Gas and LNG

Consulting Services

Services
Services

Liquefied Natural Gas

Gas Compressor Stations

Off Loading Gas and LNG

Normal and Floating LNG Terminals

Gas and LNG

Liquefied Natural Gas

DRG provides consulting services and engineering
solutions for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
systems

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture,
which consists primary of methane and a
fraction heavier hydrocarbons as well as impurities like water and carbon dioxide. Natu-

installations and equipment. Dynamic flow

calculations play a major role in solving vibration and pulsation problems.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

ral gas is widely used as an important energy

On account of its low density, it is not straight-

source for many applications including hea-

forward to store natural gas or transport the

ting, electricity generation, industrial power

gas by road. Additionally, transporting natu-

generation and as a fuel for vehicles. Gas is

ral gas across the oceans is highly impracti-

often found in the near vicinity of oil, but also

cal. Furthermore, the existing gas pipeline

together with oil in deep underground natu-

network is already close to capacity such that

ral rock formations.

a significant number of new pipelines are re-

In order to use natural gas as a power source,

it is processed to clean the gas and remove
impurities to meet the requirements of the
end user.
Dynaflow Research Group (DRG) has performed a large number of static and dynamic
calculations related to the structural integrity
of gas pipeline systems, and their supporting

quired to fulfill the need for gas in the near

future.

LNG has become an important part of modern energy

transportation
Cooling natural gas to about -160 degrees
Celsius at atmospheric pressure results in
the condensation of the gas into liquid form,
Gas and LNG

comes into contact with water.

Transport and regasification of

LNG
LNG production and transportation requires an important infrastructure consisting of
one or more LNG trains, each of which is an
known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). LNG

independent unit for gas liquefaction. Sub-

is natural gas that has been temporarily con-

sequently, the LNG is loaded onto ships and

verted into a liquid for the ease of storage

delivered to a regasification terminal, where

and transport. The volume of LNG is about

the LNG is reconverted into gas. The regasi-

1/600th of the equivalent volume of natural

fication terminals are usually connected to

gas in the gaseous state.

a storage and pipeline distribution network

While LNG is reasonably costly to produce,

recent technologies are considerably reducing the costs to liquify the natural gas and
regasify the LNG. Natural gas is converted
into a liquid at a liquefaction plant (LNG export terminal), after which it is used for transporting the natural gas to the markets. Here,
the LNG is regasified (LNG import terminal)
and distributed as pipeline natural gas.

to distribute the natural gas to the local distribution companies or independent power
plants (IPPs).

LNG terminals
Liquefied natural gas is used to transport natural gas over long distances, often by sea. In
most cases, LNG terminals are purpose-built
ports used exclusively to export or import
LNG, an example of which is the Gate termi-

Rapid phase transition explosion

nal in Rotterdam harbour.

The very low operating temperature around

The LNG is stored in large insulated tanks.

-160 degrees Celsius means that it is extre-

Although very efficient insulation is applied,

mely important to remove water and car-

heat does inevitably leak into the LNG. In-

bon dioxide and other components that will

evitably, heat leakage will warm and vapou-

freeze under the low temperature necessary

rise the LNG. LNG boils at -160C when at

for LNG storage and transport. One of the

atmospheric pressure. By boiling the liquid

major risks of LNG is a rapid phase transition

natural gas evaporates and becomes natural

explosion (RPT), which occurs when cold LNG

gas. The process of evaporation (phase chan-

Gas and LNG

ge) takes a large amount of energy from the

liquid. This amount is called the heat of evaporation and makes evaporation an efficient

Gas compressor stations, including cooler banks, filters and compressors,

cooling mechanism. By letting gas escape the

Coolwater and firewater systems of Terminals, primarily GRE piping,

LNG-tank is kept at atmospheric pressure

LNG terminals and floating platforms,

and therefore the liquid in the tank is always

Off-loading of natural gas (jetty),

kept at -160C. Any heat that leaks in causes

High and low pressure vessels contai-

evaporation of the liquid which cools the

remaining liquid. The combination of high
quality insulation and cooling by evaporation
causes only a relatively small amount of boiloff is necessary to maintain the temperature,
called auto-refrigeration. The boil-off gas resulting from on-shore LNG storage tanks is
usually compressed and fed to natural gas
pipeline networks. Some LNG carriers use
boil-off gas for fuel.

ning gas, LNG and other type of fluids.

