SUBGRADE CRITERIA FOR AIRPORT FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

By Dr. Marshall R. Thompson1, Member, ASCE and Manuel O. Bejarano2, Student Member,
ASCE

ABSTRACT
Current mechanistic-empirical airport pavement design procedures use Elastic
Layer Programs (ELP) to predict pavement responses (deflections, stresses,
strains) generated by the gear load. The procedures incorporate subgrade strain
criteria for controlling pavement rutting. WESICE/F.AA and Al vertical
compressive strain criteria were developed from ELP analyses of pavement
sections per the revised CBR equation. The limited scope of pavement test
sections and performance data required extrapolation to other subgrade, loading
and climatic conditions. The large and varying rutting criteria used to interpret the
test section performance data are not consistent with the more rigorous criteria
generally associated with high type airport pavements.
A subgrade stress ratio (SSR = repeated deviator stress /soil strength) approach
is presented in this paper. The University of Illinois (U of IL) SSR criteria ensure
the pavement exhibits -stable" subgrade permanent deformation performance_
Subgrade rutting is controlled by limiting SSR to acceptable levels, depending on
traffic The WES/CE/FAA strain criteria expressed in SSR terms are below about
0.4 These SSRs are very conservative and result in increased pavement thickness.
Permissible SSRs for airport subgrades are probably in the range of 0.5 to 0.7.
Load pulse characteristics (stress level and duration) of multiple-wheel gear
configurations and stress history effects (sequence of stress level applications) on
subgrade permanent deformation accumulation need to be further considered in
implementing the SSR concept.

11 Professor Emeritus, Dept of Civil Eng, Univ. Of Illionis at Urbana-Champaign,

Newmark Civil Engineering Lab, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
22 Graduate Research Assistant, Dept of Civil Eng, , Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Newmark Civil Eng. Lab , 205 N Mathews Ave , Urbana, IL 61801

INTRODUCTION
Current mechanistic-based airfield pavement design procedures such as
the US Army WES (Barker and Brabston, 1975), Asphalt Institute (1987),
Army/Air Force Technical Manual (Departments of the Army, and the Air Force,
1989), and LEDFAA (FAA, 1995) use Elastic Layer Programs (ELP) to predict
the structural response of flexible pavements to applied aircraft gear loads. These
pavement responses (strain, stress, deflection) are related to pavement
performance (asphalt concrete (AC) fatigue cracking and pavement rutting) using
transfer functions. The most common existing transfer function relates pavement
life (number of load repetitions) to subgrade vertical compressive strain. Subgrade
strain is the controlling factor for most WES/CE'LEDFAA designs. However,
pavement sections designed using these criteria tend to be conservative and
limited insight is gained concerning the mechanisms of pavement distress
development. It is necessary to improve these subgrade criteria to produce more
functional, reliable and cost-effective airfield flexible pavements. This paper
presents and analyzes current subgrade strain criteria for airfields, introduces the
Suberade Stress Ratio (SSR) as an alternative, and demonstrates the influence of
new aircraft large gear configurations (e.g., the Boeing 777 tridem) on the
repeated loading behavior of cohesive soils.
CURRENT SUBGRADE DESIGN CRITERIA
The WES Subgrade Design Criteria
In the early 1970's the US Army Waterways Experimental Station (WES)
began the development of a pavement design procedure based on elastic layered
theory. Barker and Brabston's report (1975) presents the procedure. The WES
procedure was implemented as a design manual for the Departments of the Army
and the Air Force (1989). The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) computer
program LEDFAA (FAA, 1995) is a modification of the WES program and is the
design procedure for pavements serving the Boeing 777. In general, the WES
procedure incorporates subgrade strain criteria for controlling pavement rutting. It
assumes that surface rutting is mainly due to subgrade shear deformation implying
that negligible permanent deformation accumulates in the pavement layers above

the subgrade. Subgrade rutting is controlled by limiting the vertical compressive

strain at the top of the subgrade. The subgrade strain criteria were developed from
ELP analyses of idealized conventional pavement sections subjected to typical
aircraft gear loads. In the development of the subgrade design criteria Barker and
Brabston (1975) indicated that:
".., it was desired to use a group of pavement sections which covered a range
of design conditions. The design parameters which were to be varied were the
subgrade modulus, the design aircraft and the number of load repetitions. The
variations and number of pavement sections required preclude the direct use of
test section data However, since the present CE and FAA thickness design criteria
represent a statistical treatment of test section data, it was possible to use the CE
and FAA procedures to generate idealized pavement sections. For various loadings
of aircraft with single-wheel, dual-wheel, or dual-tandem gears, this procedure
was used to generate pavement sections which would perform satisfactorily at
1,200, 6,000, and 25,000 annual departures on 3-, 6-, 10-, and 20-CBR
subgrades."
The WES development of the design criteria included the following
assumptions:

