TOPIC 5: BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMOSTRATION

4.0 THEORY
Bernoullis Law
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying
cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is
higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate.
Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher
velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the following equation:

Where,
P

= Fluid static pressure at the cross section

= Density of the flowing fluid

= Acceleration due to gravity

= Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

= Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum

h*

= Total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head
(h), velocity head (hv ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these
terms is known as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of
fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant. In a
real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centreline of all the cross sections we are
considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum,
z = 0, and thus, all the z values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:

This represents the total head at a cross section.

For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*i,
where i represents the cross sections at different tapping points.

Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressures

The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoullis equation,
Equation 3.7, is the thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static
pressure. The static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by an
instrument moving with the flow. However, such a measurement is rather difficult
to make in a practical situation.
As we know, there was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This
fact makes it possible to measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall
pressure tapping, placed in a region where the flow streamlines are straight, as
shown in Figure 4 (a). The pressure tap is a small hole, drilled carefully in the
wall, with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular to the
duct wall and free from burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure can be
made by connecting the tap to a suitable pressure measuring instrument.

Figure 5.1: Measurement of Static Pressure

In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static
pressure measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe,
shown in Figure 4 (b). Such probes must be designed so that the measuring holes
are place correctly with respect to the probe tip and stem to avoid erroneous
results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow
direction.
Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available commercially in sizes
as small as 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained
when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. In
incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate changes in
speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation
differences, Equation 3.7 becomes

If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the
stagnation pressure, Po, where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, therefore,

Equation 3.11 is a mathematical statement of stagnation pressure, valid for

incompressible flow. The term V generally is the dynamic pressure. Solving
the dynamic pressure gives:

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a
point, Equation 3.13 would give the local flow speed.

Figure 5.2: Measurement of Stagnation Pressure

(a) Total Head Tube Used with Wall Static Tap

(b) Pitot-Static Tube

Figure 5.3: Simultaneous Measurement of Stagnation and Static Pressures

Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that
faces directly upstream as shown in Figure 5. Such a probe is called a stagnation

pressure probe (hypodermic probe) or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe) tube. Again, the
measuring section must be aligned with the local flow direction.

We have seen that static pressure at a point can be measured with a static pressure
tap or probe (Figure 4). If we know the stagnation pressure at the same point, then
the flow speed could be computed from Equation 3.14. Two possible experimental
setups are shown in Figure 6.

In Figure 6(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A is read from the wall
static pressure tap. The stagnation pressure is measured directly at A by the total
head tube, as shown. (The stem of the total head tube is placed downstream from
the measurement location to minimize disturbance of the local flow)

Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 6(b).
The inner tube is used to measure the stagnation pressure at point B, whereas the
static pressure at C is sensed using the tapping on the wall. In flow fields where
the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction is small, the Pitot-static
tube may be used to infer the speed at point B in the flow by assuming pB =pC
and using Equation 3.14. (Note that when pB pC, this procedure will give
erroneous results)

Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach
number, M 0.3).

5.2 APPARATUS

The unit consists of the followings:

a) Venturi: The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with
the following specifications:
Throat diameter : 16 mm
Upstream Diameter : 26 mm
Designed Flow Rate : 20 LPM
b) Manometer: There are eight manometer tubes; each length 320
mm, for static pressure and total head measuring along the venturi
meter. The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for
air release as well as tubes pressurization.
c) Baseboard: The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with 4
height adjustable stands to level the venturi meter.
d) Discharge valve: One discharge valve is installed at the venturi
discharge section for flow rate control.
e) Connections: Hose Connections are installed at both inlet and
outlet.

5.3 MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1.

It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in

2.

use. The apparatus should be stored properly to prevent damage.

Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill,
indicated that tapping or connection of the manometer is blocked.
To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible connection tube

3.

and blow through.

The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.

4.

Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles

throughout the laboratory session.

5.

Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and
procedure.

5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

5.4.1 Experiment 1: Discharge Coefficient Determination
Objective
To determine the discharge coefficient of the venture meter.

Procedures
1. The hypodermic tube is withdrawn from the test section.
2. The discharge valve is adjusted to the maximum measureable flow rate
of the venture.
3. The water flow rate is measured using volumetric method and the
manometers reading are recorded.
4. The steps are repeated for a few data collection.
5. From results, the discharge coefficient, Cd is determined.
6. The results of actual flow rate and ideal flow rate are compared.

