Lifting Line Theory

Lifting Line Theory

Applies to large aspect ratio unswept wings at small angle of attack.

Developed by Prandtl and Lanchester during the early 20th century.
Relevance
Analytic results for simple wings
Basis of much of modern wing theory (e.g. helicopter rotor aerodynamic
analysis, extends to vortex lattice method,)
Basis of much of the qualitative understanding of induced drag and aspect
ratio
Thin-airfoil theory
Cl=2(-o)

Biot Savart Law:

Velocity produced by a
semi-infinite segment of
a vortex filament

V=

4h

1868-1946

1875-1953

Large Aspect Ratio? Unswept?

Physics of an Unswept Wing

l,

Lift varies across span

-s

Inwash

Outwash

Circulation is shed (Helmholz thm)

pu<pl

pu pl

Vortical wake

Vortical wake induces

downwash on wing

Downwash

changing angle of attack

just enough to produce
variation of lift across span

Simplest Possible Model

Wake model
b

Section model
Induced drag

di
Section A-A

l
A

-w

Total lift coeff

CL =

L
2
1
2 V S

Total drag coeff

C Di =

Di
2
1

V
S
2

= (y)
= (y)

Geometric angle of attack

Downwash angle
-w=-w (y) Downwash velocity
c=c (y)
Chordlength
s
Half span
l
Lift per unit span
di
Drag per unit span

LLT The Wake Model

-s

y1
y

dy1

Assume role up of wake unimportant

Assume wake remains in a plane
parallel to the free stream
Model wake using single vortex sheet
starting at the quarter chord
Strength of
vortex shed at y1=
Downwash at y due
to vortex shed at y1 dw( y ) =
Downwash at y
due to entire wake

w( y ) =

dy y1

dy1

4 ( y y1 )

dy y1

dy1

4 ( y y )

LLT The Section Model

di

Assume flow over each section 2D

and determined by downwash at
chord, and thin airfoil theory

Sectional lift coefficient

V

-w

Cl =

V
l
=
=
2
2
1
1
2 V c
2 V c

So

Sectional forces
Total Forces
integrated over span
Total Coefficients

d i V w

l V

Di wdy

L V dy
s

= V ( 0 )c + wc

L
2
CL = 1

dy
2

V S s
2 V S

D
2
C Di = 1 i 2 2 wdy
V S s
2 V S

The Monoplane Equation

l,

Wake model

w( y ) =

dy y1

dy1

4 ( y y )

Section model

c
= V ( 0 )c +
4 s

dy y1

dy1

y y1

y / s = cos

= V ( 0 )c + wc

s y

-s
0

Substitute for , and express

as a sine series in

= 4U s

cn

+ sin
( 0 ) sin = An sin( n )
4s

4s
n =1, odd

A sin(n )

n =1, odd

The Monoplane Eqn.

Results
Substituting

= 4U s

A sin(n )

n =1, odd

into

gives

CL =

2
dy
V S s

C L = ARA1

2
C Di = 2 wdy
V S s

C L2
C Di =
(1 + )
AR

n( A

n =3, odd

So,

/ A1 ) 2

w( y ) =

dy y1

dy1

4 ( y y )

nA sin(n )
n

w
n =1, odd
=
sin
V

Lift increases with aspect ratio

For planar wings at least lift goes linearly with angle of attack and lift
curve slope increases with aspect ratio (to 2 at )
Drag decreases with aspect ratio and goes as the lift squared?
Downwash tends to be largest at the wing tips ?
Drag is minimum for a wing for which An=0 for n3.

c
4s

( 0 ) sin =

cn

A
n
+
sin(

)
sin

n
4s

n =1, odd

Solution of monoplane equation

c

cn

( 0 ) sin = An sin( n )
+ sin
4s
4s

n =1, odd

s y

-s
0

y / s = cos

1. Decide on the number of terms N needed for the sine series for
2. Select N points across the half span, evenly spaced in
3. At each point evaluate c, , 0 and thus the NxN matrix of terms that
multiplies the Ans and the N terms on the left hand side
4. Solve for the Ans by matrix division
5. Evaluate CL, CDi , w(y), and (y).

c
4s

( 0 ) sin =

s=2.8;
alpha=5*pi/180;
alpha0=-5.4*pi/180;
N=20;
th=[1:N]'/N*pi/2;
y=-cos(th)*s;
c=ones(size(th));
n=1:2:2*N-1;

cn
sin(

)
sin

+
A
n

n
4 s

n =1, odd

%Half span (distances normalized on root chord)

