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Review article
A state-of-the-art review on fatigue life prediction methods for
metal structures
Weicheng Cui
School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 1954 Huasham Road, Shanghai 200030, China
Abstract Metals are the most widely used materials in engineering structures, and one of the most common failure modes
of metal structures is fatigue failure. Although metal fatigue
has been studied for more than 160 years, many problems still
remain unsolved. In this article, a state-of-the-art review of
metal fatigue is carried out, with particular emphasis on the
latest developments in fatigue life prediction methods. All
factors which affect the fatigue life of metal structures are
grouped into four categories: material, structure, loading, and
environment. The effects of these factors on fatigue behavior
are also addressed. Finally, potential problems to be resolved
in the near future are pointed out.
Key words Metal fatigue Cumulative fatigue damage theory
Fatigue crack propagation theory
1 Introduction
Fatigue is defined as a process of the cycle-by-cycle
accumulation of damage in a material undergoing fluctuating stresses and strains.1 A significant feature of
fatigue is that the load is not large enough to cause
immediate failure. Instead, failure occurs after a certain
number of load fluctuations have been experienced, i.e.,
after the accumulated damage has reached a critical
level.
Fatigue of metals and metal structures has been studied for more than 160 years,2,3 and a good understanding
of metal fatigue mechanisms has been achieved.2,46
Fatigue cracks usually start from the surface of a component, where fatigue damage begins as shear cracks on
crystallographic slip planes. The surface shows the slip
planes as intrusions and extrusions. This is stage I crack
growth. After a transient period, stage II crack growth
Address correspondence to: W. Cui
(e-mail: wccui@mail.sjtu.edu.cn)
Received: January 7, 2002 / Accepted: March 25, 2002
44
sa =
E De e
= s f 2 N
2
( )
(1)
45
Fig. 2. Representation of elastic, plastic, and total strain resistance to fatigue loading
-b
N + 10 7 ab
s (N ) = s
7
N + 10 a
s -1 b - s -1 b
s -1 b
b = u-1 b
a = c-1 b
-1 b
su -sc
s
(2)
= e f (2 N )
(3)
( )
( )
+ e f 2 N
(4)
Su
N
E
( )
-0.1e
( )
+ e f0.6 N
-0.6
(5)
De = 0.0266 D0.115 Su E
-0.53
N f-0.56 + 1.17 Su E
0.832
N f-0.09
(6)
( )
De 4.25 HB + 225
=
2N f
2
E
+
( )
-0.09
( )
(2 N )
f
-0.56
(7)
46
)( )
s f - s m 2 N
De
=
2
E
( )
+ e f 2 N
(8)
2b
s max e a E = (s f ) (2 N ) + s fe f E (2 N )
b+c
(9)
Ds 12 Dg 12
De 22 Ds 22
+ k1k2
2
2
2
2
(10)
where Ds12 and Ds22 are the shear and normal stress
ranges in the critical plane, respectively, Dg12 and De22
are the shear and normal strain ranges in the critical
plane, respectively, and k1 and k2 are two weight constants for strain and stress amplitudes, respectively,
which are defined as:
k1 =
g f
,
e f
k2 =
s f
t f
(11)
47
D = 1 - 1 - r 1 (1-a )
1 ( 1+ b )
(12)
where
DK = YDs pa
(13)
Here, A and n are material constants, and Y is a geometry factor depending on the loading and cracked body
configuration.
Later, people found that the crack growth rate curve
is not linear for all ranges of DK. The general crack
growth rates for mode I cracks in metals are shown in
Fig. 3. The sigmoidal shape of the crack growth curve in
Fig. 3 suggests a subdivision into three regions. In re-
48
da
= C DK - DK th
dN
(14)
( )
)
C DK
da
=
dN
1 - R Kc - DK
(16)
(17)
where Kmax is the stress intensity calculated for the maximum load, and Kop is the stress intensity calculated for
the crack-opening load. This concept was very popular
in 1980s and 1990s, but it is now being challenged (e.g.,
Hertzberg et al.51). In particular, many people have
agreed that the physical effects of crack closure have
been greatly over-estimated in the past (e.g., Vasudevan
et al.52). A partial crack closure model5355 was proposed
to overcome the difficulties found in the crack closure
model. The modified effective stress intensity factor
range is defined as55
2
DKeffM = Kmax - Kop 1 + - 1 g
p
Kmax
g = exp -
- 1
Kmax TH
1-a
) (DK )
+
DK * 1 - R a
* = th0
DK th
* 1-R
DK th0
(
(
)
)
(19)
for R > 0
(20)
for R 0
(15)
2
da
DK
= A DK - DK th 1 +
dN
K
K
C
max
DK * = Kmax
(18)
da
= B De p pa
dN
-X
(21)
p s
da
= A pg e Sec max + 1
dN
2 sy
p
p s max
+Y
+ 1 Ds
a Sec
2
2 sy
- 1-e
- ka
)(K
opmax
- Kmin
- DKefth
(22)
49
where
2
DKeffth
1
g e
Ds EL
p s
p Sec max + 1
2 sy
(23)
da
= function Ds a
dN
Ds or De p N af = C
da
= CDg b (d - a)
dN
(25)
(26)
da
= B Ds or De p
dN
[ (
)]
am
(27)
50
Without an ability to explain the scatter in small specimens, it is hard to increase the accuracy to predict fatigue in practical structures. One important measure to
reduce the scatter in the fatigue lives tested in so-called
identical specimens is to consider the initial crack size
and distribution in great detail. As measuring systems
improve, information about the initial crack size and
distribution will be obtained more and more easily. To
resolve the second difficulty, some methods have been
proposed by Lam and Topper64 to derive the curves of
crack growth rate versus effective stress intensity factor
range from effective strain fatigue life data.