Traffic is represented in number of operations of the fully loaded design

aircraft.
Loads are essentially static, and the load in each tire is circular and uniform.
The pavement is a linear elastic layered system with full friction between

interfaces.
The bottom layer is of infinite thickness.
The deformation characteristics of the pavement materials are represented by
the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio as determined in a repeated load

test.
The AC modulus and Poisson's ratio were selected as 1380 MPa (200 ksi) and

0.5 respectively.
Granular base and subbase layer were subdivided in sublayers. The modulus
of each sublayer was determined based on the sublayer thickness and the

modulus of the material below the sublayer.

The subgrade modulus is related to CBR by the equation E s (NiPa) = 10.3
CBR (Es (psi)=1500 CBR).

Strains were computed using the elastic layer program CHEVIT (Barker &
Brabston, 1975). The WES report does not indicate how many pavement sections
and aircraft gear loadings were analyzed. The WES strain criteria are presented in
Figure 1 and are algebraically expressed by the equation:

N = 1000 x

0.000247 0.000245 x log10(Es)

0.0658 x Es 0.559

where N = Allowable repetitions

ev = Vertical strain at the top of the subgrade
Es = Modulus of the subgrade, psi
The design criteria were validated using WES test data presented by
Ahlvin et al., (1971) The Multiple Wheel Heavy Gear Load (NIWHGL) tests
weere conducted on pavement sections with an AC layer 7.5 cm. (3 in.) thick and
a crushed stone base 15 cm. (6 in.) thick. The subbase layer was a non plastic
gravel-sand with thicknesses ranging from 15 to 83 cm. (6 to 33 in.) placed over a
4-CBR subgrade. The subgrade was 91 cm (36 in.) of a heavy clay (known as
Vicksburg Buckshot Clay -- VBC) placed on top of the natural soil (a lean clay).
Traffic loadings included single-wheel, dual tandem (i.e., B-747) and 12-wheel (i
e, C-5) gear loads.
Figure 1. WES/CB/FAA Subgrade Strain Criteria
The failure criteria for the WES-N1WHGL tests were one inch heave above
the pavement surface or severe surface cracking. Failure criteria established in this
manner may be indirectly or not related with subgrade shear structural failure.
One inch heave may be due to large subgrade shear displacement and severe
disruption of the different pavement layers (Lane et al., 1993). Surface rutting was
not considered to be a critical factor in judging pavement failure. However,
measured surface rutting at failure in the WES-MWHGL test sections were not
constant and varied with pavement thickness and gear load (Chou, 1977). Rut
depths at failure were in the range of 13 to 90 mm. (0.5 to 3.5 in.) (Ahlvin et al.,

1971). Results of the full-scale tests are presented in Table 1. From these data, the
relationship in Figure 2 was developed. Barker and Brabston (1975) noted that
none of the test data extended to higher traffic levels. They concluded that the test
data do not represent a complete verification of the subgrade criteria but that an
extrapolation of the criteria to higher traffic levels is justifiable.
Table 1 Summary of MWHGL Test Section Data (Barker & Brabston, 1975)
Figure 2. Verification of the WES/CET:VA Subgrade Strain Criteria
Pavement failure (as related to subgrade strain criteria) is based on cumulative
damage according to Miner's hypothesis. In the Army/Air Force Design manual
(19S9) and the LEDFAA program (FAA, 1995) the damage factor is calculated as
the ratio of applied traffic repetitions (n) of a single aircraft to allowable load
repetitions to failure (N) of the aircraft. The subgrade cumulative damage factor
(CDF) is the sum of the damage factors for the various aircraft, thus the final
pavement design represents variations in applied loads (mixed traffic conditions).
Failure is predicted when the CDF reaches a value of one. (Barker & Brabston,
1975; Barker & Gonzalez, 1991; FAA, 1995).
The Asphalt Institute (AI) Subgrade Design Criterion
Witczak (1972) proposed vertical subgrade strain criteria for the design of
Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements. Witczak's failure criteria are to limit the vertical
strain on top of the subgrade (evaluated at a critical temperature of the asphalt
concrete layer) for a given number of strain applications. The theoretical study
was developed from an analysis of the revised CE CBR design thickness equation
(Ahlvin et al , 1971) for flexible pavements subjected to MWHGL aircraft traffic.
Witczak indicated that the revised CBR equation translates into allowable strains
(greater than those calculated by the earlier CBR equation) approaching
asymptotic values for high levels of traffic. Therefore, for multiple wheel aircraft,
flexible pavement thickness requirements approach a constant value for a large
number of load repetitions
A DC-8-63F aircraft was used to analyze the effect of subgrade type and
repetition level on permissible maximum vertical subgrade strain. It was
concluded that for all practical purposes aircraft type and subgrade modulus

