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Civil Society
Author(s): Thomas Carothers and William Barndt
Source: Foreign Policy, No. 117 (Winter, 1999-2000), pp. 18-24+26-29
Published by: Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive, LLC
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CIVIL SOCIETY
A

I,

Civilsocietyhasbecomeoneof thefavorite
buzzwordsamong the globalchattering
classes,toutedby presidentsandpolitical
scientistsas the key to political,economic,
and societal success. As with Internet
stocks, however,civil society'sworth as
a concept has soared far beyond its
returns.To avoid a major
demonstrated
disappointmentin the future,would-be
buyers should start by taking a closer
look at the prospectus.
Carothers
byThomas

The Concept of Civil Society Is a Recent Invention

Enlightenmentneeded. The term "civil society"can be traced
throughthe worksof CiceroandotherRomansto the ancientGreek
philosophers,
althoughin classicalusagecivil societywasequatedwith
the state.The modemideaof civilsocietyemergedin the Scottishand
ContinentalEnlightenment
of the late18thcentury.A hostof political
theorists,fromThomasPaineto GeorgHegel,developedthe notionof
civilsocietyasa domainparallelto butseparate
fromthestate-a realm
wherecitizensassociateaccordingto theirown interestsand wishes.
Thisnewthinkingreflectedchangingeconomicrealities:
theriseof privateproperty,
marketcompetition,andthe bourgeoisie.
It alsogrewout
of the mountingpopulardemandforliberty,asmanifested
in theAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.
The term fell into disusein the mid-19thcenturyas political
turnedtheirattentionto the socialandpoliticalconsephilosophers
T H0 MAS C AR0 THERS is vicepresident
Endowforglobalpolicyat theCarnegie
mentforInternational
Peaceandauthorof AidingDemocracyAbroad:The Learning
Curve(Washington:
Endowment,
1999).
Carnegie
18

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Carothers

revolution.It bouncedbackintofashionafter
quencesof the industrial
WorldWarII throughthe writingsof the MarxisttheoristAntonio
Gramsci,who revivedthe termto portraycivil societyas a special
nucleusof independentpoliticalactivity,a crucialsphereof struggle
againsttyranny.AlthoughGramsciwasconcernedaboutdictatorships
of the right,hisbookswereinfluentialin the 1970sand1980swithperof all politicalstripesin Eastern
sons fightingagainstdictatorships
andPolishactivistsalso
and
Latin
America.
Czech,
Hungarian,
Europe
of
civil
themselves
in
the
banner
society,endowingit with a
wrapped
heroicqualitywhenthe BerlinWallfell.
Suddenly,in the 1990s,civil societybecamea mantraforeveryone
frompresidentsto politicalscientists.The globaltrendtowarddemocracyopenedup spaceforcivil societyin formerlydictatorialcountries
aroundthe world.In the United Statesand WesternEurope,public
fatiguewith tiredpartysystemssparkedinterestin civil societyas a
in the developingworld,privatizameansof socialrenewal.Especially
offeredcivilsocietythe chanceto stepin
tionandothermarketreforms
as governments
retractedtheirreach.And the information
revolution
connections
and
citizens.
new
tools
for
forging
empowering
provided
Civilsocietybecamea keyelementof the post-cold-war
zeitgeist.

NGOs Are the Heart of Civil Society

Not really.At thecoreofmuchof thecurrententhusiasm
aboutcivil
is
a
fascination
with
society
nongovernmental
organizations,
especially
advocacygroupsdevotedto publicinterestcauses-the environment,
humanrights,women'sissues,electionmonitoring,
and
anticorruption,
other"goodthings."Suchgroupshavebeenmultiplying
exponentially
inrecentyears,particularly
incountries
democratic
transitions.
undertaking
it
is
a
mistake
to
civil
with
NGOs.Properly
Nevertheless,
equate society
all the
understood,civil societyis a broaderconcept,encompassing
andassociations
thatexistoutsideof the state(including
organizations
politicalparties)andthe market.It includesthe gamutof organizations
thatpoliticalscientiststraditionally
labelinterestgroups-notjustadvoassociations
(suchas those
cacyNGOsbutalsolaborunions,professional
of doctors and lawyers),chambersof commerce, ethnic associations,
and others. It also incorporatesthe many other associationsthat exist
for purposesother than advancingspecific social or political agendas,
such as religious organizations, student groups, cultural organizations
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19

