“my Tear Off the Masks! IDENTITY AND IMPOSTURE. IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY RUSSIA, Sheila Fitzpatrickceppeh © 205y Peon Unies Fo SELES Peery elm Soe, ect Nw es 0040. {haces Rigas: eno hires Pe Sart, od One O20 18 ‘nung seed ‘umane or Canons CoaaeiePcenon Deh Fen ie ‘Reh mt: ety apr icv et! yauhopor Eigse St tal ape oysa2e hak en Wan te te, cal esi no 3: Sane es ae cw Rat el le ‘ih ew Calan Pea Dee “Toa se conartin See inden ace pe = engocite woerreseaze In memory of Michael DanosTable of Contents List of lhatations Preface and Acknowledgments Iwmmopucrion CCuarrin Ons Becoming Soviet, Pax I, Class Identities Guarren Two The Bolter laveton of Clase Garren Tee (Glas Ides NEP Socey ‘Guarren Four (Ga and Soeonie Pant Il. Lives Cnr Fv Live under Fire CCuaren Sor “The Two Faces of Anastasia carne Seven Story of «Pesan Sri CcuarrenEicer Womea’s Lies axe IIL Appeals Supplicans snd liens huarrex Te Patras and Clients ” » 1 102 ws ass 182vil + Table of Conan axe IV. Denunciations CCuarrex Bunven Sgn from Below Caeree Tore ‘Wiver Tales, axe V. Impostures Cure Trunrees ‘The World of Orap Bender (Cuarren Fourrens “The Con Manas Jew Arrenwon> ‘Guarree Firaen Becoming Post-Soviet, Selected Further reading Indes 20s 20 28 22 yy 203 a8 33 Ilustrations Ficuns Owe. Perplecitychoat clas (Osbrt Lancaster cartoon, Daly Express, 1943) -roure Teo, The quesionnaie [Drawing by K: Rotor, ‘Koko, 1935) ring by B Klick, ‘L Brody, Krofodi, 1933) -ouas Pv in fotball shi (Painting by A. Kh ‘Samobhvaloy 1932} ‘ours Sie Ar unruly kollbor meting (Drawing from Teter o pentntaewspeper, 1938). ‘Ficuns, Seven. "No metey for enemies of the Soviet people” (Leer to Krestanskaia gets, 1937) ‘cua Blciet Anooymous denundatio (Seat V. ‘Molowoy, Chairman of Sovran, 1934) ‘icune Ni. A denuciton is forwarded fr invecigation ete roca Krestlonhaa gaceta ods poset, 1937) ‘cur Tox, Ontap Bender dancer he tango (Drawing by ' Roty, 30 dnt, 1931) ” m 150 168 170 as 269Preface and Acknowledgments “Many ofthe esas in this book have bees published Before some form “The cveptons ae chapter 1 (ltrodoton Becoming Sve") caper 12 (-Wine Tale" and chapter 15 (Afterword Becoming Pos-Sove™_ ‘whch re publ here forthe Sit ine The ginal versions of ome ‘haps back to the ealy 1990s since which eime 2 fair amount of elvan publication has appeared. Inthe mew weiten chapter ave {dred and ted cent publations. In edning chapters writen exe, FRoweres 1 bave generally oc added iaons of work hat peated afer, the onal wring or waa unkown tome atthe eine of weg ice this mig compromise the later of te sgumentEscepcons fs rule are ctaton of dsertaions thar subrequetly appeared as books and “published arlene papers tat now ext io publshed frm. Tike most books writen oer ing this one cota sone elation of perpen, irpeation, and dat base eaders may thetefore init [resting co note the dats ofthe ales and papers that formed the ‘oss of ious chapters Information onthe putin history of earier ‘eons and pat of chapters sien a te begining ofeach cape Permission to cepublah artes grattlly acknowledged fromthe folowing, Oxford Universy Pres for" The Baler lavertion of Clas: “Marui Theor ad the Making of Clase Consciousness in Soviet So fey in Ronald Suny, eh, The Stractre of Sonet History (New York, 2002) Tadiana University Press for “The Problem of Clas Heat io NEP Sov” in Rusia te ra of NE, es. Se Feparick, Alexander Rabinwich, and Richer Ses [Bloomiagion, tad, 199) ‘Univecity of Chicago Press for "Ascii Clas: The Consrcton of Social lenny in Soviet Russa,” Joural of Modem History 654 (1383), and “Sigal fran Blows Soviet Lene of Dennciaton ofthe 19305," fom Journal of Modern Histor 664 (1996 Insti dear slaves, Pai for "Liver ander Fie: Autobogrepicl ‘Narmmtvesand hie Challenges in a's Rasa," publaed in De Ro sie at daileurs, Malarges Mare Foro (Pati, 199). “Fondation Maison des Scenes de Homme fot “The Two Faces of Amani: Nacratnes and CouuterNacratver of Les fo Stalinist, Breryy afin Hersh Unie, lene Hera, and Brigit Studer, (ns are de