yielded insignificant differences in the permissible maximum vertical strain

strain repetition relationship.
In Witczak's criteria, a permissible vertical strain of 1460 microstrain is used
at lx106 repetitions at a limiting AC modulus of 690 NIPa (100 ksi) Suggested
thickness reduction percentages of 95, 85, 70 and 50 approximate thickness
requirements for repetitions of 105, 104, 10' and 102, respectively. Environmental
effects are considered by a thickness adjustment factor: "a factor of 1.0 is applied
for high annual air temperature conditions and 0.9 for cooler environments."
SUBGRADE STRAIN CRITERIA COMMENTS
In highway flexible pavement mechanistic-based design procedures, it has
been customary to express subgrade design criteria in the form:
v = L(1/N)"
where N

= Permissible number of ESAL's

= Subgrade compressive vertical strain

L, m

= Empirically developed parameters

Typical highway criteria (National Cooperative Highway Research Program

Report, 1990) show that the "L" parameter ranges from 1.0x 10-2 to 2 8x 10.2 and
in some procedures "L" varies with design reliability. The "m" parameter varies
between 0.22 and 0.28. The philosophy of the subgrade vertical strain criteria is to
control pavement rutting (in the range of 10 to 20 mm. (0.4 to 0.6 in.)) by limiting
subgrade resilient strain for a specific number of load repetitions
Laboratory test data (Townsend & Chisolm, 1976) on the %/BC subgrade
(presented in Figure 3 for 1000 load repetitions) show that subgrade resilient
strains are not uniquely related to permanent strain accumulation for a given
number of load repetitions. For a given resilient strain, low strength soils
experience larger permanent deformation than higher strength soils. In the WES
criteria, the allowable number of strain repetitions is a function of the resilient
strain and subgrade modulus.

Figure 3. Soil Strength Effect on Permanent Strain Resilient Strain Relations

Analyses of the WES database by the BAA/PSA Projects and
summarized by Lane et al., (1993) show that the allowable number of strain
repetitions subgrade vertical strain relationship is relatively independent of
soil modulus. Early work by Witczak (1972) reached the same conclusion. The
BAAIPSA Projects derived vertical strain equation (correlation coefficient of
0.814) is numerically expressed as:

a
v =

0.174

where
v

Subgrade compressive vertical strain.

Coverages.

Constant depending on the reliability level. For 50, 75, 90 and 95

percent the constant is 0.00582, 0.00533, 0.00503 and 0 00470
respectively

A major limitation of current subgrade strain criteria for airport

pavement design is the very limited scope of the field performance data and
subgrade soil types utilized in their development. The vertical strain criteria have
been primarily extrapolated from WES test section results. The WES pavement
test sections were not representative of current FAA minimum requirements and
the traffic levels in the MWHGL tests are not representative of current busy
runway or taxiway traffic operations. New loading configurations such as the B777 tridem gear were obviously not included in the M\VHGL tests. Thus, tridem
loading test section pavement performance data are not available Tridem-gear
wheel load interactions or any other complex gear configuration generate unique
subgrade stress pulses (stress levels and duration). B-777 tridem gear loading
impacts are currently considered by the use of a provisional a value (the "Load
Repetition Factor" in FAA AC No. 150/5320-6D) of 0.72.
Another limitation of the WES criteria is the varying rutting criteria used to
interpret the results of the WES-NMIHGL pavement tests. Rut depths associated
with the WES criteria are in the range of 13 to 89 mm. (0.5 to 3.5 in.). Large rut
depths are not tolerable for high type airport pavements. British experience