ThinkAgain

(fromchoralsocietiesto bird-watching
clubs),sportsclubs,and informalcommunitygroups.
do playimportant,
Nongovernmental
organizations
growingrolesin
and
countries.
developed
developing
They shapepolicyby exerting
on governments
andbyfurnishing
technicalexpertiseto policy
pressure
makers.They fostercitizenparticipation
and civic education.They
for
provideleadershiptraining youngpeoplewho want to engagein
civic life but areuninterested
in workingthroughpoliticalparties.In
manycountries,however,NGOsare outweighedby moretraditional
laborunions,andother
partsof civil society.Religiousorganizations,
often
have
a
base
in
the
andsecuredomestic
groups
genuine
population
sourcesof funding,featuresthatadvocacygroupsusuallylack,especially
the scoresof new NGOsin democratizing
countries.The burgeoning
NGOsectorsin suchcountriesareoftendominatedby elite-rungroups
thathaveonlytenuousties to the citizenson whosebehalftheyclaim
to act, and they dependon internationalfundersfor budgetsthey
cannotnourishfromdomesticsources.

Civil Society Is Warm and Fuzzy

That dependson whetheryou like snugglingup to the Russian
mafiaandmilitiagroupsfromMontanaas wellas to yourlocalparentteacherassociation.They'repartof civil societytoo. Extrapolating
fromthe courageousrole of civic groupsthat foughtcommunismin
EasternEurope,some civil societyenthusiastshave propagatedthe
misleadingnotionthat civil societyconsistsonly of noblecausesand
earnest,well-intentionedactors.Yet civil society everywhereis a
A ranbewildering
arrayof the good,the bad,andthe outrightbizarre.
domwalkthroughWebpageson the Internethelpsconveya senseof
that diversity[seebox on page22]. Recognizingthat peoplein any
societyassociateand worktogetherto advancenefariousas well as
the conceptof civil society.As
worthyendsis criticalto demystifying
commentatorDavidRieffwroterecentlyin connectionwith Bosnia,
BosnianSerbleaderRadovan]Karadzic
"[Former
the aspirepresented
rationsof ordinarySerbsin that extraordinary
time all too faithfully,
and could rightfullylay just as great a claim to being an exemplarof
civil society as VaclavHavel."If one limits civil society to those actors
who pursuehigh-mindedaims,the concept becomes, as Rieff notes, "a
theological notion, not a political or sociological one."
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Carothers

The ideathat civil societyinherentlyrepresents

the publicgoodis
in
two
other
as
well.
civic
activistsmayfeel
wrong
ways
Althoughmany
theyspeakforthe publicgood,the publicinterestis a highlycontested
domain.Cleanairis a publicgood,butso arelowenergycosts.The same
couldbe saidof freetradeversusjobsecurityathomeorfreespeechversuslibelprotection.SingleissueNGOs,
suchasthe NationalRifleAssociationandsomeenvironmental
groups,areintensely,evenmyopically,
focusedon theirownagendas;theyarenot interestedin balancingdifferentvisionsof the publicgood.Struggles
overthe publicinterestare
not betweencivil societyon the one handandbadguyson the other
butwithincivil societyitself.
civilsocietyis verymuchconcerned
withprivateeconomic
Moreover,
interests.Nonprofitgroups,fromtenants'organizations
to laborunions,
workzealouslyto advancethe immediateeconomicinterestsof their
members.
Somecivilsocietygroupsmaystandfor"higher"--that
is,nonand
but
of
much
civil
is
material-principles values,
society preoccupied
withthepursuitof privateandfrequently
andgrubby
ends.
parochial