5.4.2 Experiment 2: Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

Objective
To demonstrate Bernoullis theorem.

Procedures
1. The discharge valve is adjusted to a high measureable flow rate.
2. After the level stabilizes, the water flow rate is measured using
volumetric method.
3. The hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer
#G is gently slide, so that its end reaches the cross section of the
Venturi tube at #A. Wait for some time and the readings from the
manometers are noted down.
4. Steps 1 to 3 are repeated with different flow rates.
5. The difference between two calculated velocities are determined using
Bernoullis equation and using continuity equation.
6. The comparison between the two velocities are discussed.

B) RESULTS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS,

REFERENCES
Name: Mohammad Iskandar Zulkarnain b. Roslan

Matric number:

42188

6.0 RESULTS
6.0.1 Discharge Coefficient Determination
In this experiment, the volume of water used is 5L. The actual flow rate, Qa can be
determined as
Qa =

Volume of water
time taken

Actual flow rate, Qa for each time:

Qa1

= 5L / 33.22s
= 0.1505 L/s

Qa2

= 5L / 35.66s
= 0.1402 L/s

Qa3

= 5L / 38.28s
= 0.1306 L/s

Qa4

= 5L / 40.11s
= 0.1247 L/s

Qa

ha

hb

hc

hd

he

hf

Time (s)

230
236
238
245

33.22
35.66
38.28
40.11

(L/s)
0.1505
0.1402
0.1306
0.1247

231
241
244
251

Water head (mm)

229 204 220 225
238 212 227 230
240 213 230 234
246 218 237 241

Data analysis:
Throat diameter, D3 (mm)

= 16

Upstream diameter, D1 (mm)

= 26

Throat area, At (m2)

= 2.011 x 10-4

Upstream diameter, A (m2)

= 5.309 x 10-4

g (m/s2)

= 9.81

(kg/m3)

= 1000

The difference between the maximum value and minimum value of water head is
ha hc, as observed in the table above.
(ha hc)1

= 231 mm 206 mm
= 25 mm

(ha - hc)2

= 241 mm 218 mm
= 23 mm

(ha hc)3

= 244 mm 223 mm
= 21 mm

(ha hc)4

= 251 mm 233 mm
= 18 mm

Actual flow rate, Qi is calculated by using equation (3).

And since Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, this makes Z1 Z2 = 0

For (ha hc)1 = 27 (10-3) m,
1

(Qi)1

= 2.011(10-4) [

2.011E-4
5.309E-4
( 25E-3 )
2 ( 9.81 )

0.5

= 1.5815 (10-4) m3/s

= 1.5815 (10-4) m3/s (1000L/1m3)
= 0.1582 L/s

For (ha hc)2 = 23 (10-3) m,

1
(Qi)2

= 2.011(10-4) [

2.011E-4
5.309E-4
( 23E-3 )
2 ( 9.81 )

0.5

= 1.4597 (10-4) m3/s

= 1.4597 (10-4) m3/s (1000L/1m3)
= 0.1459 L/s
For (ha hc)3 = 21 (10-3) m,
1

(Qi)3

= 2.011(10-4) [

2.011E-4
5.309E-4
( 21E-3 )
2 ( 9.81 )

0.5

= 1.3948 (10-4) m3/s

= 1.3948 (10-4) m3/s (1000L/1m3)
= 0.1395 L/s
For (ha hc)3 = 18 (10-3) m,
2.011E-4
1
5.309E-4
( 18E-3 )
= 2.011(10-4) [
2 ( 9.81 )

0.5

(Qi)3

= 1.2913 (10-4) m3/s

= 1.2913 (10-4) m3/s (1000L/1m3)

= 0.1291 L/s

ha - hc

Ideal Flow Rate, Qi

Actual Flow Rate, Qa

(10-3 m)

(L/s)

(L/s)

27
29
27
27

0.1582
0.1459
0.1395
0.1291

0.1505
0.1402
0.1306
0.1247

Graph of Qa against Qi
0.16
0.14

f(x) = 0.92x + 0.01

0.12
0.1

Qa 0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.13

0.13

0.14

0.14

0.15

0.15

0.16

0.16

Qi

Graph 1: Graph of Qa against Qi

6.0.2 Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

6.0.2.1 Sub-experiment 1

Cross
Section
i

Volume

= 5L

Time

= 24.47s

Using Bernoullis

Using Continuity

Equation
hi

Equation
Ai
ViC

h*=h

ViB

Difference

(mm)