demonstrates that rut depths of 25 to 40 mm (1.0 to 1_5 in ) represent the limits

for surface serviceability with little or no heave occurring at those limits (Lane et
al., 1993).
PERMANENT DEFORMATION PRINCIPLES
To limit pavement surface rutting to acceptable levels, careful attention
must be directed to each pavement component The AC surface, the granular
base/subbase and the subgrade layers contribute to the total accumulation of
pavement surface rutting (Thompson & Nauman, 1993)
Mechanistic-based rutting distress models use stress-, strain-, or
deflection-related parameters to estimate permanent deformation accumulation
under repeated loading. One approach to establish rutting models for flexible
pavement is to correlate structural response determined from a selected standard
structural analysis model with field distress measurements. The forms of
laboratory-based soils distress models are helpful in establishing the general
parameters that best define the structural response-field distress measurement
relationships (Thompson & Nauman, 1993).
Subgrade rutting potential is related to the stress level, soil strength and
number of load repetitions. The Log permanent strain Log load repetitions
model has been an appropriate, versatile and practical approach. The model
(Monismith et al., 1975) is expressed as follows:
Log ep = a + b Log N or p = ANb
Where N
p

= Number of load repetitions

= Permanent strain

a, b = Experimentally determined factors

A

= AntiLog of "a" and an experimental constant dependent on

material and stress level condition

A permanent strain accumulation rate prediction model (Majidzadeh
et al., 19S1) is expressed as:
p/N=AN"
where N = Number of load repetitions
e, = Permanent strain

A = An experimental constant dependent on material and stress level

condition.
m = Experimental constant depending on material type. Note that m = b-1
in the aforementioned model
Data considered in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
[NCHRP] Report 1-26 (1990) indicated that for tine-grained soils, the "b" term is
generally in the range of 0.10 to 0.20. The "A" term is more variable and depends
on soil type, repeated stress state, and factors influencing soil strength. Stress state
is generally expressed in terms of repeated stress state (co = ci - c3), principal
stress ratio (clIc3), and deviator stress ratio (o0ra3). Comprehensive studies
(Majidzadeh et al., 1976; Knutson et al., 1977; Thompson Nauman, 1993) on the
"A" term reveal that many soils show a "threshold stress level" above which
permanent deformation accumulates rapidly under repeated loading and below
which the rate of cumulative deformation from additional stress applications is
considerably less. In most cases the threshold stress level is about 50 percent of
the soil strength. The stress ratio (repeated deviator stress/soil strength) approach
is considered in this paper. Figure 4 shows pattern of permanent deformation as a
Function of the SSR for the VBC. Low "A" values are noted for reduced stress
ratios, and large "A" values are noted for increased SSRs, as seen in Figure 5
Therefore, factors influencing load-related stress state and strength of in situ soils
are very important considerations
Figure 4. Patterns of Permanent Deformation in Terms of SSR
Figure 5. Variation of A values with SSR
A major difficulty in predicting subgrade permanent deformation is the
effect of stress history. Stress application sequence and load pulse duration
influence the repeated loading behavior of cohesive soils. Unpublished laboratory
results (U of IL) for a lean clay show that a stress sequence of gradually
increasing SSR may cause less permanent deformation than a sequence where the
high SSR is initially applied. This may indicate the inadequacy of using the CDF
approach for predicting permanent deformation in cohesive soils. Poulsen and

Stubstad (1978) suggest that an appropriate approach is to relate permanent

deformation to the number of load repetitions of the heaviest load class expected
in the design period. In the same U of IL study, stress sequence did not
significantly influence the soil's resilient modulus Load pulse duration effects are
discussed later in this paper.
SUBGRADE STRESS RATIO CRITERIA
Subgrade Stress Ratio (SSR) is defined as the ratio of the subgrade
deviator stress to the unconfined compressive strength (peak stress or stress at 5 %
strain) of the subgrade soil. The philosophy of the SSR concept is to ensure that
the pavement system exhibits a "stable" subgrade permanent deformation
performance as shown in Figure 6. Total anticipated surface rutting can be limited
to acceptable levels. High stress levels (above "threshold stress level -) are
associated with increased and perhaps unstable subgrade permanent deformation.
Subgrade rutting is controlled by limiting SSR to acceptable levels (usually in the
range of 0.5 to 0.7 depending on traffic). The SSR concept includes deviator stress
and soil strength terms that show considerable seasonal and spatial variability.
SSRs are affected by changes in the deviator stress, strength reduction, or a
combination of both. SSR will increase with AC modulus reduction, increases in
soil moisture content/saturation level, and cyclic freeze-thaw in the subgrade. The
SSR concert has been implemented for the design of full-depth asphalt concrete
pavements (Thompson, 1987), conventional flexible pavements (Thompson,
1992) and surface treatment pavements (Thompson, 1994). These procedures have
been successfully used by the Illinois Department of Transportation for the design
of highway flexible pavements. Kelly and Thompson (1988) proposed the use of
the SSR concept for the design/evaluation of flexible pavements for the
Heavyweight F-15 fighter aircraft' They indicated the DOD CBR based designs
provided low SSRs (conservative - require thicker pavements).
Figure 6. Stable and Unstable Permanent Deformation Behavior WES/CE/FAA
AND U OF IL CRITERIA COMPARISONS

