07 Virt Memhier

COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
Virtualization and Memory Hierarchy
Contents
Virtual memory.
Policies and strategies.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Requirements of virtual machines and ISA support.
Virtual machines: Memory and I/O.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Computer Architecture - 2014
Limits of Physical Addressing
Physical Addresses
A0-A31
A0-A31
CPU
Physical Memory
D0-31
D0-31
Data
All programs share a single address space.

Physical
address space.
There is no way to prevent a program to get access

to a resource.
Limits of Physical Addressing
Virtual Addresses
A0-A31
CPU
Physical Addresses
Virtual
Physical
Address
Translation
D0-31
Programs executed in a normalized virtual address space.
Address Translation:
Performed by hardware.
Managed by OS.
Supported features:
Physical Memory
D0-31
Data
A0-A31
Protection.
Translation.
Sharing.
Advantages of virtual memory
Translation.
Programs may have a consistent view of memory.

Reduced cost of multi-thread applications.
Only the working-set is needed in main memory.
Dynamic structures only use physical memory they really need
(e.g. stack).
Protection.
Allows to protect a process from others.

Attributes can be set at page-level.
Read-only, execution,
Kernel data protected from programs.

Improves protection against malware.
Sharing.
A page can be mapped to several processes.

Differences with cache
Replacement:
Cache: Hardware controlled.

VM: Software controlled.
Size:
Cache size independent of address length.

VM size dependent of address length.
Parameter
L1 cache
Virtual memory
Block size
16 128 bytes
4096 65,536 bytes
Hit time
1 3 cycles
100-200 cycles
Miss penalty
8 200 cycles
106 107 cycles
Access time
6 160 cycles
8 105 8 106 cycles
Transfer time
2 40 cycles
2 105 2 106 cycles
Miss rate
0.1 10 %
0.00001 0.001%
Address mapping
25 45 bits physical
14 20 bits cache
32 64 bits virtual addr.

24 45 bits physical addr.
Contents
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Four question on memory hierarchy
Q1: Where can a block be placed in the upper

level?
Block
Q2: How is a block found in the upper level?

Block
identification.
Q3: Which block should be replaced on a miss?

Block
placement.
replacement.
Q4: What happens on a write?

Write
strategy.
Four question on memory hierarchy
Q1: Where is a page placed in main memory?

Page
placement.
Q2: How is a page found in main memory?

Page
Q3: Which page should be replaced on a miss?

Page
identification.
replacement.

Write
strategy.
Q1: Where is a page placed in main

memory?
10
A page can be placed in any page frame in main

memory.
Fully
associative mapping.
Managed by operating system.
Goal: Minimize miss rate.

Cannot
do much with miss penalty.

Very high penalty due to slow magnetic disks.
Q2: How is a page found in main

memory?
11
Keep in main memory a page table for every

process.
Mapping
table between page identifier and frame
identifier.
Translation time reduction.

TLB:
Translation Lookaside Buffer.

Avoid accesses to page table in main memory.
Q3: Which page should be replaced

on a miss?
12
Replacement policy defined by OS.

Typically
LRU (Least-recently used).
Architecture must supply support to OS.

Use
bit: Activated when page is accessed.
Actually
only on TLB miss (to reduce work).
Operating
system periodically zeroes this bit.
Records
values later.
Allows to determine pages that have been touched within an
interval.
13
Write policy is always write-back.
No VM system with write-through ever built.

Dont
be tempted!
Disk write costs extremely high.

Disk
writes minimization.
Dirty bit used to signal when a page has been
modified.
Contents
14
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Page table
15
Virtual mem.
Physical mem.
frames
PTBR
pages
12 bits
Virtual address
Virtual page ID
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
Prot.
offset
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Dir. Pgina
Page address
offset
Page table size
16
Assuming 32 bits virtual addresses, 4 KB pages and

4 bytes per table-entry:
Table
size: (232 / 212) 22 = 222= 4 MB
Alternatives:
Multi-level
page tables.
Inverted page tables.
Example: IA-64
Offers
both alternatives to OS developer.

Multi-level page table
17
PT2
PT1
PT2
L1 Page
L2 Page
offset
TLB
18
Ideal case (no miss):

Every
memory access requires two accesses.
Access
to page table.
Access to memory.
Worse
scenario in case of multi-level page tables.
Solution:
Use
translation cache to avoid page table accesses.

Tag: Portion of virtual address.
Data: Frame number, protection bits, validity bits and
dirty bit.
19
Example: TLB Opteron
20
A global view
Contents
21
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Virtual machines
22
Developed in late 60s.