%5 degrees angle of attack
%Zero lift AoA=-5.4 deg. for Clark Y
%N=20 points across half span
%Column vector of theta's
%Spanwise position
%Rectangular wing, so c = c_r everywhere
%Row vector of odd indices

llt.m

res=pi*c/4/s.*(alpha-alpha0).*sin(th); %N by 1 result vector

coef=sin(th*n).*(pi*c*n/4/s+repmat(sin(th),1,N)); %N by N coefficient matrix
a=coef\res;
%N by 1 solution vector

gamma=4*sin(th*n)*a; %Normalized on uinf and s

w=-(sin(th*n)*(a.*n'))./sin(th);
AR=2*s/mean(c);
CL =
CL=AR*pi*a(1);
CDi=CL^2/pi/AR*(1+n(2:end)*(a(2:end).^2/a(1).^2));

= 4U s

ARA1

A sin(n )

n =1, odd

C L2
C Di =
(1 + )
AR

1. Decide on the number of terms N needed for the sine series for
2. Select N points across the half span, evenly spaced in
3. At each point evaluate c, , 0 and thus the NxN matrix of terms that
multiplies the Ans and the N terms on the left hand side
4. Solve for the Ans by matrix division
5. Evaluate CL, CDi , w(y), and (y).

Example
0.1
y/c

Our AR=5.6 Rectangular Clark Y Wing

0
0

CL=0.80783, CDi=0.038738
0.2

/Vs

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-1

-0.9

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

-0.9

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5
y/s

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

-w/V

-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-1

Determine aerodynamic characteristics

of our rectangular Clark Y wing

o-5.4o

0.05
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
x/c

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Drag Polar
C L2
CD =
AR

Curve for minimum

drag (elliptical wing)

Note that friction drag coefficient of 0.01 added to CDi

If we pretend wing is elliptical

CL=0.80783, CDi=0.038738
0.2

AR=5.6, =5o, 0=-5.6o

/Vs

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-1

-0.9

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

-0.9

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5
y/s

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

-w/V

-0.05

2AR( 0 )
= 0.856
AR + 2
C L2
= 0.041
C Di =
AR
CL =

-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-1

Thus, an elliptical lift distribution can often be a good approximation!

The Elliptic Wing

The minimum drag occurs for a wing for which An=0 for n3. For this wing:
1.

= 4U s

A sin(n ) = 4U

n =1, odd

y
+ = 1

4V A1s s

sA1 sin( )

(cos = y / s )

Lift distribution has an elliptical shape.

2.

nAn sin( n )

w
n =1, odd
=
= A1
V
sin

3.

= V ( 0 )c + wc

c=

V ( 0 ) V A1

Downwash velocity is constant across span

If the wing is untwisted, the chordlength is

proportional to circulation and thus also has
an elliptical form

Spitfire

Note that the chordlengths are all lined up along the quarter chord line so
the actual wing shape is not an ellipse

Further results
C L2
C Di =
AR

C L = ARA1
But what is A1?
Now

cr =

Planform area of elliptic wing is

S = 12 scr

V ( 0 ) V A1
2

and

w
= A1
V

r 0

+ = 1 r = 4V A1s
4V A1s s
2

Substituting and solving for A1 gives

And thus

2AR( 0 )
CL =
AR + 2

A1 = 2( 0 ) /( AR + 2)

2( 0 )
w
=
V
AR + 2

confirming our earlier presumption about aspect ratio effects on CL

Not done yet

C L2
C Di =
AR

2AR( 0 )
CL =
AR + 2

Consider two elliptical wings with the same section but different AR
producing the same lift coefficient:

A 0 =

C L ( ARA + 2)
2ARA

1
CL 1

A B =

ARA ARB

B 0 =

C L ( ARB + 2)
2ARB

Similarly, we can show the two drag coefficients are related as:

C DiA C DiB

C L2 1
1

ARA ARB

Geometrically Similar Wings

These results work quite well even for non-elliptical wings:

C 1
1

A B = L

ARA ARB
Prandtls Classic
Rectangular Wing
Data for Different
Aspect Ratios

C DiA C DiB

C L2 1
1

ARA ARB

Prandtls
rescaling using
LLT result to
AR=5