WES/CDFAA vertical compressive strain criteria were evaluated using the

U of IL SSR concept. Subgrade deviator stress and unconfined compressive
strength for the strain criteria were calculated assuming that:

ERi = Es in ksi
op = ev E, ER, (ksi) 086
Qu(Psi) = 03G7

where
Es = Modulus of the subgrade as defined in the WES/CE/FAA procedure.
ERi = Resilient modulus of the subgrade at the breakpoint according to Thompson
& Robnett (1979).
D

= Deviator stress on top of the subgrade.

Ev = Allowable elastic strain (WES/CEIFAA criteria).

Qu = Unconfined compressive strength of the soil estimated according to
Thompson & Robnett (1979).
The WES:CR/FAA strain criteria expressed in SSR terms are shown in
Figure 7. The strain criteria fall below the 40 percent SSR for low number of
annual strain repetitions and below 35 percent SSR for high number of annual
strain repetitions. These SSRs are very conservative and result in increased
pavement thickness. The Illinois DOT SSR highway pavement criteria permit an
SSR of 50% for a 20 year design and high traffic volumes and for low traffic
volume roads the SSR can go up to 70% For airports where the number of strain
repetitions are low, permissible SSRs are probably in the range of 50 to 70%.
However, in considering SSR criteria, it is important to evaluate additional factors
that may contribute to changes in permanent deformation accumulation such as
stress distribution, load pulse duration, and stress history effects associated with
multiple-wheel gear configurations (dual-tandem, tridem, etc.).

AIRCRAFT INDUCED SUBGRADE STRESS PULSE DURATION

The effect of load pulse duration on fine-grained subgrade soil behavior
(modulus, permanent deformation) is not well established. Subgrade stress is
determined by aircraft landing gear configuration, wheel load/tire pressure,
pavement cross section, and subgrade condition. Limited ELP analyses of
conventional pavement sections designed using LEDFAA (FAA, 1995) and 16 in.
full-depth asphalt pavement sections on soil (Es = 20.7 MPa (3 ksi)) and firm (Es =
62.0 MPa (9 ksi)) subgrades demonstrated the effect of the aforementioned
variables on subgrade stress distribution. In general, longer gear configurations (e
g., tridems) produce flatter and increased duration stress pulses. Based on
normalized stress (deviator stress/maximum deviator stress) time curves, the pulse
duration increase at 10 % normalized stress from a dual-tandem to a tridem gear
configuration may range from 30 to 50 %. Aircraft speed determines subgrade
stress pulse duration. Lew aircraft speeds of 16 to 32 kph (10 to 20 mph) and
static in some cases are expected. Analyses of the aforementioned pavement
sections indicated that for these aircraft speeds a haversine stress pulse with a
duration of about one second is realistic for repeated load testing of subgrade
soils. Aircraft velocity effects can be considered by testing the pavement
materials/soils using approximately the same repeated stress states (magnitude and
duration) as those expected in the field.
Pulse duration effects on the resilient modulus and permanent deformation
characteristics of cohesive subgrade soils were considered in a preliminary U of
IL study. Repeated unconfined compressive loading tests at two load pulse
durations were performed on a cohesive soil at two water contents and several
stress levels. The limited testing program was conducted with a CL soil (99%
passing 0200, 55%<24.1 clay, LL 40, PI 18, Max. DD 18.7 kN/m 3 (119 pcfl, OMC
14%) subjected to repetitive haversine pulses with load pulse durations of 60 and
600 milliseconds.
Preliminary laboratory testing data support the following observations.
Subgrade stress pulse duration has some effect on permanent deformation, and
limited effect on resilient modulus. Increased pulse duration increases permanent
deformation. The effect is greater at increased subgrade stress levels, and

