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by experience
and which can vary from a language to another
Principle: structure dependency the relations between words (ex. SAI Subject Auxiliary Inversion Can you speak Englih?)
-
Parameters: have different values set by experience and can vary from a language to another (ex. Null/overt subject subiectul subneles,
head-directionality the most important word in a sentence)
Lexicon: system of organizing grammar (functional categories) & vocabulary (lexical categories).
Projection principle: all information found in the lexicon should be projected in a sentence. Both LEXICAL and FUNCTIONAL categories
expand according to the same general format: X-BAR SCHEMA
LEXICAL CATEGORIES (PRILE DE VORBIRE): open class with an increasing number of entries
Noun
determiner (a, an, the, this, that)
number
gender
case (Nominative, Genitive, Accusative, Dative, Vocative)
b)
-
Adjective
degree of comparison
gender (same with noun)
preceded by other words (very, too, quite, rather..)
c)
-
Adverb
degree of comparison .ex:
Modify a verb
d)
-
Verb
Mood
Tense
Subject-Verb agreement
Voice
Aspect
e)
-
Prepositions
Can be followed by a determiner/noun
Can be preceded by right or straight
a)
b)
c)
d)
FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES: close class with a definite number of entries (the glue that holds sentences together)
Determiners (definite/indefinite articles, demonstratives, possessives, numbers, question words, etc)
Quantifiers (a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc)
Conjunctions (and, but, so, etc)
Auxiliaries (be, do, have)
The IMMEDIATE constituents of a sentence are PHRASES (expresii, locuiuni) (ex: a book of biology; drink water; on the desk)
The ULTIMATE constituents of a sentence are WORDS (ex: car, covered, discover, incredibly)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Above the sky prepositional phrase PP (the preposition above is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Quite dramatically adverbial phrase AP (the adverb dramatically is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Head ph:
Park a car verb phrase VP (the verb park is the dominant element THE HEAD)
Extremely polite adjectival phrase AP (the adjective polite is the dominant element THE HEAD)
This breath-taking and mind-blowing tale of love noun phrase NP (the noun tale is the dominant element THE DEAD)
Whether the statement is true or false COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (whether THE HEAD)
That room was empty COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (that THE HEAD)
For him to be the winner COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE (for THE HEAD)
AUXILIARIES (be, do, have, modals)
Do not denote events
I am reading a book. (am nu exprim o aciune, ci este auxiliar pentru vb read)
Allow SAI (Subject Auxiliary Inversion)
She will come soon.
Will she come soon?
Can occur in TAGS and CODAS
Mary speaks English, and so do I.
Allow NEGATION
She will not/wont come soon.
Cannot assign a -role (they are semantically light) = DO NOT SELECT THEIR COMPLEMENT
Nu poate ndeplini niciunul din rolurile tip THETA.
DOESN'T INCLUDE AUXILIARY DO IN EMPHASIS
You havent written the homework, but I have.
LEXICAL VERBS (jump, love, see)
Denote events
I read a book every week. (read exprim o aciune)
Dont allow SAI (DO insertion)
She speaks English.
Does she speak English?
Cannot occur in TAGS and CODAS
Mary speaks English, and so speak I. (GREIT)
Dont allow NEGATION (DO NOT insertion)
She doesnt speak English.
Can assign a -role = SELECT THEIR COMPLEMENT (Agent/Patient/Experiencer/Benefective)
Agent: I speak English very well.
Patient: I speak English very well.
Experiencer: You are happy.(state)
Benefective: You play the piano for me. (beneficiar)
EMPHASIS INCLUDES AUXILIARY DO IN EMPHASIS
You dont write your homework, but I do
a)
b)
c)
d)
GET lexical verb because it cannot do the inversion with the subject, so it needs the auxiliary DID
John got arrested for theft when he was young.
John often got arrested for theft when he was young.
Did John get arrested for theft when he was young?
John didnt get arrested for theft.
.
A modal auxiliary has the following characteristics: NICE PROPERTIES
N-NEGATION-Takes negation directly (can't, mustn't).
Ex;He cant have done it.
I-INVERSION-Takes inversion without DO (can I? must I?).
Ex;May I ask you a question?
C-CODA-John can swim and so can Bill.
E-EMPHASIS-Ann cant solve the problem, but I can.
She had bought the most sophisticated I-Phone at the fair two weeks ago.
She = EXTERNAL ARGUMENT
the most sophisticated I-Phone = INTERNAL ARGUMENT
two weeks ago = ADJUNCT
UNACCUSATIVES UNERGATIVES
Intransitive verbs describing TELIC situations (have a natural endpoint, visible results, change of state)Intransitive verbs describing ATELIC situations (without a natural endpoint, no visible results, no change of state)
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
UNERGATIVES
UNACCUSATIVES
Have only 1 Argument: Patient or Agent
Do not take Direct Object
They can be UNERGATIVES/UNACCUSATIVES
COPULATIVE PREDICATE = copula-like VERB + PREDICATIVE
She became a teacher.
He is happy
Copula-like VERBS
1)
Connect the SUBJECT to the COMPLEMENT. They are sometimes called linking verbs.
2)
Do not denote events, only states and results.
3)
Semantically select their complements
4)
They do not need auxiliary DO
5)
Cannot assign an EXTERNAL ARGUMENT (Subject) UNNACUSATIVES they select a small clause as an INTERNAL
ARGUMENT
BE, REMAIN, SEEM, APPEAR
Describe the STATE of a thing /person referred to by the subject.
She seems happy.
It was good.
BECOME, TURN, GROW, GET
Describe the RESULT of some change affecting the thing/person referred to by the subject.
She became a teacher.
The soup smelled more delicious than ever.
1.
2.
CHANGE OF STATE-VERBS
Cannot occur in UNACCUSATIVES/UNERGATIVES
They are not compatible with there sentences.
Examples of wrong sentences:
There yellow some leaves.
There evaporates the air.
LOCATIVE INVERSION = Location + Predicate + Subject
Can appear in UNACCUSATIVE (The argument is the Patient)
Mary = Agent
UNNACUSATIVE that denote a change of state cannot form this construction!!!
On the streets melted a lot of snow.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
DITRANSITIVE VERBS
PHRASAL TRANSITIVE
two objects (direct&indirect objects)
POC = Prepositional Object Construction (The girl gave milk to the cat).
DOC = Double Object Construction (The girl gave the cat milk).
POC
GIVE-verbs
DOC
POC
Verbs of SENDING/COMMUNICATON
BRING/TAKE
DOC
Verbs of FULFILLING
BUILD-verbs
PREPARE-verbs
GET-verbs
CREATE-verbs
STEAL-verbs
Verbs of SELECTION
GET-verbs
CREATE-verbs
MIDDLE CONSTRUCTION verbs active in form (derived by transitive), but passive in meaning.
ACTIVE in form
PASSIVE in meaning
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
COMPATIBLE CLASSES
INCOMPATIBLE CLASSES
Middles can be formes only with verbs that have an AFFECTED ARGUMENT (Patient/Theme/Locative/Experiencer)
THE ACTION OF THE VERB AFFECTS THE OBJECT (AFFECTIVENESS)
COMPATIBLE CLASSES
INCOMPATIBLE CLASSES
CUT-verbs: cut, scratch
The ADJANCY CONSTRAINT only the OBJECT wich is adjacent to the VERB can become the SUBJECY of a passive sentence.
John will invite Mary. (ACTIVE)
Mary will be invited by John. (PASSIVE)
BE-auxiliary
BE-lexical verb