Chapter 1 :Introduction

1.1 Renewable energy

The electrical energy consumption continues growing and more
applications relay on electricity. We can expect that more 60 % of all
energy consumption will be converted and used as electricity.
Therefore, it is a demand that production, distribution and use of
electrical energy are done as efficient as possible. Further, the
recent challenges with nuclear power plants are arguing to find
more sustainable energy generation solutions. Of many options, the
major technology will play important role to solve parts of those
future challenges to change the electrical power production from
conventional, fossil based energy sources to renewable energy
sources. [1]
The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and
hydraulic energies, is very old; they have been used since many
centuries before our time and their applications continued
throughout history and until the "industrial revolution", at which
time, due to the low price of petroleum, they were abandoned.
During recent years, due to the increase in fossil fuel prices and the
environmental problems by the use of conventional fuels, we are
reverting back to renewable energy sources. Renewable energies
are inexhaustible, clean and they can be used in a decentralized
way (they can be used in the same place as they are produced).
Also, they have the additional advantage of being complimentary,
the integration between them being favorable. For example, solar
photovoltaic energy supplies electricity on sunny days (in general
with low wind) while on cold and windy days, which are frequently
cloudy, the wind generators are in position to supply more electric
energy. [2]

1.2 renewable energy sources .

1. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC.
2. wind turbine.
3. Fuel cells.
1.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic.

Sunlight is the worlds largest energy source and for thousands of

years, it has been human civilizations chief source of light and heat.

Today, solar energy technologies are being developed and refined to

more effectively use the suns power for producing electricity
(photovoltaic) (Fig.1.1), as well as steam and hot water for
industrial processes (solar thermal technologies). Photovoltaic, or PV
for short, is a technology in which light is converted into electricity
using photovoltaic modules that have no moving parts, operate
quietly without emissions, and are capable on long-term use with
minimal maintenance. Crystalline silicon, the same material
commonly used by the semiconductor industry, is the material used
in 94 % of all PV modules today. PV modules generate direct current
(DC) electricity. For residential use, the current is fed through an
inverter to produce alternating current (AC) that can be used to
power the homes appliances. The main barrier to widespread use of
this technology is the initial high equipment cost. [3]

Figure 1.1.Solar Photovoltic

1.2.2 Wind Turbine

A wind turbine (Fig1. 2) is a device that converts kinetic

energy from the wind, also called wind energy, into mechanical
energy; a process known as wind power. If the mechanical energy is
used to produce electricity, the device may be called wind turbine
or wind power plant. If the mechanical energy is used to drive
machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device
is called a windmill or wind pump. Similarly, it may be called wind
charger when it is used to charge batteries .The result of over a
millennium of windmill development and modern engineering,
today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical
and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for
applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power on boats;
while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are becoming an
increasingly important source of wind power-produced commercial
electricity [4]

Figure 1.2 Wind

turbine

1.2.3 Fuel cells

Fuel cells (Fig1.3) generate electricity by an electrochemical

reaction in which oxygen and a hydrogen-rich fuel combine to form
water. Unlike internal combustion engines, the fuel is not
combusted, the energy instead being released electro catalytically.
This allows fuel cells to be highly energy efficient, especially if the
heat produced by the reaction is also harnessed for space heating,
hot water or to drive refrigeration cycles .A fuel cell is like a battery
in that it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction.
Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical potential energy into
electrical energy and also, as a by-product of this process, into heat
energy. However, a battery holds a closed store of energy within it
and once this is depleted the battery must be discarded, or
recharged by using an external supply of electricity to drive the
electrochemical reaction in the reverse direction. A fuel cell, on the
other hand, uses an external supply of chemical energy and can run
indefinitely, as long as it is supplied with a source of hydrogen and a
source of oxygen (usually air). [5]

