Note 1 : General History

Timeline of European Architecture

CLASSICAL PERIOD

~ Mature 1290-1385
~ Late 1385-1550

800BC-400BC Etruscan

Gothic styles in Spain:

750BC-AD250 Ancient Greece

~ Early 12thC
~ High 13thC
~ Mudejar 13-15thC
~ Levantino 14thC
~ Flamboyant 15thC
~ Isabelline 15thC

600BC-300BC Ancient Rome

400BC-AD700 Roman
300BC-200BC Early Classical
MIDDLE AGES
AD700-1050 Pre-Romanesque/Early Christian (often referred
to as The Early and Later Dark Ages )
~ Merovingian 475-780
~ Asturian 711-910
~ Carolingian 775-890,
~ Ottonian 950-1050
1000-1250 Kiev
1050-1175 Romanesque
1066-1190 Norman

ITALIAN RENAISSNACE
1400-1600 Renaissance
~ Quattrocento (Early) 1400-1500
~ High Renaissance 1500-1525
~ Mannerism 1520-1600
1475-1600 Tudor
1540-1600 Elizabethan
1600-1780 Baroque

1120-1220 Romanesque Brick

~ Italian 1580-1780
~ Sicilian 1585-1640
~ Russian 1620-1730
~ French 1630-1750
~ English 1660-1715

1150-1550 Gothic
Gothic styles in England:
~ Norman 1066-1200
~ Early English 1180-1275
~ Decorated 1275-1380
~ Perpendicular 1380-1550
Gothic styles in France (Opus Francigenum):
~ Early 1140-1260
~ Late or Flamboyant 1150-1550
~ Rayonnant 1160-1250
~ High 1200-1320
~ Southern 13thC

1600-1660 Jacobean
1620-1700 Palladianism
1725-1850 Georgian
1750-1870 Neoclassical

REVIVALS :
1800-1900 Neogothic

Gothic in Germany and Eastern Europe:

1850-present day Gothic Revival

~ Brick Gothic (Backsteingotik) 1175-1425

1870-1900 Romanesque Revival

Gothic styles in Italy:

1900-present day Baroque Revival

~ Development of the Cistercian 1150-1228

~ Early 1228-1290

1900-present day Modernist

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1.

MIDDLE AGES

1.1. Middle Ages : Introduction

Petrarch, an Italian poet and scholar of the fourteenth century,
famously referred to the period of time between the fall of the
Roman Empire (c. 476) and his own day (c. 1330s) as the Dark
Ages.
Petrarch believed that the Dark Ages was a period of intellectual
darkness due to the loss of the classical learning, which he saw

as light. Later historians picked up on this idea and ultimately

the term Dark Ages was transformed into Middle Ages. Broadly
speaking, the Middle Ages is the period of time in Europe
between the end of antiquity in the fifth century and the
Renaissance, or rebirth of classical learning, in the fifteenth
century and sixteenth centuries.

1.2. Not so dark after all

Characterizing the Middle Ages as a period of darkness falling
between two greater, more intellectually significant periods in

history is misleading. Compared to the classical civilizations,

this age was bleak. Language, letters, arts, technology, culture,

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governance of the classical ages were all lost and it is true that
most of it was not revived until the Italian Renaissance. Still,
the Middle Ages was not a time of complete ignorance and
backwardness, but rather a period during which Christianity
flourished in Europe. Christianity, and specifically Catholicism
in the Latin West, brought with it new views of life and the
world that rejected the traditions and learning of the ancient
world. The developments of this period were built on an
amalgamation of partial revival of Roman culture, the local
tribal culture and the ruling Muslim cultures that were
continually in conflict with the Christian culture.
During this time, the Roman Empire slowly fragmented into
many smaller political entities. The geographical boundaries for
European countries today were established during the later
Middle Ages. This was a period that heralded the formation

and rise of universities, the establishment of the rule of law,

numerous periods of ecclesiastical reform and the birth of the
tourism industry. Many works of medieval literature, such as
the Canterbury Tales, the Divine Comedy, and The Song of
Roland, are widely read and studied today.
The visual arts prospered during Middles Ages, which created
its own aesthetic values. The wealthiest and most influential
members of society commissioned cathedrals, churches,
sculpture, painting, textiles, manuscripts, jewelry and ritual
items from artists. Many of these commissions were religious
in nature but medieval artists also produced secular art. Few
names of artists survive and fewer documents record their
business dealings, but they left behind an impressive legacy of
art and culture.