Used since then in mainframe environments.
Ignored in single-user machines until late 90s.
Popularity recovered due to:

Increasing importance of isolation and security in modern
systems.
Security failures and reliability requirements in operating
systems.
Sharing of a single computer by several unrelated users.
Datacenter, cloud,
Dramatic increase in processors performance.
VMMS overhead now acceptable.
What is a virtual machine?
23
A virtual machine is taken to be an efficient, isolated

duplicate of the real machine. We explain these notions
through the ida of a virtual machine monitor (VMM)
a VMM has threee essential characteristics.
First, the VMM provides an environment for programs which
is essentially identical with the original machine,
second, programs run in this environment show at worst only
minor decreases in speed;
and last, the VMM is in complete control of system resources.
Popek, G. y Goldberg, R.
Formal requirements for virtualizable third generation architectures.
Communications of the ACM, July 1974
24
General definition: Any emulation method offering a

standard software interface for the physical machine.
JVM? .NET?
System level virtual machines: Offer a complete

system environment at binary ISA level.
Usually assuming that VM ISA and hardware ISA are
identical.
Examples:
IBM VM/370.
VMWare ESX Server.
Xen.
25
Offer to users the illusion that they have a complete

computer to use.
Including
their own copy of OS.
A computer runs several virtual machines.

May
support several operating systems.

All OSs sharing the hardware.
Terminology:
Host:
Underlying hardware platform.

Guest: Virtual machines sharing resources.
VM y VMM: Layers
26
VM0
Virtual
Machines
(VMs)
VM1
App0
Guest OS0
VMn
App1
Guest OS1
...
Appn
Guest OSn
Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM)

Platform HW
Memory
Processor
I/O Devices
VMM System Software Layer.

Allows
running several VM on a single hardware.

Allows running unmodified applications.
VMM: Virtual Machine Monitors
27
Software supporting virtual machines
Virtual machine monitor or Hypervisor.
VMM determines mapping between virtual and

physical resources.
Alternatives for physical resources sharing:
Time sharing.
Partitioning.
Software emulation.
A VMM is smaller than a traditional OS.

VMM overhead
28
Workload dependent.
User-level processor-bound programs:
I/O intensive programs OS intensive:
Examples: SPEC.
Overhead: 0.
Seldom invocations to OS.
Many system calls Privileged instructions.

May lead to much virtualization overhead.
I/O intensive and I/O bound programs:
Low processor utilization.

Virtualization may be hidden.
Low virtualization overhead.
Other uses of VMs

(besides protection)
29
Software management.
VM offers an abstraction allowing to run a complete software

stack.
Typical deployment:
Old operating systems (DOS? Windows XP?, ?)

VM running legacy OS + stable OS + testing new OS.
Hardware management.
VM allows to run separate software stacks on top a a single

hardware platform.
Server consolidation.
Independence Higher reliability.
Migrating running VMs.
Load balancing..
Hardware evacuation due to failures.
Cloud-based servers usually

supported by virtualization
e.g. Amazon
Uses of virtualization
30
Isolation
App1
App2
OS
Consolidation
App1
OS
App2
App1
App2
App1
OS
OS1
OS2
OS1
HW1
HW2
VMM
HW
HW
Migration
App
App
OS
OS
VMM
HW1
VMM
HW2
VMM
HW1
VMM
HW2
App2
OS2
VMM
HW
Contents
31
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
VMM requirements (I)
32
A VMM:
Offers
a software interface to guest software.

Isolates a guest state from the rest.
Protects itself from guests.
Guest software should behave as if there was no

VMM, except for
Performance
dependent behavior.
Fixed resources limitations which are shared among
several VMMs.
VMM requirements (and II)
33
Guest software must not be able to modify directly real resources

allocation.
VMM must control everything, even if it is used by guests.
VMM must run at a higher privileged level than guests.
Access to privleged state, address translation, I/O, exceptions,

interruptions,
Execution of any privileged instruction by VMM.
Requirements of VMM (equivalent to requirements for virtual memory)
A minimum of two processor modes.

Privileged instruction subset only in privileged mode.
Trap is executed in user mode.
ISA support for Virtual Machines
34
If VM considered in ISA design, it is easy to reduce

instructions to be run by VMM and emulation time.
Most desktop ISA designed before VM emergence.
VMM must ensure that guest only interacts with virtual

resources.
Guest OS run in user mode.
HW access tries lead to trap.
If ISA is not VM aware, then VMM must intercept

problematic instructions.
Introduction of virtual resources.

Contents
35
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Impact on virtual memory
36
Every guest manages virtual memory.
VMM makes distinction between real memory and physical

memory.
Virtual memory virtualization?
Real memory: Intermediate layer between virtual memory and physical

memory.
Guest: Maps virtual to real memory.
VMM: Maps real memory to physical memory.
To reduce indirection levels, VMM keeps a shadow page table.
Mapping from virtual to physical memory.

VMM must capture changes in page table and pointer to page table.
ISA support for virtual machines and

virtual memory
37
IBM 370 (1970s) additional level of indirection

managed by VMM.
Eliminates
need for a shadow page table.
TLB virtualization:
VMM
manages TLB and keeps copies of each guest
TLB.
TLB access generate traps.
TLB with process identifiers simplify management
allowing entries from multiple VMMs at the same time.
Impact of I/O on virtual machines
38
Most complex part of virtualization.

Increasing number of I/O devices.
Increasing diversity of I/O devices.
Sharing devices among VMs.
Support of great variety of drivers.
General part of driver left in guest.
Specific part in VMM.
Device dependent method.

