describe the STATE of a thing /person referred to by the subject.
She seems happy.
It was good.
BECOME, TURN, GROW, GET
Describe the RESULT of some change affecting the thing/person referred to by the subject.
She became a teacher.
The soup smelled more delicious than ever.
1.
2.

CHANGE OF STATE-VERBS
Cannot occur in UNACCUSATIVES/UNERGATIVES
They are not compatible with there sentences.
Examples of wrong sentences:
There yellow some leaves.
There evaporates the air.
LOCATIVE INVERSION = Location + Predicate + Subject
Can appear in UNACCUSATIVE (The argument is the Patient)

Cannot appear in UNERGATIVE (The argument is the Agent)

Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess.


a beautiful princess = Patient

In the kitchen ate Mary an apple.

Mary = Agent
UNNACUSATIVE that denote a change of state cannot form this construction!!!
On the streets melted a lot of snow.

A mormit pn s-a calmat = He grumbled himself calm.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

DITRANSITIVE VERBS

require one or more objects in a sentence.


the verb and the preposition.
I eat apples.
You want some coffe.

PHRASAL TRANSITIVE
two objects (direct&indirect objects)

The object is placed between

Alicia wrote a love poem.

He gave Mary ten dollars.

He passed Paul the ball.


Jean read him the books.
She is baking him a cake.

Her coat was very wet. She took it off.

POC = Prepositional Object Construction (The girl gave milk to the cat).
DOC = Double Object Construction (The girl gave the cat milk).
POC
GIVE-verbs

DOC

The girl gave milk to the cat

THROWING-verbs He threw the ball to Mike.


Verbs of FUTURE HAVING

She sent a letter to him.

He brought some flowers to her.

POC

He threw Mike the ball.

She promised a dictionary to me.She promised me a dictionary.

Verbs of SENDING/COMMUNICATON
BRING/TAKE

The girl gave the cat milk

She sent him a letter.

He brought her some flowers.

DOC

Verbs with LATINATE origin (cannot occur in DOC, only in POC)


the house.

He donated the house to his son.

Verbs of FULFILLING

I provided all details required to you.

I provided you all details required.

MANNER OF SPEAKING verbs

He whispered something to her. He whispered her something.

Verbs wich denote CREATION:

BUILD-verbs

He built this house for her = He built her this house.

PREPARE-verbs

He prepared lunch for her = He prepared her lunch.

GET-verbs

He bought the icecream for her = He bought her the icecream.

CREATE-verbs

He designed this dress for her = He designed her this dress.

STEAL-verbs

He stole the car for her = He stole her the car.

Verbs of SELECTION

He selected the theme for her = He selected her the theme.

GET-verbs

He borrow the book for her = He borrow her the book.

CREATE-verbs

He composed the poem for her = He composed her the poem.

*He whispered her the answer.


Whispered = manner-of-speaking verb incompatible with DOC
CORECT - He whispered the anwer to her (compatible with POC)

He donated his son

MIDDLE CONSTRUCTION verbs active in form (derived by transitive), but passive in meaning.
ACTIVE in form

PASSIVE in meaning

The man scared the woman.

The woman scares easily.

John read the book. The book reads easily.


She opened the door easily.

a)
b)

c)
d)
e)

The door opens easily.

The Agent is phonologically NULL, but semantically PRESENT.


These shirts wash well.
This door opens easily.
They dont apear in imperative or progressive forms
*Policemen are bribing easily.
*Bribe easily, policemen!
Policemen bribe easily. (CORECT)
Dont express specific events, but rules, features or laws for the patient and they are usually used in the SIMPLE PRESENT.
This book reads easily.
The book sells well.
The MIDDLE sentences are incompatible with by-phrase.
*Wall paints easily by Harry.
The wall was painted by Hary.
English MIDDLES generally appear with adverbs that modify the predicates.
This book reads easily.
*This book reads.

COMPATIBLE CLASSES

INCOMPATIBLE CLASSES

CUT-verbs: cut, scratch

PERCEPTION-verbs: see, feel, hear

Verbs of MOTION: rotate, spin JUDGEMENT-verbs: applaude, criticize


MIX-verbs: blend, join, mix
Eggs mix easily.

DESTROY-verbs: destroy, devastate, ruin

*Houses destroy easily.

Middles can be formes only with verbs that have an AFFECTED ARGUMENT (Patient/Theme/Locative/Experiencer)
THE ACTION OF THE VERB AFFECTS THE OBJECT (AFFECTIVENESS)
COMPATIBLE CLASSES
INCOMPATIBLE CLASSES
CUT-verbs: cut, scratch

PERCEPTION-verbs: see, feel, hear

MIX-verbs: blend, join, mix

JUDGEMENT-verbs: applaude, criticize

Eggs mix easily.

*Weird noises heard almost all night.

The ADJANCY CONSTRAINT only the OBJECT wich is adjacent to the VERB can become the SUBJECY of a passive sentence.
John will invite Mary. (ACTIVE)
Mary will be invited by John. (PASSIVE)

BE-auxiliary

BE-lexical verb

She was killed.


Was she killed?

She got killes.

Did she get killed? (needs DID insertion

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