A Strong CivilSociety Ensures Democracy

Temptingthought.An active,diversecivil societyoftendoesplay
a valuablerole in helpingadvancedemocracy.It can disciplinethe
state, ensurethat citizens'interestsare taken seriously,and foster
greatercivic and politicalparticipation.Moreover,scholarssuch as
HarvardpoliticalscientistRobertPutnam-whose influential1995
article,"BowlingAlone:America'sDecliningSocialCapital,"chronicledan apparentdeclinein U.S. community-oriented
associationshave arguedforcefullythat a weak civil society leads to a lack of
"civicengagement"and "socialtrust."But other evidencesuggests
that a strongcivilsocietycan actuallyreflectdangerous
politicalweaknesses.In a 1997 articlethat somehave nicknamed"BowlingWith
Hitler,"PrincetonprofessorSheri Bermanpresenteda sobering
analysisof the roleof civil societyin WeimarGermany.In the 1920s
and 1930s,Germanywas unusuallyrich in associationallife, with
many people belonging to the sorts of professionaland culturalorganizationsthat are thought to be mainstaysof pro-democraticcivil society. Berman argues,however, that not only did Germany'svibrant
civil society fail to solidify democracyand liberalvalues, it subverted
them. Weak political institutions were unable to respond to the
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21

ThinkAgain

Virtual

Civil

Society?

Criticsof politicalscientistRobertPutnamhaveseizedon the riseof the

lifein America.
Internetto rebuthisviewson thedeclineof associational
thattheIntemet
iscreating
ameaningful,
civilsociButtheargument
virtual
"social
on themedium's
togenerate
heavily
ability
etydepends
capital"--what
asthe"features
Putnam
identified
ofsocialorganization
suchasnetworks,
norms,
andsocialtrustthatfacilitate
coordination
andcooperation
formutual
benefit"
Itisnotenough
fortheInternet-like
thetelegram,
amongcitizens.
telephone,
or faxmachinebeforeit-to encourage
the organization
of groups.
Instead,
Internet-based
associations
needtohavethesamequalities
asassociations
intracivilsociety,
ditional
withmembers
if
as
were
in
a
conchurch,
interacting they
ference
orballpark.
needstobeaplace.
center,
Beyond
beinga tool,cyberspace
communications
tool.The poster
Clearly,the Internetis a powerful
child for Internetactivism,the InternationalCampaignto Ban
Landmines(ICBL),has electronically
joinednongovernmental
groups
committedto the ban of antipersonnel
landmines,allowingthem to
moreeasily.Eventhe mosttraditional
elementsof
exchangeinformation
civilsocietyareadapting
to thisnewtechnology:
The RomanCatholic
Churchnowregularly
broadcasts
massesovertheWeb.
canalsobecome
But,asInternetpunditshavepointedout,cyberspace
a placewhereindividuals
associate
aroundissuesof importance
to them.
Not onlydoCatholicpriests
holdmasses
overtheWeb,theyconverse
with
thedevoutin chatrooms.Andby 1999,theICBL
hadtranscended
itsrole
asanelectronic
relayservice,becomea coalitionof morethan1,300organizations
thatwasableto pressure
89nationsto ratifytheLandMineTreaty,
andwona NobelPeacePrize.Whenassociations
emergein orfromcyberaround
a commoninterest
orgoal,theInternet
spaceanduniteindividuals
becomes
morethanjustanadvance
overthetelephone-itbecomes
aplace
wheresocialcapitalis generated.
however,the key link betweenvirtualcivil societyand
Ultimately,
socialcapitaltheorywillbethedepthof individuals'
commitments
to their
So far,the strengthof these bondshas gone
"onlinecommunities."
untested.As a result,the implications
of virtualcivil societyremain
nebulous-muchlikecyberspace
itself.
-WilliamBarndt
Endowment
Peace
Carnegie
forInternational
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Carothers