Disks: Partitioned by VMM to create virtual disks.
Network interfaces: Multiplexed over time.
VMM manages virtual network addresses.

Contents
39
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Impure virtualization
40
Solution for non virtualizable architectures and to

reduce performance problems.
Approaches:
Paravirtualization: Port guest OS code to modified ISA.

Development effort.
Need to be repeated for every OS.
Source code availability.
Binary translation: Replace non-virtualizable instructions by

emulation code or call to VMM.
Does not require source code.
Some emulations possible at user space.
Example: XEN
41
Xen: Open source VMM for x86.
Strategy: Paravirtualization.
Small modifications to OS
Examples paravirtualization:
Avoid TLB flush when VMM invoked.
Allow guests to allocate pages.
Xen mapped into upper 64 MB in every VM.

Check protection restrictions are not violated.
Protection between programs and guest OS.
Use protection levels from x86:
Xen (0), Guest (1), Programs (3).
Changes in Xen
42
Changes in Linux 3,000 LOC.

1%
of the x86 specific code.
Xen: Performance
43
Performance relative to
native Linux
Performance relative to native Linux
100%
99%
98%
97%
96%
95%
94%
93%
92%
91%
90%
100%
99%
97%
95%
96%
92%
SPEC INT2000
Linux build
time
PostgreSQL
Inf. Retrieval
PostgreSQL
OLTP
dbench
SPEC WEB99
Contents
44
Virtual memory.
Page tables.
Virtual machines.
Use case: Xen.
Use case: Intel VT.
Intel Virtualization Technology
45
Adds new instructions: VMXON, VMXOFF,

VMLAUNCH, VMRESUME,
AMD Secure Virtual Machine
46
Adds new instructions: VMRUN, VMCALL,
Operation modes
47
VMX root:
Fully
privileged.
Designed to be used by VMMs.
VMX non-root:
Non
privileged.
Designed to by used by guest software.
Entering and exiting virtual machines
48
VM Entry
Transition from VMM to Guest.

Entry to non-root mode.
Loads guest mode.
VMLAUNCH instruction used for initial
entry.
VMRESUME instruction used for
subsequent entries.
VM0
VM Exit
App
Enter to root mode.

Saves guest state.
Loads state of VMM.
VMEXIT instruction used to transition to
VMM.
Additional instructions and events may
cause VMEXIT.
VM1
App
...
App
...
Guest OS0
VM Exit
App
...
App
Guest OS1
VM Entry
Physical Host Hardware
App
VM Monitor
Benefits
49
Reduces OS dependency.
Eliminates
need for binary translation.

Eases support for legacy OSs.
Improves robustness.
Eliminates
the need for complex techniques.

VMM smaller and simpler.
Improves performance.
Less
transitions to VMM.
Reference
50
Computer Architecture. A Quantitative Approach.

Fifth Edition.
Hennessy y Patterson.
Sections: B.4, 2.4
Exercises: B.12, B.13, B.14, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23

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COMPUTER

Computer Architecture - 2014

Limits of Physical Addressing

All programs share a single address space.

There is no way to prevent a program to get access

Limits of Physical Addressing

Programs executed in a normalized virtual address space.

Advantages of virtual memory

Programs may have a consistent view of memory.

Allows to protect a process from others.

Kernel data protected from programs.

A page can be mapped to several processes.

Differences with cache

Cache: Hardware controlled.

Cache size independent of address length.

4096 65,536 bytes

106 107 cycles

8 105 8 106 cycles

2 105 2 106 cycles

32 64 bits virtual addr.

Computer Architecture - 2014

Computer Architecture - 2014

Four question on memory hierarchy

Q1: Where can a block be placed in the upper

Q2: How is a block found in the upper level?

Q3: Which block should be replaced on a miss?

Q4: What happens on a write?

Computer Architecture - 2014

Four question on memory hierarchy

Q1: Where is a page placed in main memory?

Q2: How is a page found in main memory?

Q3: Which page should be replaced on a miss?

Q4: What happens on a write?

Computer Architecture - 2014

Q1: Where is a page placed in main

A page can be placed in any page frame in main

Managed by operating system.

Goal: Minimize miss rate.

do much with miss penalty.

Computer Architecture - 2014

Q2: How is a page found in main

Keep in main memory a page table for every

table between page identifier and frame

Translation time reduction.

Translation Lookaside Buffer.

Computer Architecture - 2014

Q3: Which page should be replaced

Replacement policy defined by OS.

LRU (Least-recently used).

Architecture must supply support to OS.

bit: Activated when page is accessed.

only on TLB miss (to reduce work).

system periodically zeroes this bit.

Computer Architecture - 2014

Q4: What happens on a write?

Write policy is always write-back.

No VM system with write-through ever built.

Disk write costs extremely high.

Computer Architecture - 2014

Computer Architecture - 2014

Page table size

Assuming 32 bits virtual addresses, 4 KB pages and

size: (232 / 212) 22 = 222= 4 MB