Practical engineering solutions are provided
to these complex piping systems and the attached equipment. Examples of these analysis types are pulsation or acoustic analyses,
mechanical

response

studies,

structural

(thermal and stress) analysis (FEA) and detailed flow calculations (CFD).
Transient flow software packages are often
used to simulate and analyse surge, water

Dynaflow Research Group

Dynaflow Research Group (DRG) has a broad
experience in providing assistance to the design and verification of natural gas and LNG
terminals, supporting equipment and corresponding transportation lines. The considered
systems include:

Design of LNG and Gas storage tanks,

hammer, pulsations and transient accoustical behaviour of liquid and gas piping systems. As a result of a pulsation analysis, the
magnitude of the unbalanced forces are calculated for each pipe section, and these can
be used in a mechanical response analysis.
Such a mechanical response analysis will be
performed by means of a pipe stress software package with dynamic capabilities, such
as CAESAR II, PipePlus or FE/Pipe.
DRG provides solutions which are able to
comply with a range of industry standard Codes such as

ASME, DIN, NEN, AD Markblat-

ter, API 618, API 674 codes and VDI 3842.

Gas and LNG

Gas and LNG

Gas Compressor Stations

Design and installation of gas compressor stations require complex engineering solutions

Gas compressor stations

A gas compressor station enables the transportation process of natural gas from one location to another. While transporting natural
gas through a gas pipeline, the gas needs to
be constantly re-pressurized at certain distance intervals.

due to the pressure loss that the moving gas

experiences along a pipeline route, typically
every 70 to 150 kilometers. The size of the
station and the number of compressors varies, based on the diameter of the pipe and
the volume of gas to be moved. Nevertheless,
the basic components of each compressor
station are similar.

The location of the compressor station heavily depends on the type of terrain but also on

Centrifugal and reciprocating com-

the number of gas wells in the vicinity of the

pressors

compressor station. A large numer of gas

wells and frequent elevation changes will require more compressor stations.

When the natural gas has reached the compressor station, it is compressed by a compressor powered by either a turbine, electric

The gas in compressor stations is normally

motor or internal combustion engine. Tur-

pressurized by special turbines, motors and

bine compressors are fueled by using a small

engines. As the name implies, the compres-

portion of the energy from the gas they com-

sor station compresses the natural gas, this is

press. The turbine itself serves to operate

needed for the gas to be transported through

a centrifugal compressor, which contains a

the pipeline.

type of fan that compresses and pumps the

Additional compressor stations are needed

natural gas through the pipeline. Some com-

Gas and LNG

pressor stations are operated by using an

pabilities of your piping structure or pressure

electric motor to power the centrifugal com-

vessel can be assessed by means of dedica-

pressor. This type of compression does not

ted Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software,

require the use of any of the natural gas from

keeping in mind Code compliance with rele-

the pipe, however it does require a reliable

vant Codes such as ASME, DIN, NEN and EN.

source of electricity.
Reciprocating natural gas engines are also
used to power some compressor stations.

Pulsations and Mechanical Response

The advantage of reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressors produce pulsati-

is that the volume of gas pushed through the

ons in the suction and discharge piping that

pipeline can be adjusted incrementally to

can be damaging to the piping and to the

meet small changes in customer demand.

equipment itself. The pulsations can lead to

potential fatigue failure, undesirable vibrati-

Mechanical Integrity Analysis

Any structure has a number of mechanical

ons, reduced efficiency or errors in flow measurement results.

resonance (natural) frequencies. If these

frequencies coincide with those of external
excitations, for example those due to pumps
or the fluid flow within a pipe, then any small

By optimizing gas compressor stations gas transportation benefits are increased

pipe deflection caused by the excitation mechanism at these frequencies, could be amplified and result in resonant vibrations in the
mechanical structure.

Also, pulsations in the piping system might

result in cyclic stresses and fatigue problems.
A pulsation analysis is most often performed

These mechanical vibrations, if persistent,

either in the design phase or as a result of

could result in problems due to Low Cycle

a failure in the field. Field problems usually

Fatigue or High Cycle Fatigue. The fatigue ca-

require inspecting and numerous measurements taken by an expert to help identify the
exact nature of the pulsation.
A Design Phase analysis is typically complicated since it requires that the analyst makes
sure that all the possible and relevant scenarios are defined and that the worst-case