decreased subgrade soil strength conditions. The difference in permanent

deformation accumulation rate due to variations in stress ratio and stress pulse
duration is most pronounced in the first 100 lead repetitions. Longer pulse
duration yields higher permanent strain per cycle in the first cycles. Afterwards,
the rate of accumulation is essentially the same for both stress pulse durations. On
the other hand, an increased pulse duration decreases resilient modulus with a
greater difference at reduced subgrade stress levels and increased subgrade soil
strengths. The B-777 tridem aircraft gear induces larger subgrade stresses and
pulse durations than conventional tandem gear configurations Thus, current
flexible pavements may experience increased rutting
SUMMARY
The development and utilization of current subgrade design criteria are
presented. Current mechanistic-based airfield pavement design procedures use
ELP to predict airfield pavement responses (deflection, stresses, strains) generated
by a gear load. Computed vertical strains are limited to prevent pavement rutting
using subgrade strain criteria (permissible subgrade compressive strain -- number
of load repetitions). WES/CE/FAA and Al vertical compressive strain criteria were
developed from ELP analyses of pavement sections obtained from the modified
CBR equation (includes the a term) that incorporates the results of the NINVIIGL
study. The limited scope of pavement test sections and performance data required
extrapolation to other subgrade, loading and climatic conditions. The large and
varying rutting criteria used to interpret the test section performance data are not
consistent with the more rigorous criteria generally associated with high type
airport pavements.
The U of IL SSR criterion is presented as an alternative. Subgrade rutting
potential depends on stress level, soil strength, stress history, and load repetitions.
Patterns of permanent deformation are related to SSR. The "A" term from the Log
permanent strain Log load repetitions or power model is a function of SSR. Large
and unstable permanent deformation patterns are associated with large SSRs. The
SSR criterion ensures that the pavement exhibits a "stable" subgrade permanent
deformation. Total anticipated surface rutting can be limited to acceptable levels.

Subgrade rutting is controlled by limiting SSR to levels usually in the range of 0.5
to 0.7 depending on traffic. The WES/CE/FAA vertical compressive strain criteria
expressed in SSR terms fall below 0.4. These SSRs are very conservative and
result in increased pavement thickness. Permissible SSRs for airport subgrades are
probably in the range of 0.5 to 0.7.
A limited U of IL laboratory study considered the effect of stress history and
pulse duration on the repeated loading behavior of a cohesive soil. Preliminary
analyses indicate that a stress sequence of gradually increased SSR may cause less
permanent deformation than a sequence where the high SSR is initially applied.
Suess sequence did not significantly influence soli resilient moduli. Subgrade
stress pulse duration has some effect on permanent deformation, and limited effect
on resilient modulus. In general, for a given subgrade stress level and soil
strength, an increased pulse duration increases permanent deformation and
decreases resilient modulus. Tridem aircraft gear configurations induce larger
stress pulse durations than conventional tandem gear configurations. Therefore,
current flexible pavements may experience increased rutting rates due to increased
subgrade stress and subgrade stress pulse duration.
In conclusion, improved subgrade design criteria are required to produce more
functional, reliable and cost-effective airfield pavements and to provide better
insights concerning the mechanism of pavement distress development. The SSR
concept appears promising. Load pulse characteristics (stress level and duration)
of multiple-wheel gear configurations and stress history effects (sequence of stress
level applications) on subgrade permanent deformation accumulation need to be
further considered in implementing the SSR concept for mechanistic-empirical
based airport flexible pavement design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS / DISCLAIMER
This paper was prepared from a study conducted in the Center of Excellence for
Airport Pavement Research. Funding for the Center of Excellence is provided in
part by the Federal Aviation Administration under Research Grant Number 95-C001 The Center of Excellence is maintained at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign who works in partnership with Northwestern University and

the Federal Aviation Administration. Ms. Patricia Watts is the FAA Program
Manager for Air Transportation Centers of Excellence and Dr. Satish Agrawal is
the FAA Technical Director for the Pavement Center.
The contents of this paper reflect the views of the authors who are responsible
for the facts and accuracy of the data presented within The contents do not
necessarily reflect the official views and policies of the Federal Aviation
Administration. This paper does not constitute a standard, specification, or
regulation
APPENDIX
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Barker, W.R. and Gonzalez, C.R., (1991), Pavement Design by Elastic Layer
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Technical Report S-77-8, Soils and Pavements Laboratory, U. S. Army Engineer
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for Airfields (Elastic Layered Method), Technical Manual TM 5-825-2- I/AFM
886, Chapter 2, Section A Federal Aviation Administration, (1995), Advisory
circular No. 150/5320-16, Airport Pavement Design for the Boeing 777 Airplane,
U S Department of Transportation.