demandsplacedon them by the manycitizensorganizations,

leading
the latterto shift theirallegianceto nationalist,populistgroupsand
eventuallyto theNaziParty.Intheend,thedensityof civilsocietyfacilitatedthe Nazis'rapidcreationof a dynamicpoliticalmachine.
with strongpoliticalinstitutions,
Even in establisheddemocracies
however,thereare reasonsto doubtthe simplisticidea that when it
As earlyasthe 1960s,some
comesto civilsociety,"themorethebetter."
scholarswarnedthat the proliferation
of interestgroupsin mature
democraciescould choke the workingsof representative
institutions
andsystematically
distortpolicyoutcomesin favorof the richandwellIn the 1990s,warnings
connectedor,moresimply,the betterorganized.
about"demosclerosis"
haveintensifiedas advocacyandlobbyingorganizationscontinueto multiply.

Democracy Ensures a Strong Civil Society

No guaranteeshere either.Japanhasbeen a stabledemocracyfor
half a centurybut continuesto have a relativelyweakcivil society,
particularlyin termsof independentcivic groupsworkingon the
kindsof issuesthat activistsin the United Statesand Europehold
dear,such as the environment,consumerprotection,humanrights,
andwomen'sissues.In France,one of the mothercountriesof Westernliberaldemocracy,
civil societytakesa distantbackseatto a powerfulstate. Spain,the exemplarof recentdemocratictransitions,is
relativelyweakin associationallife.Politicalpartiesandelectionsare
whatensurea pluralismof politicalchoices;theycan certainlyoperate in a countrywith only lightlydevelopedcivic associations.Some
AmericanpoliticalanalystscriticizeJapan,France,Spain,andother
countrieswherecivic participationis low, arguingthat these states
are at best stunteddemocraciesbecausethey lack what Americans
believe is an optimallevel of citizenengagement.ManyJapanese,
French,and Spanishpeople, however,contend that their systems
betteraccordwith theirown traditionsconcerningthe relationship
of the individualto the state and allowtheirgovernmentsto make
morerational,lessfetteredallocationsof publicgoods.Obviously,the
argument that a democracy is not a real democracy unless it has
American-stylecivil society is not only wrongbut dangerous.A strong
belief in civil society shouldnot fuel an intolerantattitudetowarddifferentkinds of democracies.
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23

ThinkAgain

CivilSociety Is Crucialfor EconomicSuccess

It's not so simple. As partof their "allgood thingsgo together"
approach,enthusiastshold out civil societyas a guaranteenot only
of politicalvirtuebut also of economicsuccess.An active, strong
civil society, they say, can give useful input on economic policy
issues,facilitatethe growthof privateenterprise,and help ensure
that the statedoesnot suffocatethe economy.In practice,however,
the connectionbetweeneconomicgrowthand civil society is not
so straightforward.
Comparetwo cases.SouthKorea'seconomicmiraclewasbuilton
the backof a repressed
civil society,especiallya besiegedlaborsector.
Only in the 1980s,when the militaryregimefelt it could affordto
loosenup, wascivil soc)etygiven spaceto flourish.Unions,student
took full advantageof the opporgroups,and religiousorganizations
Heroic
tunityandpressedbravelyandeffectivelyfordemocratization.
astheywere,thesegroupscannotbe givencreditforone of thefastestgrowingeconomiesto emerge in the last 50 years.By contrast,
Bangladeshis rich in civil society,with thousandsof NGOs,advocacy
groups,andsocialserviceorganizations
operatingat the nationaland
locallevels.Yetthiswealthof NGOs,byno meansa newphenomenon
in Bangladesh,has not translatedinto wealth for the people.
Bangladeshremainsone of the poorestcountriesin the world,with a
percapitaincomeof lessthan$350.
A well-developedcivil societycan be a naturalpartnerto a successfulmarketeconomy.When citizensreacha comfortable
standard
of living, they have moretime, education,and resourcesto support
and takepartin associationallife. And manysectorsof civil society
can reinforceeconomicdevelopmentby encouragingsoundgovernmentalpoliciesand by increasingthe flow of knowledgeand information within a society.As with the relationshipbetween civil
societyand democracy,however,it is importantnot to assumeany
iron lawsof causality.The pathto economicsuccessis not necessarilypavedwithcivil society,anda strongcivilsocietycanco-existwith
a relativelyweakeconomy(andvice versa).What'smore,too much
or the wrong type of civil society can be economically harmful.Some
economists believe, for example, that Latin American labor unions,
a mainstay of the region'scivil society, have been one of the largest
obstaclesto Latin America'seconomic growth and stability.
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ThinkAgain