Figure1. 3 Fuel cell

1.3 Fuel cell as a power alternative

1.3.1 Theory

A fuel cell consists of a negatively charged electrode (anode), a

positively
charged electrode (cathode), and an electrolyte membrane.
Hydrogen is
oxidized on the anode and oxygen is reduced on the cathode.
Protons are
transported from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte
membrane,
and the electrons are carried to the cathode over the external
circuit.
In nature, molecules cannot stay in an ionic state, therefore they
immediately
recombine with other molecules in order to return to the neutral
state. Hydrogen protons in fuel cells stay in the ionic state by
traveling
from molecule to molecule through the use of special materials. The
protons
travel through a polymer membrane made of persulfonic acid
groups with
a Tefl on backbone. The electrons are attracted to conductive
materials and
travel to the load when needed. On the cathode, oxygen reacts with
protons
and electrons, forming water and producing heat. Both the anode
and
cathode contain a catalyst to speed up the electrochemical
processes [6]
1.3.2 Applications

Hydrogen and fuel cells have a wide range of applications for use
almost anytime and anywhere. Fuel cells are ideal for residential
zones. They are virtually silent with no moving parts and provide
reliable power 24/7. In addition, a fuel cell big enough to power an
entire home is about the size of a traditional AC Unit. Fuel cells
already power thousands of homes in Japan and are beginning to do
so in the United States. Fuel cells can be produced in stacks large
enough to power the biggest of office buildings, and only occupy the
area of a couple parking spaces. Again, fuel cells are a great fit in
this situation as they are noiseless, environmentally friendly, and
efficient. Distributed power from fuel cells does not rely on
transmission lines and thus eliminates the need for backup power
generators. Fuel cells are just as mobile as you. Fuel cells can power
cars, buses, airplanes, cell phones, laptops, and more. With nearly

ten times the lifespan of batteries on a single charge, fuel cells can
keep you powered no matter where the road takes you. [7]
1.3.2.a Renewables

Hydrogen produced through renewable energy sources is an

emissions-free way to carry clean energy. Hydrogen is most
commonly generated from renewable with a device called an
electrolyzer, which uses electricity to separate water into hydrogen
and oxygen. By converting renewable electricity into hydrogen, the
intermittent power of wind and sunlight can be stored for long
periods and used in a fuel cell for power at any time, day or night.
Electrolysis can also leverage the surplus generation from
renewable that would otherwise be wasted. Currently, wind turbines
are shut down on windy days when electricity generation outpaces
demand. By simply installing electrolyzers, that surplus power could
be put to use generating hydrogen.
Landfills, wastewater treatment plants, and food processing facilities
are some of the other places fuel cells can produce renewable
power. All of these facilities handle organic waste, which can be
processed using microorganisms like bacteria in an anaerobic
digester to create biogas. Biogas is a mix of mostly methane and
carbon dioxide. Many waste treatment plants simply burn off this
biogas. However, biogas can be cleaned up with a reformer and
used to power fuel cells. This trash-to-energy conversion is free,
renewable, and already happening around the countries. [7]
How Renewable Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Integrate with the
Grid

Figure 1.4

1.3.2.a.1 Solar Hydrogen Stations

Ithe gas station create gas from water and sunlight. Some hydrogen
stations already do this today. By linking solar panels to an
electrolyzer, power from the sun splits water into pure hydrogen and

oxygen.
1.3.2.a.2Powering Breweries

The ancient art of brewing produces a steady stream of organic

waste. Passing this waste through anaerobic digesters yields biogas.
Breweries can use this biogas to power fuel cells, producing
electricity and heatwhich can be used in the brewing process. This
waste-to-energy concept makes many breweries nearly energy
independent.

1.3.2.a.3 Airplanes That Never Land

As part of a project with the US Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency (DARPA), Boeing is creating an aircraft that can fly
continuously on sunlight alone. The planes wide wings are covered
in solar panels. and it fly by night using a solid-oxide fuel cell from
Versa Power Systems powers the planes electric engine at night
using fuel produced from excess solar generation during the day.