Gas and LNG

scenario is simulated. All potential excitation

frequencies and gas conditions must be investigated, and all the applicable rules of API
618 must be satisfied. Furthermore, climate
and local ambient air changes may result in
variations in the speed of sound of up to 15%.
Typically, a variety of gas and ambient conditions as well as critical load cases will be analyzed. The worst of these cases will then be
used for the mechanical response analysis.
A pulsation analysis is often performed in
conjunction with a mechanical response analysis using dedicated pipe stress software.
Here both stress analysis software and BOSpulse can be used to check the mechanical
shaking forces and the API 618 allowables to
ensure smooth compressor operation.
The API allowable acoustic level is specified
on a per frequency basis and so each frequency contribution to the pulsation must
be evaluated separately. BOSpulse applies
a time history approach and automatically
decomposes the calculated pressure pulsations to produce an API 618 pulsation

monic analysis for each compressor loading

component can be performed if desired.
As a result of the pulsation analysis, for each
pipe section, the magnitude of the unbalanced forces are calculated and used in the
mechanical response analysis. This mechanical analysis is performed by means of a
pipe stress software package with dynamic
capabilities, such as CAESAR II, PipePlus or
FE/Pipe.

Gas Liquid Separation

As the pipeline enters the compressor station, the natural gas passes through scrubbers, strainers filters or separators. These
different types of equipment are all designed
to remove any free liquids or dirt particles
from the gas before it enters the compressor.

compliance report for all sections of the pi-

In order to study and optimize the liquid se-

ping system. Alternatively, a separate har-

paration from the gas full three-dimensional

multi-phase flow fields can be obtained. For
complex and sensitive systems, it can be necessary to investigate the three-dimensional
flow field. This can be obtained by performing a full Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) analysis.

Gas and LNG

10

Gas and LNG

Off Loading Gas & LNG

DRG provides consulting services and engineering
solutions for off-loading gas and LNG

Pressure surges in off-loading

At LNG terminals, the liquefied gas is offloaded from the LNG ship by means of jetty
constructions. The off-loading lines running
from these jetties up to the storage tanks can
be up to several kilometers in length.
An example of a steel off-loading line is a
system with a diameter of 1000mm which
connected a storage tank with a loading arm
upon the jetty. The design flow rate reached
a maximum of 2000 ton/hr. The analysis of a
number of anticipated transient update scenarios was required.

the jetty

The emergency trip of the pump onboard of the ship

The closure of the valve, located just

upstream of the storage tank, when the
LNG in the tank reaches its maximum
liquid level

A transient one-dimensional fluid model of

the pipeline was produced in BOSfluids to simulate and analyze the transient upset conditions. From the transient flow model, unbalanced forces were extracted, and applied
in a dynamic mechanical time-history analysis using CAESAR II. The dynamic stresses,

Three transient upset scenarios were simula-

displacements and support reactions caused

ted and investigated in depth:

by the various upset conditions were calcula-

The rapid closure of the control valve in

ted and assessed. Subsequently, the dynamic

the loading arm. The valve was an emer-

pipe stresses were assessed according to the

gency valve which closed to prevent the

ASME B31.3 code.

spoil of LNG if the ship, from which LNG,

In steady operation (no transient valve or

is being unloaded, moves too far from

pump actions), it was observed that vapor

Gas and LNG

11

pressure level was reached at the top of the

the cavity to collapse which is accompanied

siphon immed-iately upstream of the LNG

with large pressure spikes.

storage tank for low liquid levels in the tank.

Due to the low pressures at the top of the
siphon, a large vapor filled sect ion was created at the top of the siphon. During transient
conditions the cavitation caused by the vapor
condensing downstream of the siphon led to
significant unbalanced forces in the piping.
The results indicated that the occurence of
the use of a low tank nozzle would prevent
this cavitation and also eliminate the associated unbalanced forces.

The transient flow simulations performed

using BOSfluids for the off-loading line, showed that indeed large pressure waves were
generated. These had a peak value of up to
30 barg, and travelled through the line some
time (about 30 seconds) after the start of the
most critical transient scenario. The pressure
wave was seen to be caused by the collapse
cavity in between the liquid columns.
The dynamic mechanical analysis showed
that the pressure wave generated large un-

Cavitation and column separation

Closure of a safety valve or the tripping of the
pump will stop the LNG flow in a relatively
short period. As a result, low pressures can
be created in the loading arms and immediately downstream of the loading arms and in
pipe bridges.
These low pressures can reach vapor pres-

balanced forces for a very short duration of

time, which would causes pipe stresses immediately downstream of the loading arm
that were in excess of those permitted under
the ASME B31.3 code for occasional loading.
Large displacements were also predicted in
these critical locations. Therefore, additional
pipe supports were recommended in the critical parts of the line.

sure levels and as result column separation

would occur. Under most circumstances the
flow decelerates and reverses. This couses

Dynamic pipe stresses

Due to the large displacements and stresses
seen on the off loading line, a dynamic pipe
stress analysis was also required. However,
for the critical locations, it was not feasible
to reduce the displacements through the introduction of further restraints on account of
the flexibility and strength of the pipe bridges.