osu Stalin, La onracion dette dane com ‘suunisme des années trentes (Paria, 002)wii + Pracesnd Acknowepmens Chases Sehlacks Je, publiber, for iaodution to publication in stro ea anata gees Pe: Life Stary ofa Peasant Stives” Rus sian History 241-2 (199. Ticccoa Univerny Pres fo eid vein of inoductin (“Lives sand Timer") to In the Shadow of Revolution Life Store of Russian omer from 1917 tothe Second World War, eis. Shi Ftzpatsic and ‘Yor Seskne (Princeton, Ny] 2000 p. 3-17—chagte 8 “lone Rev for evoed veson of eSoppbant and Czens: Publi Lateran in Soviet Rusia in the 19808" Slave Review $51 (Speing 1596) and fer “The Werld of Onsp Bender: Somer Confidence Men i the Sin Peco" Sic Review 613 (2002), an expanded and divided ‘son of whieh appears as chaprcs 13 and 14 TiizorchesKoleg and Oldenbourg Valag (Munich) for “Toei entuiand Power: Gene atron Relations is Stai's Rosi," Mar eed Hiirocir ed, Salinas sor dem Zaeton Welitreg Newe Av ‘Gece der ForschengStaliim before World War Tl. New Lines of Research (Mani, 198) Many people hve bloed in the thinking tat went et this book, but 3s IRowzared ove fay tng period moe dificult han ural single scptteandvidas or en. Inthe at stage ofthe book’ prep seeerry hosband Mihoel Dans, who ded in August 1999, 39 ‘Riis hod replaceable itloctorThecughout che process, bounced ‘Zany ofthe ws off my radon sudens ae Chicago, Katrina Clark, at sday Leone Atlander and Cation Kelly provided encoaragenest, od petal end inet 0d stimalating erin Te wat aso eowek wih ty edtr at Pnceon Unsesity Pres, Big van Rin thug de final tape of ting, he unexpected bonts of Distngished REEvince Award ior the Melon Foundation ened me fom some Meee cigaton aad thas foliated the work. Tam grateful to Bai ‘Ss Zack ind Heidy Betoud for resarchasstance onthe new chap {i and to Jue Fars, biographer or Slave and East Buropean Suds ‘STE Uatciy of leap fr ber wfaing lpn leasing mata Nove ow Taasstenarion “To make i easier forthe sade, | have used standard angicasions of Tri names ike Trowky and Gooky and dropped the extra" chat (Subs cenlteraion would requ in nares ke Maria and Evgeni. Oth ‘ose hae followed the Library of Congzs'stanlieratio les 2% [Seiiatattacee bough no the footnotes) Thave nor used dicta Introductionsey are, wt Craters, Yet, oF gae 1. Cartoon by One anes Daly Expres 187 waiet ‘Becoming Soviet “ar off th mash! saga wth online appa in moe soci Since they operate onthe sstmpton that ciation reques #eain mount of testing In revolution, however, that sump i Pane, Sct volun ar ffs: tha they nada Zomrensons afl psenstn and aT eacon hat obtained in prevevoluionary socery. Thr boppned in Russa fee the October Sir sevoluton which i the Foundations for the Soviet sate hsp pened uinin 99 lye that tte called. nich open peop Aare to reivent hasnt reac ad win hemes pone age ene pourra sf THE proof renvenon i one tds Of econfgtsubd TRE arrangement of date about tos and one of discovery new inecrctaton of the signcan). ITalwaye involves sete erin (ow should present myelin is ‘ew word} and may ao prompt onlogcl reflection (who am Te ilpel Thor wos engaged in elfinvenion geal preter 201 ‘Tago what the ae Gon, clang istend that in ir hears hey swuralaye the ew Soviet fos Soe) persons ar they are now eng ‘erin evolton, evn the milion of people hat comprise he oc ecyarenccunriycopaged nelle, evens tans {Ey tobe obusta wihsuhentiyandtafaporen. They unt fr “ube ho ating ode the ue entity for ree is and “accomodate” who have sumed areroutionary pena for urpons of gain order fo “unmask” them. the fat two decades Ther 1917, viglance” indenting and exposing such enemies of he {evolutovary yas ove ofthe edad vies of = Common: Purges (Gk) pode conducted nthe Commo arty nd goveranet Sd edeatoalnstatins served the ome prpose fron od den eneraes the 19208 and 3D Ha ceneuy aes, post-Sovier Rusia schewed the path f purging nd lyaky chek. Yea police est nln i ocncvCcry Rann” Re) Suc 200 1am po ‘een Kner Cs Rol ey Yr Seine ey sediment 1 oS nan ee so pcre4 Caper soa ibn band thes pas of he rans