1.3. Byzantium

In the medieval West, the Roman Empire fragmented, but in

the Byzantine East, it remained a strong, centrally-focused
political entity. Byzantine emperors ruled from Constantinople,

which they thought of as the New Rome. Constantinople

housed Hagia Sophia, the worlds largest church until 1520,
and was a major center of artistic production.

The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of Iconoclasm

(730-787 and 814-842) discussed later, when images and
image-making were problematic. Iconoclasm left a visible
legacy on Byzantine art because it created limits on what
artists could represent and how those subjects could be
represented. Byzantine Art is broken into three periods. Early
Byzantine or Early Christian art begins with the earliest extant
Christian works of art c. 250 and ends with the end of
Iconoclasm in 842. Middle Byzantine art picks up at the end of
Iconoclasm and extends to the sack of Constantinople by Latin
Crusaders in 1204. Late Byzantine art was made between the

sack of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople to the

Ottoman Turks in 1453.
In the European West, Medieval art is often broken into smaller
periods. These date ranges vary by location.
c.500-800 Early Medieval Art
c.780-900 Carolingian Art
c.900-1000 Ottonian Art
c.1000-1200 Romanesque Art
c.1200-1400 Gothic Art

2. Christianity, an introduction
2.1. How little we know

Almost nothing is known about Jesus beyond biblical accounts,

although we do know quite a bit more about the cultural and
political context in which he livedfor example, Jerusalem in
the first century. What follows is an introductory, generally

agreed upon historical summary of Christianity. It hardly needs

stating that there are many interpretations and disagreements
among historians.

2.2. Jesus v. Rome

The biblical Jesus, described in the Gospels as the son of a

carpenter, was a Jew and a champion of the underdog. He
rebelled against the occupying Roman government in what
was then Palestine (at this point the Roman Empire stretched
across the Mediterranean). He was crucified for upsetting the
social order and challenging the authority of the Romans and
their local Jewish leaders. The Romans crucified Jesus, a
typical method of executionespecially for those accused of
crimes against the government.

Jesus followers claim that after three days he rose from the
grave and later ascended into heaven. His original followers,
known as disciples or apostles, travelled great distances and
spread Jesus message. His life is recorded in the Gospels of
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which are found in the New
Testament. Christ means messiah or savior (this belief in a
savior is a traditional part of Jewish theology).

2.3. Old and New Testaments

Early on, there were many ways that Christianity was practiced
and understood, and it wasnt until the 2nd century that
Christianity began to be understood as a religion distinct from
Judaism (its helpful to remember that Judaism itself had many
different sects). Christians were sometimes severely persecuted
by the Romans. In the early 4th century, the Roman Emperor
Constantine experienced a miraculous conversion and made it
legally acceptable to be a Christian. Less than a hundred years
later, the Roman Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the
official state religion.

The first Christians were Jews (whose bible we refer to as the

Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible). But soon pagans too
converted to this new religion. Christians saw the predictions of
the prophets in the Hebrew Bible come to fulfillment in the life of
Jesus Christhence the Bible of the Christians includes both
the Hebrew Bible (or the Old Testament) and the New
Testament.
In addition to the fulfillment of prophecy, Christians saw parallels
between the events of the Hebrew Bible and the New
Testament. These parallels, or foreshadowings, are called

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typology. One example would be Abrahams willingness to
sacrifice his son, Isaac, and the later sacrifice of Christ, Gods
son, on the cross. We often see these comparisons in Christian

art offered as a revelation of Gods plan for the salvation of

mankind.