Kelly H F and Thompson M R , (1988), Mechanistic Design Concepts for Hex.vweigh: F-15 .aircraft on Flexible Pavements, Journal of Transportation
Engineerinz, ASCE, Vol 114, No. 3.
Knutson, R. M., Thompson, M.R., Mullin, T., and Tayabji, S. D., (1977), Material
Evaluation Study - Ballast and Foundation Materials Research Program FRAORS:D-77-02. Federal Railroad Administration.
Lane, R., Woodman, G., and Barenberg, E.J., (1993), Pavement Design
Considerations for Heavy Aircraft Loading at BAA Airports, Proceedings of the
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Mississippi.
Majidzadeh, K., Bayomy, F., and Khedr, S., (1976), Rutting Evaluation of
Subgrade Soils in Ohio, Record 616, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D. C.
Majidzadeh, K., et al., (1981), Implementation of a Pavement Design System,
Final Report, Research Project EEE 579, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Monismith, C.L., Ogawa, N. and Freeme, C.R., (1975), Permanent Deformation
Characteristics of Subgrade Soils due to Repeated Loading, Record 537,
Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C.
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Mechanistic Structural Analysis Procedures for Pavement, Volume 1 - Final
Report and Volume 2 - Appendices, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Poulsen, J., and Stubstad, R.N., (1978), Laboratory Testing of Cohesive
Subgrades Results and Implications Relative to Structural Pavement Design and
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of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Thompson, M.R., (1992), ILLI-PAVE based Conventional Flexible Pavement

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Granular Base Moduli for Mechanistic Pavement Design

Erol Tuturnluer1, Associate Member and
Marshall R. Thompson2, Member
Abstract
Simple stress dependent granular material models are proposed to predict the
aggregate cross-anisotropic responses observed in flexible airport pavements. A
cross-anisotropic representation has different material properties (i.e., elastic
modulus and Poisson's ratio) assigned in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Repeated load triaxial tests with vertical and lateral deformation measurements
are used for establishing these anisotropic properties. Flexible pavement responses
predicted under one wheel of the Boeing 777-200A aircraft using the anisotropic
model are found to be higher than LEDFAA response variables. A sensitivity
analysis shows, in general, that as aggregate base horizontal and shear stiffnesses
increase, the critical pavement responses decrease to some extent.
Introduction
Current mechanistic design methods, such as LEDFAA (FAA - AC, 1995),
Corps of Engineers (TM 5-825-2-1/AFNI 88-6,1989), and the Asphalt Institute
(AI MS-1, 1982), use Elastic Layer Programs (ELP5) to predict airfield pavement
resilient responses generated by the gear load. In these procedures, the granular
layer moduli are established as some multiple of the subgrade modulus,
irregardless of the thickness and the modulus of Asphalt Concrete (AC) surface
course overlying the granular layer(s) or wheel loading conditions. Furthermore,
ELP analyses of conventional flexible pavements indicate significant tensile
stresses in the lower portions of the aggregate base, a material with limited/no
tensile strength. The implications of these current granular material modeling
concepts/procedures have been considered in studies conducted at the FAA Center
of Excellence (COE) for Airport Pavement Research at the University of Illinois.
11 Assistant Professor
22 Professor Emeritus. Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Illinois 205 N. Mathesws, urbana, IL 61801-2352