in pos Sov tal Ue he rene posh forme ben» Com aa cnn lic er cee eee cxcommced Soret nab 1 SASED ASI Sy frescoes preci is Se eat px ove dena whch, ts rat, Sy ti eee ann oss 7 ee ing. a es a ot) BS i Mela Wa am visi How nde 0 epee Faetons da wth he qeton of eo Eee comeus ew pone ut then rants banal te ne penome re facsameconei ne ne ai i eee Tas ered i he soa ost coe rcs dine lean, ean) 8 ae ny cnt) devin unto whee ae er evn hes ad eeaing tc ev inl Sorcerer tin pits esi med ay ism man ote” ses pe a do roan biceTektr inom ro ia ae Banca aot he ok Fi ee eo ta sured o ced ane ‘eae Th ere eid Ine evs aan ct npn who wt ey cdaimang veka ser i nae impomrseapoccen men Sr ee ng racer of sting ox pao ge git pe ne ef a cen ths cay wn a Fee oe re dngie in vey, ef he oh ey Sve Ra outed sony an The Holter hed taken power in the name ofthe poet and Jee Matar te pope ely npr Soviet ih nhs mgt 1920 06 co aan ee ey pepe ou nie he odin nla pane nr gdomsng aol oppose Mares sca sa mtg why wwe repponeetecerlsion seat otc ee Sersoan” ond hone who opposed £0 be ce eam honoree cy Sas a neat metas he as race a Selon of impor” bom 1-1 ofthe population and of ios ination in he 1920s and also to pat I place poise dsrminaing spine “cas enemies that, people ‘io were by definition enemies becuse of heir membership ofa paris Taesocial clas) snd providing afarive actin the Russian tn was ‘pdeohene which Mera means promotion for thse whose dass os ‘Son adem sata ale of he revolaion. “las ls turned out fo be an ambiguous category: wa esas ‘dentiabie othe eye han race or gender and less edly asesed on the bass of mae language aad lst came tan eit (national ox?” or “Paionals” in Soviet terminology. Class was, of course, associated ‘wih sca pasion but in the Revlon, and ieded a areal oF XEmany people's sal poston and occupation had changed That eft ‘annere~tht i forms of aelf-psenation tha had been leaned and luli be anleaened—ad bogs a orible markers as seni “Fe las sumed aco he ky. Sori deerminatien oan nia’ slam, Recount of one's autobiography, challenges tothe account fem ‘ches, and defence of became standard Soviet pace in vary of Slastioninelaing poring and "elvis" Sesion; moreoves all robiopraphy and queonnaie ‘Signed to else both an india pole! and cceapational Mery Sid dol thenotare of ha or ble postion, Inling changes ‘vee ime Sven the exstence of egal and adoinstative aca at GGccimineted onthe bass of clay i was obviously in he interest of individwnls to compose an aurobiography th concealed "bad™ css brekgrouads and presented backgrounds that were ambiguus in cas ‘emt inthe mow favorable poole igh Sach peases of concent Inn edinginetrsnsy hnked with the broader sl-relivention 1 ‘tired By the Revokton became second nature to Sove czen, a= (Whe counterpscces af unmasking and densoeation “This bok ie study of advil practices of sent Soviet Rusia Ie does nt del ith tt pasties of deny olding a propeganés, {he medi, and educational nstion, oF with per roup sodalzaon In schools and Pioner and Komsomol orzasizaons, thoogh thee art topic of interes in hl wa igh Nor dest say mich shout nels trl dass shout ent or lndiidul souseurchig of plosopbial Find would fave Fat happy to ncladedebter i sou searching had “owed thr, bain fact both are surprisingly rare. The Communist Paty tad Sore overment made polices om sch ates as class iscimina ‘ion butch o mont withoue debate (where itesied, Ihave ote ) tor theoretical eaepei. Thi lence ofthe Resin Rerauion on Kyi fuss practice may be contrasted with he passionate debates and ‘eeply fe theorising of te French Revlon on such epics a denun tion Wih regard dial pilsophicl soul-searching abr idenvos hos owe een» ale sen. Joie ts sake pose tegaay bm ee en Soe ty onc Se ey ie et ean goons ec my tee maa ef ener tr et ae at asco ectg 2d ital hat may, cae eeneking i eens, people developed a senso fatal hat may ce cae tabaci a cts tha ocnted inte caine West atthe same period” Husromocnarsncat NOTE “Tha book wine by sos torn who ben poli he Tek te Leese ace ore wheal Fo ene ofl presi