2.4. Different Christianities

Unlike Greek and Roman religions (there was both an official

state religion as well as other cults), Christianity emphasized
belief and a personal relationship with God. The doctrines, or
main teachings, of Christianity were determined in a series of
councils in the early Christian period, such as the Council of
Nicea in 325.
Nevertheless, there is great diversity in Christian belief and
practice. This was true even in the early days of Christianity;
today there are approximately 2.2 billion Christians who belong
to a multitude of sects.

The two dominant early branches of Christianity were the

Catholic and Orthodox Churches, rooted in Western and
Eastern Europe respectively. Protestantism (and its different
forms) emerged only later, at the beginning of the sixteenth
century. Before that there was essentially just one church in
Western Europewhat we would call the Roman Catholic
Church today (to differentiate it from other forms of Christianity
in the West such as Lutheranism, Methodism etc.). Christianity
spread throughout the world. In the 16th century, the Jesuits (a
Catholic order), sent missionaries to Asia, North and South
America, and Africa often in concert with Europes colonial
expansion.

2.5. Christian Practices :

Christianity holds that God has a three-part naturethat God is

a trinity (God the father, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus Christ)* and

that it was Jesuss death on the crosshis sacrificethat

allowed for human beings to have the possibility of eternal life in

Heaven. In Christian theology, Christ is seen as the second

Adam, and Mary (Jesus's mother) is seen as the second Eve.
The idea here is that where Adam and Eve caused original sin,
and were expelled from paradise (the Garden of Eden), Mary
and Christ made it possible for human beings to have eternal
life in paradise (heaven), through Christs sacrifice on the cross.

Arena Chapelwere often created as good works). They often

engage in rituals (sacraments) such as partaking of the
Eucharist or being baptized. Traditional Christian churches have
a hierarchical structure of clergy. Clergies are authorises or
ordained people who can perform religious rites. Devout men
and women sometimes take vows of chastity, obedience and
poverty become nuns or monks and may separate themselves
from the world and live a cloistered life devoted to prayer and
good deeds in a monastery or abbey. All monks may not be a
clergy i.e. he may not have the authority to perform religious
duties.

Christian practice centers on the sacrament of the Eucharist,

which is sometimes referred to as Communion. Christians eat
bread and drink wine to remember Christs sacrifice for the sins
of humankind. Christ himself initiated this practice at the Last
Supper. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe that the bread
and wine literally transform into the body and blood of Christ,
whereas Protestants and other Christians see the Eucharist as
symbolic reminder and re-enactment of Christs sacrifice.
Christians demonstrate their faith by engaging in good
(charitable) works (works of artlike the frescos by Giotto in the

Around 8-9th century, to spread Christianity among illiterate

people, the lure of eternal heaven and fear of eternal burning
hell after death was used as a strong motivator by the clergy.
The propriety of any action could be judged by whether is a sin
or a good deed. A persons entire life came to be judged by
whether it will ensure his stay in heaven or send him to hell.

2.6. Christianity in Europe

Christianity in Europe was prevalent and spreading after it

was made the state religion by Constantine in early 4th
century. Eastern Empire maintained the dominance of
Christianity. Once the Germanic prince of Rome adopted
Christianity, West Europe was slowly Chirstianising. The
Franks were one of the firsts to convert to Christianity and to
spread the religion. The Franks originated from Scandinavia,
settling in Germany and moving towards present day
northern France. Frankish ruler Charlemagne was a devout
Christian and an able ruler who unified many of the tribes
under his rule. Even though the his grandfather was the first
most major emperor of this family and the one who ensured
in battle of Tours (733) that the Muslims do spread into
Europe from Spain, the Carolingian dynasty was named after
Charlemagne (Charles the Great or, in German, Carolos
Magnus). Seeing him to be a charismatic ruler and a devout
Christian Bishop of Rome, i.e. the Pope seized this
opportunity to strengthen the ties between Church and state.
In 800, on Christmas, when Charlemagne was attending