Real Civil Society Doesn't Take Money from the

Government
Oh, really?Whencivil societygroupswagea campaignforfreedom
in a dictatorship,
a keyelementof theirpoliticalbonafidesis complete
independence,financialand otherwise,from the government.In
democraticanddemocratizing
countries,however,the rulesaredifferent. Manycivil societygroupsreceivegovernment
funding.In partsof
WesternEurope,governmentsupportfor civil societyis widespread,
suchashumanincludingamonggroupsthattakeon the government,
and
environmental
Even
in
the
United States,
rights
organizations.
is
of
civil
much
more
extensive
than
governmental
funding
society
manypeoplerealize.A majorcomparative
studyof nonprofitsectors,
is
sponsoredby JohnsHopkinsUniversity,foundthat "Government
thusalmosttwiceas significanta sourceof incomeforAmericannonas is privategiving,despitethe presencethereof
profitorganizations
numerouslargefoundations
andcorporate
givingprograms."

The Rise of CivilSociety Means the Declineof the State

Definitelynot. The riseof civilsocietyinducessometo see a nearly
state-free
futurein whichtentative,minimalistic
stateshangbackwhile
powerfulnongovernmental
groupsimposea new,virtuouscivic order.
Thisvisionis a mirage.Civilsocietygroupscanbe muchmoreeffective
in shapingstatepolicyif the statehascoherentpowersforsettingand
enforcingpolicy.Good nongovernmental
advocacyworkwill actually
tendto strengthen,
not weakenstatecapacity.
A clearexampleis U.S.
environmental
civic
activism
on
environmental
issues
policy.Vigorous
hashelpedpromptthecreationof governmental
environmental
agencies,
mechanisms.
laws,andenforcement
Nothingcripplescivilsocietydevelopmentlikea weak,lethargicstate.In EasternEurope,civilsocietyhas
comemuchfurthersince1989in the countries
wheregovernments
have
and
such
as
Poland
and
provedrelativelycapable competent,
Hungary,
andit hasbeenretarded
wherestateshavewallowedin inefficiency
and
suchasRomania,andforpartsof the decade,Bulgaria.
incompetence
Outside of dictatorialcontexts, states can play a valuable role in
developinga healthy civil society.They can do so by establishingclear,
workableregulatoryframeworksfor the nongovernmentalsector,enacting tax incentivesfor fundingof nonprofitgroups,adoptingtransparent
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Carothers

withnongovernmental
andpursuing
organizaprocedures,
partnerships
tions.Civilsocietycanandshouldchallenge,irritate,
andeven,at times,
the state.Butcivilsocietyandthe stateneedeachotherand,
antagonize
in thebestof worlds,theydevelopin tandem,notat eachother'sexpense.

Civil Society Has Gone Global

Not quite.The recentsuccessof the International
to Ban
Campaign
Landmines,in which a coalition of NGOs(togetherwith some
in particular
Canada's)took on the UnitedStatesand
governments,
other powerfulstates, sparkedtremendousinterestin the idea of
transnational
civil society.Activists,scholars,journalists,and others
begantalkingup the phenomenonof advocacyacrossborders.Global
civilsocietyappears
a naturalextensionof the trendtowardgreatercivil
within
countries.
At lastcount,morethan5,000transnational
society
NGOS-NGOsbasedin one countrythat regularlycarryout activities in