1.3.2.b Transportation
In the movement towards cleaner transportation, fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs) have much to offer. Like battery electric vehicles (BEVs), FCEVs
use electric motors for propulsion. This makes for a quiet, smooth
acceleration with no shifting of gears (since there are none!). Where FCEVs
excel though, is their performance and convenience. A tank of hydrogen
can be filled in minutes at a station much like any gas-powered car today.
FCEVs can drive hundreds of miles on a single tank, meaning consumers
do not need to change their driving habits or expectations. They perform

well in all conditions, from summer to icy winters, and handle like any
other car youve driven. Since fuel cells are very scalable in size, they can
also power buses, trains, and more. Lastly, FCEVs are 100% green,
emitting nothing but water vapor.
1.3.2.c Military

Fuel cells offer military advantages that can reduce the burden on
soldiers and save lives in the field. As military equipment has
become increasingly electronic, the power demands of soldiers in
the field has increased dramatically. Soldiers today carry roughly 30
lbs. of batteries in the field. Comparable fuel cell power systems for
soldiers weigh in at just 5 lbs. This technology is here today and is
already being used in demonstration programs .Fuel cells offer
strategic advantages in other military applications as well.
Unmanned aerial, ground, and underwater vehicles can all use fuel
cell power to extend their range significantly while reducing heat
and noise signatures. Improvements to unmanned vehicles enhance
reconnaissance abilities and ultimately save lives. The advantage of
silent power extends beyond unmanned vehicles. Today, soldiers on
watch in a humvee must keep the engine idling to power radios and
other necessary equipment. Campsites must run generators to
provide power for devices. Fuel cell Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) and
Gensets enable troops to keep a silent watch instead of running
noisy engines. This is a welcome benefit to safety and security.
Other advantages afforded by fuel cells include fuel flexibility and
elimination of the need to charge batteries. Many types of fuel cells
are fuel flexible; they can be powered by whatever fuel source is
most available. Since fuel cells are more efficient than other engines
and generators, they require less fuel. Ultimately, this can take
notoriously dangerous military fuel trucks off the road, further
contributing to the safety of troops worldwide. [7]

Portable Power Generation

Remote sites, like many of todays military base camps, rely on

noisy, inefficient combustion engines that require substantial
maintenance. In contrast, fuel cell systems are quiet, efficient and
operate on the fuels the military uses today. Fuel cells can provide
power anywhere, at any time; making them the ideal solution for
our militarys missions and base operations. By replacing
combustion units with fuel cells, our military can increase its
efficiency, meaning less fuel must be moved to the field. Since fuel
cells have no moving parts to sustain operation, they produce power

quietly, helping to conceal military locations and thus protect war

fighters lives. Furthermore, fuel cells have a lower heat signature
than combustion generators, again helping to conceal our militarys
operations from enemies.

Unmanned Vehicles

Unmanned vehicles are quickly becoming one of our militarys

strongest assets, taking our soldiers off the frontlines, reducing
casualties. Unmanned vehicles that run on fuel cells have longer
duration times with less weight than unmanned vehicles that rely on
traditional power systems, increasing the range and flexibility of the
vehicle. Furthermore, by increasing the range of unmanned vehicles,
fuel cells reduce the need for manned vehicles, putting fewer warfighter lives in danger. Again, quiet operation of fuel cells combined
with a lower heat signature reduces the likelihood of detection,
increasing the odds for a successful mission.
Clean Off-Grid Power Solutions

The Military has been determined to switch its many bases and
operations to self-sufficient off-grid power in case of emergency
situations. Fuel cells can be used to provide power to bases and
operations, and will still provide power if the grid is attacked or
becomes unreliable. Fuel cells can be run on any number of fuels,
allowing operation no matter the circumstances. This will increase
our nations security while providing clean power. The Military has
also been particularly determined to meet green house gas
emissions standards. Fuel cells, especially those run on renewable
fuels, can help accomplish this through reduced CO2, NO2, and SO4
emissions.
Soldier Power

Our nations soldiers are carrying more electronics than ever and
currently powering those items with heavy batteries. In fact, our
nations war-fighter currently carries roughly 20 pounds of batteries
for each mission. A switch to portable fuel cells will dramatically
lower the weight a war fighter must carry, while still providing the
valuable power needed.