Mass in Rome, the Pope crowned him the Holy Roman

Empire (the term was coined later). After the sack of Rome in
476, more than three centuries later, there was thus another
empire in west Europe that was Christian and was tied to
Rome by the verdict of Pope. From this period onwards, the
Franking emperors and the Ottonians were spreading
Christianity in West Europe, converting the fragmented tribes
to Christianity by penalty of death. In 1066, William the
Conqueror, a Norman (i.e. from Normandy or north of
present day France) conquered Britain and slowly
Chirstianised the Anglo-Saxons with great effort. Central and
Southern Spain was under Muslim Caliphate upto 12th
Century. Italy was divided between Byzantines, Normans
and Muslims for a long time and their architecture shows a
mix of all style for the medieval and renaissance period both.

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2.7. A New Pictorial Language: The Image in Early Medieval Art

Definition of Icons
Icons (from the Greek eikones) are sacred images representing the saints, Christ, and the Virgin, as well
as narrative scenes such as Christ's Crucifixion. While today the term is most closely associated
with wooden panel painting, in Byzantium icons could be crafted in all media, including marble, ivory,
ceramic, gemstone, precious metal, enamel, textile, fresco, and mosaic. Icons ranged in size from the
miniature to the monumental. Some were suspended around the neck as pendants, others (called
"triptychs") had panels on each side that could be opened and closed, thereby activating the icon. Icons
could be mounted on a pole or frame and carried into battle, Alternatively, icons could be of a more
permanent character, such as fresco and mosaic images decorating church interiors.
Icons are not to be confused with surface sculpture and relief in medieval architecture. The sculpture in
medieval period are almost invariably religious, even when they depict apparently non-religious
subjects. The philosophy behind mediaval period of sculpture is fundamentally common with the
creation of Christian icons but the subject matter of icon is limited and subject matter of sculptures are
vast.

Christian art, which was initially influenced by the illusionary

quality of classical art, started to move away from naturalistic
representation and instead pushed toward abstraction. There
was a general feeling that "realistic" art was a falsehood (it's
not what it appears to be). It may lead people to idolatry (idol
worship), i.e. idol-(falsehood-)worship which is against Gods
will. The New Testament prohibits worshipping graven images.
Open hostility toward religious representations began in 726
when Emperor Leo III publicly took a position against icons;
this resulted in their removal from churches and their
destruction. This marks the period of iconoclasm (=removal of
icons) period during the years 72687 and 81543 in
Byzantium. This period resulted in the removal / destruction /
plastering over of a great number of icons from byzantine
churches. Once this period was over and icons were readmitted in religious architecture, they became extremely
stylized and each posture and colour had certain significance.
In classical art human figure itself was an object of study,
appreciation and artistic presentation. In Christianity, human
figure had strict theological principles. The contemplation of
icons allowed the viewer direct communication with the sacred
figure(s) represented, and through icons an individual's prayers
were addressed directly to the petitioned saint or holy figure.
Miraculous healings and good fortune were among the
requests.
Simultaneously with the religious movement regarding icons,
the classical knowledge of producing realistic images and
sculptures were lost with the fall of Western roman empire.

As a result, artists began to abandon classical artistic

conventions
like
shading,
modeling
and
perspective conventions that make the image appear more
real. They no longer observed details in nature to record them
in paint, bronze, marble, or mosaic. Most of the professional
and well-known artists were working for the church, so what
they made was what the church wanted made. So, instead of
realistic art, artists favored flat representations of people,
animals and objects that only looked nominally like their
subjects in real life. Artists were no longer creating the lies, as
these abstracted images removed at least some of the
temptations for idolatry. This new style, adopted over several
generations, created a comfortable distance between the new
Christian empire and its pagan past. The eyes were large and
prominent because they reflected the soul. The raised hands,
facial expressions all represented religious messages.
In Western Europe, this approach to the visual arts dominated
until the imperial rule of Charlemagne (800-814) and the
accompanying Carolingian Renaissance. This controversy over
the legitimacy and orthodoxy of images continued and
intensified in the Byzantine Empire. The issue was eventually
resolved, in favor of images, during the Second Council of
Nicaea in 787.
It should be noted here that the debate over icons are not
limited to Christianity and the abovementioned historical period
alone.

1. EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD :

The Carolingian Revival : When Charlemagne became the
king, the scenario of Western Europe was quite bleak in all
senses. There was no education, even among the priests who
gave sermons in churches. Each said his own prayers. The
nobility could not read or write. The Latin language decayed
into what is called Dog Latin, to which even the most educated
person was limited. The Eastern Roman Empire referred to the
westerns as barbarians (after the Barber tribe) and uncivilised

and they continued to do so for centuries afterwards.

Charlemagne changed all this. He was very enthusiastic about
education. He brought Latin scriptures and manuscripts from
Rome, brought teachers from Rome whom he sent to different
corners of his empire where they educated the priests. Often
the nobility also received education. Charlemagne himself
started learning to read and write. Purpose of education was
primarily to spread and preach Christianity. In addition, it was

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required to run matters of church as church and monasteries
were self-sufficient settlements themselves. They required
accountants, artisans, masons, doctors and above all people to
preach the religion, train novice monks and copy manuscripts.
The common people were serfs, i.e. that worked in fields and
workshops and they did not require education. Thus the
monasteries came to accommodate schools within the
premisesin the Carolingian period. The revival of education led
to the revival of art, architecture and culture. This revival is
known as Carolingian revival or Renaissance in instrumental
for the germination of Romanesque and Gothic architecture.
The later monarchs were not as enthusiastic or able but the
trend of education continued under the patronage of Royalty
and nobility. As number of towns grew in size and number,
education was also required for operating business as well as
religion.
Early Middle Ages : During the early Middle Ages, any type of
higher education was usually available only in monasteries and
cathedral schools, where Christian monks and nuns taught
each other and preserved the writings of classical authors. But
by the eleventh-century, medieval Europe was becoming more
urban and complex, and royal governments needed highly
trained men to run their bureaucracies. Students and teachers
were also demanding better ways to be educated, and the
solution to this came about with the creation of universities.
Universities come from the Latin word universitas, which
means guild, and these schools were essentially groups of

students and teachers who got together into their own groups
for the purposes of learning -- in some universities it was the
students themselves who paid the teachers and ran the
institution. The main curriculum was based on seven areas grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and
astronomy - all of which were important for a cleric in the
Catholic church. In some universities, other subjects were also
important - Salerno was renowned as a place to study
medicine and Bologna for law.
Later Middle ages : By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
universities were becoming important centres of learning and
some would become quite famous - like Oxford and Cambridge
in England, and the University of Paris in France. In the later
Middle Ages, universities would emerge in most other parts of
Europe too, as monarchs and cities wanted them as sources of
highly-skilled bureaucrats and to increase their own reputation.
Occasionally, though, the relations between university students
and their local communities could get hostile, and since
students were treated as clergy, it meant that they could not be
tried by local courts for crimes, only the much more lenient
ecclesiastical courts.
While very few medieval men (and no women) could be part of
a university, the institution did develop and grow throughout
the Middle Ages, and became home to some of the periods
greatest thinkers. The university has since become the
standard of higher education not just in Europe, but throughout
the world.