(mm)

(x10-4

(m/s)

(m/s)

m2)

Percentag

(m/s)

e error
(%)

ha
hb
hc
hd
he
hf

285
280
278
273
271
268

279
275
224
245
250
256

0.3431
0.3132

5.309
3.664

1.0293
0.8046
0.6419
0.4852

2.011
3.142
3.801
5.309

0.2697
0.3908

0.0734
-

21.39
24.77

0.7121
0.4558
0.3767
0.2697

0.0776
0.3172
0.3488
0.2652
0.2155

30.82
43.35
41.31
44.49

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Area of Tapping Points A to F.
Area

2
4 d

Aa

(26E-3)
4

= 5.309 E-4 m2

Velocity of water by Bernoullis equation, ViB

ViB

[2 g ( hh ) ]

ViB(a)

2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.2850.279 )

= 0.3431 m/s
Velocity of water by Continuity equation, ViC
Qi ,avg
ViC
=
Ai
Average ideal flow rate, Qi,avg
Qi,avg = [ (0.1582+0.1459+0.1395+0.1291) L/s ] / 4
= 0.1432 L/s
= 0.1432 L/s [1m3/1000L]
= 1.432 E-4 m3/s

ViC(a)

= [1.432 E-4 m3/s] / 5.309E-4 m2

= 0.2697 m/s

Difference in velocities of Bernoullis equation and Continuity equation

V
Va

= ViB - ViC
= 0.3431 m/s 0.2697 m/s
= 0.0734 m/s

Percentage error, PEa =

0.26970.3431
x 100%
0.3431

= 21.39%

6.0.2.2 Sub-experiment 2

Cross
Section
i

Volume

= 5L

Time

= 10.35s

Using Bernoullis

Using Continuity

h*=hG

Equation
hi

ViB

Equation
Ai
ViC

(mm)

(mm)

(m/s)

(x10-4

(m/s)

m2)
ha
hb
hc
hd
he
hf

274
271
269
264
264
260

264
252
197
229
235
241

0.4429
0.6106
1.1885
0.8287
0.7543
0.6106

5.309
3.664
2.011
3.142
3.801
5.309

0.2697
0.3908
0.7121
0.4558
0.3767
0.2697

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Velocity of water by Bernoullis equation, ViB

ViB

[2 g ( hh ) ]

ViB(a)

2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.2740.264 )

= 0.4429 m/s

Difference

(m/s)

Percentag
e error
(%)

0.1732
0.2198
0.4764
0.3729
0.3776
0.3409

39.11
35.99
40.08
44.99
50.06
55.83

Velocity of water by Continuity equation, ViC

Qi ,avg
ViC
=
Ai
Average ideal flow rate, Qi,avg
Qi,avg = [ (0.1582+0.1459+0.1395+0.1291) L/s ] / 4
= 0.1432 L/s
= 0.1432 L/s [1m3/1000L]
= 1.432 E-4 m3/s
ViC(a)

= [1.432 E-4 m3/s] / 5.309E-4 m2

= 0.2697 m/s

Difference in velocities of Bernoullis equation and Continuity equation

V
Va

= ViB - ViC
= 0.4429 m/s 0.2697 m/s
= 0.1732 m/s

Percentage error, PEa =

0.269704429

0.4429

x 100%

= 39.11%

6.0.2.3 Sub-experiment 3

Cross
Section
i

Volume

= 5L

Time

=s

Using Bernoullis Equation Using Continuity

h*=h

(mm)

hi

ViB

(mm)

(m/s)

Equation
Ai
ViC
(x10-4

(m/s)

m2)
ha
hb
hc
hd
he
hf

218
217
215
211
210
209

213
191
122
163
173
184

0.3132
0.7142
1.3508
0.9704
0.8520
0.7004

5.309
3.664
2.011
3.142
3.801
5.309

0.2697
0.3908
0.7121
0.4558
0.3767
0.2697

Difference

(m/s)

Percentag
e error
(%)

0.0435
0.3234
0.6387
0.5146
0.4753
0.4307

13.89
45.28
47.28
53.03
55.79
61.49

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Velocity of water by Bernoullis equation, ViB

ViB

[2 g ( hh ) ]

ViB(a)

2 ( 9.81 ) ( 0.2180.213 )