1.3.3 Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells types are determined by their electrolyte. Different

electrolytes define the specific properties of a fuel cell, like fuel
type, temperature or efficiency. There are benefits to each type of
fuel cell, enabling applications of all sorts. [7]
Proton Exchange Membrane or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
A membrane separates the anode and cathode serving as both the
electrolyte and a catalyzer for the conduction of protons. PEMFCs
can use hydrogen gas or some alcohols such as ethanol or methanol
as fuels. This type of fuel cell runs at low temperatures, under 200
degrees Fahrenheit and has a wide variety of applications, including
automotive vehicles (including busses and forklifts), unpiloted
military vehicles, residential primary or backup power, portable
charging for electronics (laptops, cell phones), and distributed
generation power plants.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
DMFCs are a specific type of PEMFC. They operate on pure methanol
(CH3OH) combined with steam as a fuel. DMFCs run at low
temperatures between 85 and 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Using a
liquid fuel and operating at low temperatures makes them best
suited for powering portable electronics and micro power
applications. Examples include cell phones, laptops, and portable
battery rechargers.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
The electrolyte in a SOFC is a solid, ceramic compound of metal
oxides. SOFCs operate at temperatures up to 1832 degrees
Fahrenheit, making it an ideal candidate for combined heat and
power (CHP) or combined cycle electrical generation. In systems
where the waste heat is captured and used, the system efficiencies
can be over 85%. SOFCs can reform hydrocarbon fuels internally,
enabling a wider variety of fuels to be used and reducing the
amount of activity prior to electrical generation. SOFCs are currently

being used for stationary applications. SOFCs have also been

applied to use in military transportation vehicles and truck APUs.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
The electrolyte used in PAFCs is liquid phosphoric acid. PAFCs
operate at temperatures of 300-400 degrees Fahrenheit. The fuel
used in PAFCs is hydrogen which must be reformed outside of the
fuel cell. Electrical generating efficiencies range between 37 and
42% but when used as a CHP system, the efficiencies increase to
90%. Applications of PAFCs include buses and stationary power
generation.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
In a MCFC, molten lithium-potassium carbonate salts are used for
the electrolyte. These salts are heated to 1200 degrees Fahrenheit
where they melt into a molten state inside the fuel cell. Since MCFCs
operate at high temperatures, they do not have a need for outside
fuel reforming. This means they can use fuels such as natural gas
directly. Efficiencies average 50% for fuel to electricity generation
from the fuel cell alone. The MCFC can be combined with a steam
turbine to create more electricity increasing efficiency to 65% and
can be increased up to 85% when used as a CHP device. MCFCs are
best applied to large-scale stationary CHP applications.
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as
the electrolyte. High temperature AFCs operate at temperatures
between 100 and 250 degrees Celsius but through advancements in
technology, some AFCs can operate at temperatures between 23
and 70 degrees Celsius. AFCs require pure hydrogen and pure
oxygen as the reactants due to possible CO2 pollution that could
affect the cells operation. Although they require pure inputs of fuel,
AFCs operate at efficiencies of nearly 60%. These fuel cells have
mostly been used in remote locations, like in underwater vehicle
and in outer space.
Other Fuel Cells
Recent advancements in the fuel cell industry have produced other
types of fuel cells that are relatively new to the family of fuel cells.
For instance, a Regenerative Fuel Cell contains a membrane that
can produce electricity and steam like other fuel cells, but can also
work in reverse and use electricity to split water into hydrogen and

oxygen. Regenerative fuel cells can be used in combination with

solar or wind power to utilize excess electricity. The excess
electricity can be used in the regenerative fuel cell to produce
hydrogen which can be stored and later power the fuel cell, or used
as fuel for a fuel cell electric vehicle. [7]

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 :Introduction............................................................................... 1
1.1 Renewable energy.............................................................................. 1
1.2 renewable energy sources ................................................................1
1.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic........................................................................1
1.2.2 Wind Turbine................................................................................ 2
1.2.3 Fuel cells...................................................................................... 3
1.3 Fuel cell as a power alternative..........................................................3
1.3.1 Theory.......................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Applications.................................................................................. 4
1.3.3 Types of Fuel Cells........................................................................9