12

Gas and LNG

requires details of the dynamic forces acting

on a piping system.
BOSfluids is an interactive computer simulation package that is able to model the steady
state and transient flow in liquid or gas carrying piping systems. It has been developed
in-house by Dynaflow Research Group and
The mechanical response modes were identified and were excited as a result of the unbalanced loads obtained.

has been extensively used on projects for

our clients. BOSfluids has been commercially available since 1998.

The calculated dynamic stress levels were

used to determine which sections of the offloading line were likely to suffer fatigue issues.
Through modifying the pipe supporting within the system, it was possible to change the
frequencies of the mechanical response, and
thereby eliminate the fatigue problem.

By reducing pressure
surges, the system integrity
and safety can be drastically
improved
BOSfluids
For years, piping engineers have laboured
with simple hand calculations, or user-unfriendly software products when in need of
a simple tool to analyse the impact of pulsations upon their piping system.
BOSfluids has been built specifically to address the needs of the piping engineer, who
Gas and LNG

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Gas and LNG

Normal and Floating

LNG Terminals
A recent trend in the design of LNG terminals are
floating LNG terminals

LNG Terminals
Liquefied natural gas is used to transport na-

tation lines. The considered systems include

but are not limited to:

tural gas over long distances, often by sea. In

Design of LNG and Gas storage tanks

most cases, LNG terminals are purpose-built

Gas compressor stations, including cooler banks, filters and compressors

ports used exclusively to export or import

LNG, an example of which is the Gate termi-

minals, primarily GRE piping

nal in Rotterdam harbour.

Before or after liquefied natural gas (LNG) is
transported over long distances, the LNG is
stored in large insulated tanks. Although very
efficient insulation is applied, heat does inevi-

Coolwater and firewater systems of Ter-

LNG terminals and floating platforms

Off-loading of natural gas (jetty)

High and low pressure vessels containing gas, LNG and other type of fluids

ten forming purpose-built ports to exclusi-

Structural integrity of LNG

terminals is important for
safety and the environment

vely export or import LNG, such as the Gate

Engineering solutions are provided to these

terminal in Rotterdam harbour. Consequent-

complex piping systems and the attached

ly, the design and verification of gas and LNG

equipment. Examples of these analysis types

terminals requires the assessment of the

are pulsation or acoustic analyses, mechani-

mechanical integrity of a wide variety of sup-

cal response studies, structural (thermal and

porting equipment and connected transpor-

stress) analysis (FEA) and detailed flow calcu-

tably leak into the LNG.

LNG terminals involve large installations, of-

Gas and LNG

15

Structural integrity of lines

Static and dynamic stress analysis of supporting systems at LNG terminals, for instance in
plant piping, or the cooling, fire and dump
lines is critical. Often, the lines are fabricated
of steel or using Glassfiber Reinforced Epoxy
lations (CFD).

Case: LNG terminal design calculations

(GRE) to deal with corrosive and erosive environments.

The piping of the considered systems can be
above ground or buried and includes several

For a new regasification LNG plant with tre-

connections to above ground equipment.

atment facilities design verifications have

System routing and pipe properties used for

been performed. Sea water required for the

the analysis are based on data provided by

LNG vaporizing duty of the terminal was to

the suppliers. The resulting pipe stresses are

be shared with the sea water requirements

assessed for their conformance with the ISO

of the neighbouring power station located

14692 code for GRE lines or the applicable

in the same industrial area. Existing sea wa-

ASME code, such as B31.3, for steel lines.

ter intakes, facilities (sea water filtration and

pumping) were used to supply sea water to
both the power station and the LNG terminal.
A dedicated line was to be routed to the LNG
terminal to supply sea water to the booster
pumps. From the LNG vaporizers, sea water is to be fed back to the main sea water
lines to the power station. As cold seawater

Surge analysis
The

time-dependent

unbalanced

loads

caused by the transient flow of a pump failure, pump start-up and subsequent failure can
be applied on a dynamic time-history stress
model are calculated.

was beneficial for operating the power plant

With these unbalanced loads a mechanical

condensers, the seawater requirements of

response analysis over a wide range of ope-

the power plant and the LNG terminal could

rating conditions can be executed. The re-

be adequately integrated as seawater used

sulting maximum dynamic stresses are com-

for vaporizing LNG is actually cooled. DRG

bined with the static operational stresses and

has performed an extensive mechanical res-

assessed according to the applicable design

ponse analysis for this LNG terminal.

code.