3 Various factors of metal fatigue life
From the description of the fatigue mechanism given in
Sect. 1, it is clear that many factors affect the fatigue life
of metal structures. In this paper, these factors are
grouped into four categories: (1) material factors; (2)
structural factors; (3) loading factors; (4) environmental
factors. We now briefly summarize the current state of
knowledge about the effects of each of these factors.
3.1 Material effects
3.1.1 Basic material properties
Material type (e.g., brittle cast iron, ductile steel, aluminum, titanium) and processing conditions (e.g., reheat,
cold form, hot forge, cold extrude, quenched, tempered), grain type and size, and fundamental material
properties (Brinell hardness, modulus of elasticity E,
yield strength at 0.2% offset YS, ultimate tensile
strength Su, percent elongation at fracture %EL, percent reduction in area %RA, true fracture strength sf,
true fracture ductility ef, strength coefficient K, strain
hardening exponent n; cyclic strength coefficient K,
cyclic strain hardening exponent n, cyclic yield strength
YS, fatigue strength exponent b, and fatigue ductility
exponent c) are all the important factors affecting the
fatigue strength.
51
52
53
54
Miller8 requested that in the twenty-first century, serious attempts would be made to put scatter in a proper
perspective, probably starting with the effects of different test variables on the three fundamental fatigue limits. Hence, for laboratory tests on materials, the scatter
of microstructural variables on stage I cracks, such as
grain size, barrier thickness, and strengths, now requires
more detailed studies. With respect to components, the
effects of slight changes in surface profiles and surface
texture need to be separated, while for structures, the
effect of minor variations in initial defect/crack sizes
and external loading variables are very important. It
needs to be recognized that a few overload cycles, and a
transient change in the environment and/or temperature (including thermal shock) can have a far more
serious consequence on tests to determine material behavior and stage I growth than, say, on a structure already containing a substantial stage II crack.
4.3 Computer simulation
The development of a computer simulation system to
model fatigue behavior is the main purpose of fatigue
research. The key problem is to establish an appropriate
failure criterion under cyclic loading. Recent work shed
some light in this direction.
Fujimoto and Hamada67 proposed an inherent damage zone model to explain the fatigue properties of
small-sized cracks near the fatigue limits and the crack
growth threshold. The basic idea of this model is to
assume that the stress at a point which is located a small
distance from the crack initiation position governs the
fatigue characteristics regardless of the geometric configuration of the specimen. A new fatigue crack propagation law is developed based on the inherent damage
zone model. By comparison with experimental data, it is
shown that this model is able to explain the propagation
rate of small fatigue cracks, the effect of crack length
on threshold conditions, the mechanism of nonpropagating cracks observed in notched specimens, and the
necessary conditions for the occurrence of nonpropagating cracks in elliptic notches and circular holes.
Peeker and Niemi87 proposed a new fatigue crack
propagation model based on a local strain approach. If
the cyclic strain is high enough, then the microcracks
nucleate at microstructural defects, grow, and join together, leading to local material failure. Three existing
concepts are applied in this model. The CoffinManson
strainlife relationship is used to compute the number
of load cycles to local material failure, the Ramberg
Osgood equations are used to model the cyclic nonlinear stressstrain behavior of the material, and Glinkas
equivalent strain energy density (ESED) and ESED
range criteria are used to compute the nonlinear stress
as a function of linear elastic stress. They demonstrated
that this new model is able to predict the fatigue behavior of components made of structural steel that have
been subjected to any load history, have any geometry,
and contain any distribution of residual stress introduced during manufacture.
5 Summary
This paper has carried out a review on metal fatigue,
with particular emphasis on the latest developments in
fatigue life prediction methods. These are divided into
two categories: cumulative fatigue damage (CFD) theories, and fatigue crack propagation (FCP) theories. All
the factors which affect the fatigue life of metal structures are grouped into four categories: material, structure, loading, and environment. The effects of these
factors on fatigue behavior have also been addressed.
Finally, potential problems to be resolved in future
work have been pointed out.
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