others-had beenidentified.
The phenomenonis significant.
A confluenceoffactors-the lowerafterthe end of the coldwar,new information
ing of politicalbarriers
and communications
costs,and
technologies,loweredtransportation
the spreadof democracy-hascreateda fertilegroundfornongovernmentalgroupsto widentheirreachandformmulticountry
links,networks,and coalitions[see WolfgangH. Reinicke'sarticleon global
publicpolicynetworkson page44].
Some cautionis nonethelessin order.In the firstplace,transnational civil societyis not as new as it sounds.The RomanCatholic
civil society
Church,to name just one example,is a transnational
that
has
had
for
international
group
major
impact manycenturies.
most
of
the
new
transnational
civil
Second,
societyactorsareWestern groupsprojectingthemselvesinto developingand transitional
societies.They maysometimesworkin partnership
with groupsfrom
those countries,but the agendasand valuesthey pursueare usually
theirown.Transnational
civil societyis thus"global"
but verymuch
partof the sameprojectionof Westernpoliticalandeconomicpower
thatcivil societyactivistsdecryin othervenues.Third,likecivil society within borders,civil society acrossbordershas its darkside. Hate
groupsare now hooking up with like-mindedextremistsin other time
zones, feeding off each others' ugly passions. Organizedcrime is a
transnationalventureparexcellence, exemplifyingthe most advanced
WINTER

1999-2000

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27

Think
Again

formsof flexible, creative internationalorganizationand operation.

In short, transnationalcivil society is much like domesticcivil society in its essentials.It has been aroundfor a long time but is now growing quickly,both feeding and being fed by globalization.It carriesthe
potential to reshapethe world in importantways, but one must not
oversell its strengthor idealizeits intentions. Whether local or global,
civil society realismshouldnot be a contradictionin terms.

WANT

TO KNOW

MORE?

An avalanche of writing about civil society has appearedin recent

years.Those who want to take a more historical view should go back
to Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (London: H.O. Symonds 1792),
Georg Hegel's Philosophy of Right (London: G. Bell and Sons,
1896), and Adam Ferguson'sAn Essay on the History of Civil
Society (Edinburgh:A. Kincaid and J. Bell, 1767). More recently,
Ernest Gellner portrayeda new era of civil society in Conditions of
Liberty (New York:Allen Lane/Penguin, 1994). For a soberingcorrective, try David Rieff's "The False Dawn of Civil Society" (The
Nation, February22, 1999). A useful comparativestudy of nonprofit
sectors aroundthe world is set out in LesterM. Salamon and Helmut
K. Anheier's The Emerging Sector: An Overview (Baltimore:Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1994).
Robert Putnam's "Bowling Alone" appeared in the Journal of
Democracy(January1995). Alan Wolfe questions Putnam'sdata and
assumptionsin "Is Civil Society Obsolete?" (BrookingsReview,Fall
1997). Michael Foley and Bob Edwardsaccuse Putnam of political
naivet' in "The Paradox of Civil Society" (Journalof Democracy,
July 1996). Sheri Bermangives a cautionaryaccount of civil society
in Germany in "Civil Society and the Collapse of the Weimar
Republic" (WorldPolitics,April 1997). Jonathan Rauch warnsabout
the dangersof proliferatingpressuregroups in Demosclerosis (New
York:Times Books, 1994).
A hard look at Western efforts to promote civil society in other
countries is in Thomas Carothers'Aiding Democracy Abroad: The
Learning Curve (Washington: Carnegie Endowment, 1999). Kevin
Quigley critically examines civil society aid in EasternEuropein For
Democracy's Sake: Foundations and Democracy Assistance in
28

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Carothers

CentralEurope(Baltimore:
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1997),
whileAlisonVanRooyhas assembledusefullydiverseviewson such
aid in developingcountriesin Civil Societyand the Aid Industry
(London:Earthscan,1998). An optimisticbut rigorousstudy of
transnationalcivic advocacy is MargaretE. Keck and Kathryn
Sikkink's Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in
InternationalPolitics (Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1998).
index
Forlinksto relevantWebsites,as well as a comprehensive
of related FOREIGN POLICYarticles,accesswww.foreignpolicy.com.

I?

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