2. MUSLIM INCURSION AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE :

In less than 100 years, Muslim warriors conquered lands for
Islam from Persia to Spain. Muslims then pushed further into
Europe. Their incursion into Western Europe was stopped in
France. Their invasion from the east was finally halted at the
gates of Vienna.
Beginning :
The prophet Mohammed was born around 570AD in Mecca. In
610 AD a divine experience changed his life and the Muslim
religion was born. Mohammed and his followers gathered force
and increased in numbers, occupying Mecca and Medina
followed by others cities and progressing in both east and
west. In the west, it was slowly eating onto the Byzantine
Empire. In the east, it moved towards India and South East
Asia. In the process, the Muslims occupied in 637 the Holy City
of Jerusalem, damaging the Byzantine Church of The Holy
Sepulcher. This church was said to have been erected on the
very spot where Jesus was crucified. This was a major blow to
the Christians, both eastern and western.
The Invasion of Europe by the Muslims
Muslims gradually captures and Carthage from the Byzantines
Egypt and progressed towards the north-west end of Ifriqiya
i.e. what later became Africa. The capture of Morocco in 669
AD was a major milestone. In 711-715 Muslims captured Spain
by beating the Visigoths rulers and started a 400 year long
rule. Cordova (Qurtuba) becomes the capital of Muslim
holdings in Andalusia (Spain). After capturing Spain, the

Muslims progressed towards Gaul or modern day France.

Before they could occupy much, they were thoroughly beaten
by Charlemagnes grandfather, Frankish King Charles Martel
(also the father of the first Carolingian King) in the Battle of
Tours in 733 AD. This is a very significant battle since it is said
to have stopped the Muslim occupancy of the Western Europe.
Thus most of Europe was saved from Muslim rule and to this
day remain Christian.
Aftermath
Nevertheless, the expansion of Islam was astounding. In just
100 years since Muhammad first claimed prophethood, Islam
had by force of arms, conquered all of Arabia and then
expanded out and conquered as far west as Spain and as far
east as Afghanistan. The Islamic Caliphate had become the
largest empire the world had yet known, controlling some of
the most important centers of civilization. Of the 5 Christian
Patriarchates (the 5 great urban centers of Christianity in the
6th-7th centuries AD), 3 of them now fell under Islamic rule
(Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch), with only Rome and
Constantinople still under Christian rule. From this point on,
much of Mediterranean history would be characterised by the
struggles between the Christian and Islamic faiths, the
Christians holding the north side of the Mediterranean and the
Muslims the south side. The battlegrounds were to
be Spain, Jerusalem, Constantinople, and the islands caught in
the middle.
Influence on Art and Architecture :

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Islamic art took from the civilizations surrounding it and also
impacted them. The Chinese were influenced in their vases
and carpets. Medieval Europe were influenced in their arts and
showed it from their adoption of arches to their illuminations of
Latin and Hebrew manuscripts. For instance, Gothic
architecture was influenced by Islamic architecture. Specifically
Islamic architecture influenced gothic architecture with the
architectural feature, the pointed arch. The pointed arch was
introduced to Europe after the Norman conquest of
Islamic Sicily in 1090, the Crusades which began in 1096,
and the Islamic presence in Spain, which all brought about
knowledge of this significant structural device. It is probable
also that decorative carved stone screens and window
openings filled with pierced stone also influenced Gothic
tracery. In Spain, in particular, individual decorative motifs
occur which are common to both Islamic and Christian
architectural mouldings and sculpture. Of course the epitome
of Islamic art can be seen in the greatest Islamic masterpieces
such as the grand mosques of Cordova in Spain, the Taj Mahal
in India, and the Blue mosque in Turkey. The works of these
Muslim artists have become prototypes and models on which
other artists and craftsmen patterned their own works, or from
which they derived the inspiration for related work. Even in the
pre-Romanesque period architecture (Charlemagnes palatine
chapel at Aachen, Germany, 9th century) influence of the Great
Mosque of Cordova is evident. The evidence is stronger in the
Romanesque period arches and surface decoration of
churches. Even though the pointed arch in Gothic style is
commonly agreed upon to be a knowledge derived from the
Muslims, the European regions under Muslim rule in the preGothic area show occurrences of pointed arch as in crossing of
the duomo of Pisa. In the 17th century, renowned architect
Christopher Wren went as far as coining a term, Saracen
Style to denote the major contributor of Gothic Style.

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