16

Gas and LNG

FLNG compressor modules

A floating production, storage and offloading(FPSO) unit is a floating vessel used
by the offshore oil and gas industry for the
processing of hydrocarbons and the storage
of oil. An FPSO vessel is designed to receive
hydrocarbons produced from nearby platforms or subsea production facilities, process
them, and store oil until it can be offloaded
onto a tanker or, less frequently, transported
through a pipeline.
The relatively large bore suction and discharge piping connected to the natural gas compressor onboard a floating LNG platform
may be exposed to extreme load conditions.
In addition to the normal thermal and pressure design loads also loads due to large
wind velocities as a result of storm fields passing by having to be accommodated by the
pipework this may result in large compressor

The rocking motions impose accelerations

on the piping. For this type of piping the pipe
material stress is hardly ever governing for
the design. The allowable compressor nozzle
loads (API 617) are in general ruling. A piping
support arrangement will be designed to accommodate the external loads due to wind
and barge movements and minimize the
resulting compressor nozzle loads. Generally this requirement conflicts with a piping
support arrangement designed to minimize
nozzle loads resulting from thermal expansion.
DRG has been involved with the analysis of
various compressor piping layouts for the
feasibility of reconciliation of these conflicting requirements on a FLNG Terminal.
The target for such an analysis is to keep the
nozzle loads under all load conditions within
a safety margin that conforms with API 617.

nozzle loads. As a result of the ocean waves

the FLNG compressor module is also subject
to rocking motions.

Source: Hoegh

Gas and LNG

17

18

Gas and LNG

What can we do for you?

DRG provides consulting services and engineering
solutions for flow and mechanical problems related to Gas and LNG systems

What can we do for you?

The engineers at Dynaflow Research Group
(DRG) have a thorough understanding of the
necessary fundamental physics related to
natural gas and LNG. We have a broad experience in providing assistance to the design

of crucial importance in order to assist you

in optimizing your process, to increase your
profit and the safety of your system. Therefore, we believe we are well-positioned to
tackle your challenges related to your LNG
terminal or floating production platform.

and verification of gas and LNG terminals,

Our consulting services are related to pulsati-

supporting equipment and corresponding

on or acoustic analysis, mechanical response

transportation lines. The considered systems

studies, structural (thermal and stress) analy-

include:

sis (FEA) and detailed flow calculations (CFD).

Design of LNG and Gas storage tanks

Gas compressor stations, including coo-

Communication

ler banks, filters and compressors

To us communication with our clients during

Coolwater and firewater systems of Ter-

a project is of upmost importance. For each

minals, primarily GRE piping

project the client is updated regularly with

LNG terminals and floating platforms

the progress of our work, and we liaise with

Off-loading of natural gas (jetty)

the client to ensure the best information is

High and low pressure vessels contai-

available with which to conduct the analyses.

ning gas, LNG and other type of fluids

A thorough understanding of the problem is

Gas and LNG

19

Dynaflow Reseach Group

Dynaflow Research Group (DRG) is a world wide
well respected consultant. We help our clients to
solve their most complex and critical technical
issues

Consulting services

Training

We provide engineering consulting services in all

DRG offers a wide range of training courses such

aspects of design and analysis for the Petro- che-

as software training, fiberglass training, dyna-

mical industry. Our work often requires a multi-

mics and stress training. Most of these training

disciplinary approach where we combine exper-

courses are offered on a regular basis during

tise in fluid flow behaviour, dynamic oscillations,

the year. We also develop customised training

FEM and stress analysis with sophisticated analy-

programs with our customers fit to their specific

sis software to predict system performances.

needs.

Products

Research

DRG has been developing software for many

DRG conducts research on different aspects of

years, which has resulted in several commercially

pipe-system design and pressure vessels. Most

available software packages such as BOSfluids ,

of this research is done in close collaboration

BOSpulse , Jive and Hades. We also provide tech-

with Paulin Research Group and their Houston

nical consulting services, and develop numerical

test facilities (www.paulin.com). Dynaflow Re-

software that can be used in computer simulati-

search Group provides support to clients with

ons and other types of scientific computations.

their R&D to help them continuously improve

their products.

20

Gas and LNG

Topic specific brochures:

Consulting Service Series
Software Product Series
Training Series
Visit our website www.dynaflow.com or send an e-mail to info@dynaflow.com

Gas and LNG

21

Houtsingel 95
2719 EB Zoetermeer
The Netherlands
Reg nr. 27320315

T
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+31 79 361 5150

+31 79 361 5149
info@dynaflow.com
www.dynaflow.com