Boundary layer

1. It is related to fluid flow on flat plates

2. Only friction force is working on plates.
So, drag force is identical to friction force.
3. Laminar boundary layer: Re < 3 x 10^6
Re = . U. x/.
Reynolds number is based on incident fluid
velocity parallel the plate.

4. Mass loss of fluid from main flow into the

boundary layer is calculated using *.
* = mass loss/(.U.w)

5. Momentum loss due to friction is

calculated using
= momentum loss/(.U2.w)
6. Boundary conditions in boundary layer
a. First derivative u/y is zero at y=
b. Second derivatives 2u/y2 are zero at y= 0
and y=

Motion of particles in fluid (single

particles)
1. It is related to fluid flow around spheres
2. Friction force and distribution of pressure
enclose the spheres. So, drag force = friction
force and pressure difference.
3a. Laminar boundary layer
* Laminar flow (behind the sphere): Re' <
0.2
* Turbulent flow (behind the sphere): Re' >
500-1000 to 2 x 10^5.
* Transition flow: Re': 0.2 to 500-1000
3b. Turbulent boundary layer
Re' > 2 x 10^5
Re' = . U. dp/
Reynolds number is based on incident fluid
velocity whose magnitude not affected by
particle shape.
4. Force balance for particles in terminal
velocity:
Drag force on particle surface = gravity
force of particles - bouyancy force.
Ro'. 1/4.. dp^2 = 1/6. .. dp^3 (p- )g.
Ro' = drag force on particle surface/crosssection area of particle.
5. Centrifugal separation:
Re' = . dr/dt. dp/
At terminal velocity: dr/dt = uo x r2/g. uo is
the terminal velocity. So particle velocity
depends on radius.

6. Curve a is used to get terminal velocity uo

from properties of fluid and particles, curve
b to get particle diameter if uo is known.

Fixed bed
1. Force balance:
Ac.e.(-P) = all friction forces working on
particles.
Ac.e.(-P) = R1. S.l.(1-e).Ac
R1 is the friction force on particle/particle
surface area. Friction may occur between
fluid-particles and particles-particles.
Ac.e. is average fraction of column crosssectional area occupied by fluid.
Consequently, superficial velocity uc = u1/e
(Dupuit theorem).
Therefore Ac.(1-e) represents average fraction
of column cross-sectional area occupied by
particles.
2. Re1 = u1..dm'/ = uc./(S.(1-e).)
Reynolds number is based on average velocity
of fluid flowing through pores u1 and average
diameter of interstitial area between particles
dm'.
a. Laminar flow: Re1< 2.
b. Transition flow: 2 < Re1 < 100.
c. Turbulent flow: Re1>100
Carman Kozeny equation is for laminar flow.

Fluidised bed
1. Force balance:
A.(-P) = gravity force of particles bouyancy force.
The value of -P is almost constant at all
porosity values during fluidisation.

2. Re' = uc.dp./
Reynolds number is based on superficial
velocity uc.
a. Laminar flow: Re' < 0.2
b. Transition flow: 0.2 < Re' < 500-1000.
c. Turbulent flow: Re' > 500-1000
Limits of flows similar to those in single
particles (see Motion of Particles in Fluid).

Ergun equation is for all types of flow

(laminar, transition and turbulent flows).
3. Relative velocity is the velocity felt by
particles. So, in the case of fixed bed, u1
represents the relative velocity.
If the particle velocity is us, the relative
velocity is ur, and
a. particles and fluid move at opposite
direction, magnitude of fluid velocity close to
particles uf = ur - us
b. particles and fluid move at the same
direction, magnitude of fluid velocity close to
particles uf = ur + us

3. At incipient fluidisation, fluidised bed can

be treated as fixed bed. Therefore, it may
use Carman-Kozeny or Ergun equations.
In this case, the validity of the use of either
of these equations is checked by calculating
Re1 in fixed bed.

4. At the end of fluidisation, transport of

particles occurs and particles are treated as
single particles (see Motion of Particles in
Fluid).
4. Porosity calculated by this stack of particles
above where e = 0.48 is not real. The real
porosity is usually less < 0.48. Don't use this
if a fixed bed problem allows to calculate the
real porosity.
5. In fluidisation where porosity and uc are
not known, the concurrent use of CarmanKozeny or Ergun equations (depends on Re')
and Richardson-Zaki equation can obtain
the values of these variables.