= 0.3132 m/s
Velocity of water by Continuity equation, ViC
Qi ,avg
ViC
=
Ai
Average ideal flow rate, Qi,avg
Qi,avg = [ (0.1582+0.1459+0.1395+0.1291) L/s ] / 4
= 0.1432 L/s
= 0.1432 L/s [1m3/1000L]
= 1.432 E-4 m3/s
ViC(a)

= [1.432 E-4 m3/s] / 5.309E-4 m2

= 0.2697 m/s

Difference in velocities of Bernoullis equation and Continuity equation

V
Va

= ViB - ViC
= 0.3132 m/s 0.2697 m/s
= 0.0435 m/s

Percentage error, PEa =

0.26970.3132
x 100%
0.3132

= 13.89%

7.0 DISCUSSIONS
1. From the graph of actual flow rate, Q a against ideal flow rate, Qi on the
first experiment (Discharge Coefficient Determination), it shows that
the discharge coefficient, Cd is 0.9177, which is in between the ideal Cd
values which are from 0.9 to 0.99.
2. From the second experiment (Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration),
there are too many significant errors such as the large values of
percentage errors and the significant difference in values between the
velocities calculated using Bernoullis equation and Continuity
equation. One of the reason behind this is that the apparatus is leaked
when we conducted the experiment. This leakage of water contributes
to errors obtained in calculations. Besides, the manometer reading
fluctuates frequently during the experiment. This makes the data
reading inconsistent and not accurate, thus the errors are significant.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the first experiment, the discharge coefficient is determined to be
0.9177, based on the graph plotted. This value is in the range of standard
discharge coefficient value, which is in between 0.9 to 0.99.
For the second experiment, Bernoullis theorem can be demonstrated and
the data are obtained. However, from the calculations, the errors are quite
significant as most of the percentage errors are more than 20%. These are due to
the errors and technical problems encountered during the experiment. In order to
reduce the errors, the apparatus should not leak and no air bubbles must present on
the tube.

9.0 OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

1. One of the differences between the stagnation pressure and dynamic
pressure is that stagnation pressure is the summation of static pressure and
dynamic pressure of a fluid. Therefore, stagnation pressure indicates both
static and dynamic pressure at a point of a fluid.
The equation of stagnation pressure, Pstag = P + V2/g whereby, as indicated
just now, P is static pressure and V2/g is dynamic pressure, and the unit is
given in kilopascal (kPa).
By definition, stagnation pressure is the static pressure at the stagnation
point, where V = 0.

2. There are a few instruments that can be used to measure the airflow rate in
a duct, such as pitot tube (stagnation tube), orifice plate and radial turbine
flowmeter. Pitot tube is one of the most conventional device to measure
the flow of fluid by measuring the pressure at the stagnation point. The
velocity is then calculated using the formula

V=

2( P , stagP)

This device is can be easily found, but the drawback of using pitot tube is
that it is restricted to point measuring only, as it only measures the pressure
at a point. This is impractical to measure the pressure at different points,
especially when it involves a lot of points.
Next, the orifice plate can also be used to measure the airflow rate in a
duct. The fluid flow is measured through the difference in pressure from
the upstream side to the downstream side of a moderately congested pipe.
The advantages of orifice plate are it is simple, relatively inexpensive and
is universal in nature. However, the orifice plate is not suitable for low
fluid flow rate, as it will cause inaccurate calculations.

Orifice plate

Besides, a radial turbine flow meter can be used to measure the airflow
rate in a duct. The working principle of this flow meter is that it is inserted
in through the side of a pipe and the flow across the turbine blades will
generate a measurement which is related to general flow in the pipe. The
advantage of radial turbine flow meter is it works very well in smaller
cross-sectional area pipes or ducts. Nevertheless, this device is not
commonly found and is relatively expensive.

Radial turbine flow meter

I would choose pitot tube to measure the airflow rate in a duct, because it
is easy to handle, inexpensive and less calculations need to be done.
10.0 REFERENCES
1.

Cengel, Y.A., Cimbala, J.M. (2014). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and

Applications (3rd Edition in SI Unit). McGraw-Hill Education.

2.

Roberson, J. A. (2013). Engineering Fluid Mechanics (Tenth Edition).

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3.

White, F. M. (2008). Fluid Mechanics (Sixth Edition). McGraw-Hill.

4.

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-meters-d_493.html

5.

http://web.mst.edu/~cottrell/ME240/Resources/Fluid_Flow/Fluid_flow.pdf