The stress-dependent modulus behavior of aggregates (stress hardening) is

well documented (Thompson and Elliot, 1985; Tutumluer, 1995) and
crossanisotropic behavior is observed in granular materials (Tutumluer, 1995;
Tutumluer and Thompson, 1997). The cross-anisotropic representation assigns
different material properties (i.e., elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio) in the
horizontal and vertical directions. COE studies show that simple stress dependent
granular material models can be used to predict the aggregate cross-anisotropic
responses. Nonlinear characterization models have been established from repeated
load triaxial test data with both vertical and lateral deformation measurements.
These material models have been successfully implemented into a finite element
program, GT-PAVE, developed by Tutumluer (1995).
A conventional airport flexible pavement is analyzed in this paper using
isotropic ILLI-PAVE (Raad and Figueroa, 1980) and anisotropic GT-PAVE finite
element programs and assigning representative properties for a dense-graded
crushed stone base (FAA P-209). The GT-PAVE values for AC strain, subgrade
strain, and subgrade deviator stress under one wheel of a BOEING 777-200A are
in general higher than predicted by the LEDFAA./JULEA ELP program.
Moreover, both GT-PAVE and ILLI-PAVE aggregate moduli are considerably
different than those assigned in the ELP procedures. Such discrepancies in
predicted moduli are apparently due to improved material characterization that
considers the nonlinear stress dependent aggregate behavior in the finite element
programs. A sensitivity analysis of anisotropic granular base model parameters is
also performed using the GT-PAVE program for critical pavement responses.
Anisotrooic Properties from Triaxial Tests
Thick granular layers commonly used in airport flexible pavements provide
load distribution that is essential to the integrity of the pavement. Initially, an
apparent anisotropy is induced in granular layers during construction by aggregate
placement and then loading from the compaction equipment. Heavy aircraft wheel
loads further cause significant amounts of directional stiffening of the granular
materials in the vertical direction. An anisotropic approach can adequately
accommodate this kind of directional variation of granular material stiffnesses.

The important effects of load induced directional stiffening and dilative behavior
of granular materials have been successfully modeled in recent studies using a
cross-anisotropic approach (Tutumluer, 1995; Tutumluer and Thompson, 1997).
The repeated load triaxial compression test is currently the most commonly
used method to measure the resilient (elastic) deformation characteristics of
unbound aggregates for use in pavement design. The resilient modulus test is
performed on a cylindrical specimen of granular materials subjected to repeated
axial compressive (deviator) stresses. To simulate the lateral stresses caused by the
initial in situ pressure and that from applied wheel loadings, the specimen is
subjected to a constant all-around confining pressure. An advantage of the triaxial
test is that the axial and radial (or vertical and horizontal) strains can be
determined relatively easily. Determination of lateral strains in a triaxial specimen
is essential for characterizing the anisotropic elastic properties of granular bases.
Anisotropic resilient response - elastic response obtained from the repeated
load triaxial tests due to the pulse deviator stress - can be defined from triaxial test
data with measured vertical and lateral deformations as follows:
Vertical Resilient Modulus
Horizontal Resilient Modulus
Resilient Shear Modulus
Where the horizontal resilient modulus (MRh) is newly defined for anisotropic
elasticity, and d, (= 1-3) and 3 are deviator stress and confining pressure,
respectively. Since for a cylindrical triaxial sample there is co-axiality between the
material and principal stress axes, the horizontal and vertical directions, as
referred to in the above definitions, are used in the same context with the radial (r)
and vertical (z) directions under axial symmetry.
Anisotropic Material Characterization
The five cross-anisotropic material properties needed to define an anisotropic
material under conditions of axial symmetry were given by Zienkiewicz and
Taylor (1989) as: moduli in vertical and radial directions, M RZ and MR': shear
modulus in vertical direction. GR; Poisson's ratio for strain in the vertical
direction due to a horizontal direct stress v z : and Poisson's ratio for strain in any

horizontal direction due to a horizontal direct stress, v,. Pickering ( 1 970) studied
the bounds of the elastic parameters in a cross-anisotropic material. In addition to
the requirement of each of the three moduli being greater than zero, the Poisson's
ratios in horizontal and vertical directions were shown to be related to each other
for a positive strain energy (Pickering, 1970).
A new improved way of modeling granular materials using cross-anisotropic
nonlinear elasticity was proposed recently at the University of Illinois to predict
the dilative granular material behavior as observed from laboratory triaxial test
results (Tutumluer and Thompson, 1997). Granular material response was shown
to be reasonably characterized by using stress dependent models which express
the modulus as nonlinear power functions of stress states. The characterization
models include in the formulation the two triaxial stress conditions, i.e., the bulk
stress 8 (= G1+2G3) and the deviator stress od, to account for the effects of both
confinement and shear loading, respectively (Uzan, 1992).
Repeated load triaxial test results, which included vertical and lateral
deformation measurements performed on a variety of aggregate types, were