wih oun sha wits chal icy aad onthe ee ee vant paneer yo SOV DT ines if nth an bj ate may al a a or for ot) eens wh erat Fae fone ao kaw mel x mporant, ele, hie et he er ster nace he 2 ae St sh tan 0 Fane Soi eS ay ean apn mat tae nome Steet iu came wo eau in ist fle a bie excarsion cl nrbiogapy Renders who se ot Sov istocans se Melon opts etn. “ome ora, haves long ior of dsttacon with lst asthma gr fo Svat ofan SS sd Me omen 2 Soviets? The Rosi wotkess “om oe ti Se ph Ey Stee vba Lt ane ew YP) pp 218-1 mr ath ori ue ol Re Rei Co ine carb ae Noman On Sone be 08 ae era tn in Ope Sel ais Eta nt Hots ‘a cre eth Roers e Cl, Clarmd Ples nh aly ie ey ent re aa seen en aie ea BecoingSoriee + 7 whose sory knew bes, though lauded as “conscious” by Soviet com Trento were pea interested in geting themselves andthe eh ‘en out othe working cles, something tht Sovie afirative acon poles os bel of poltarans an poor peasants made ary 02cm phn efit teen years afer he Revolton “Socal isaian i the Some Union were, af cours, equed to use Mapas cls atgories in thle analysand did in an exceptionally rt eee manner, At ‘Western sacl history ofthe Sove Union emerged inthe 1970 Large ‘Sans the tendency to tke clara fe rae and foes on whats SE Marsescholagocquetons (whether Rarsan worker ally had pe ita clas conciousness weber te peasants whom the Bolebevics Called "laks” meaning url exploiters were ely klk mi de pean")? the te 1980s, howones, began to ake ls siowaly mye. This wa ae because had become covered the Marit analytical ame ‘work but rater bosuse Thad suddenly eld what may acer obvious: ‘haclae ar mater of clasiestion! The reason o ake dass seousy| fret because la claufation was vey secous atv in Sv 2 Ty. Ths bd ig odo with the ail soil srr bo ererehing to dow individual fate and opportunity To me, debates abost whether Deasants were “realy Koaks” or rian dweller “relly prolaran” Iighticem short, bat to milions of individ he eal ifeoutome ‘Sf suchdaliberaons we ria Tobe labeled kulak nent eis yo ‘were liable co expropriation and deportation To be labeed a polar {esa you could become ore of the bosses instead of being a mere ire band, tod the road was open fr your ehildren-and even yousel™—0 techigheredocaton and into te white-collar profesional cas "That cevelton ly atthe root of x sexes of ates pblaed ia the cast 1990 in which exploed he Bolshevik pracees of as Ibling Sod cas disrimination aad the social paces of mashing end on ‘ating of clas denies vo which they gave dae. These were the years {nwhih bithenoclosed Sore chives opened Ol the archival disow Sen en go er he Tf Rais Ne epee oni” “Aer sens tr a ge ty de owen ar nnn pep See ee “Tiny he a on Say ad ‘he famau “linguistic tom" among Marti ial baron mnled bythe ew ae a ne ee ‘Roan moe in common with Mart hixarians ae the rn an before86 Cope «ry een som nce rh mn sof ae et nil cas naive Aaa inagrestd in denunciations, “which in the 1920s and 1930s were often hh oe eae Sham sei Se Sc a eR a ee tr pre ern Sonal ee rcenal ee th ae ee a lt in ne omc oe hme “pce te cr oe te ote sn omen yr Moe Fa Le mn nian Roki are AN ‘and Tor nay So Cooma ole Se carp elena eh ine earn ease arms hn rere tate a at ria ge nr fel a cies hing Sli Sb Sahn Kets Mane “ln eS of Soest Sale” Jace Gece Oster mein ane eet nie spf hes marae Fee og Depa nag afta 1a ad ein ees yt saan pr “a cee iy ent tnene ee reno ge ret te Smt he cl ch a ‘earl eta A oy afar seta a ng of ly ome (Crate To ences in isorcal approach ae what makes sholsip interesting. The ‘ew cohor’s aval onthe scee was a major par ofthe revitalization ‘of Soviet himory inthe 1990e Tf were to late two supets of Ss ‘evtlzavon tht | paricularyappeeae, one would be the shia at futon towed expense, ad theater the Sfine ea che CS War ssavirRstory (he ew cohort ule is reviionst redeeson, Aid nora TST. War ramework dey, br indent hem proved more deadly than frontal aac) ice eas ago, there was sll ‘lingering sense hat “Sore ideology* was something thatthe rege forcefed toa population whoweaomiaed members were merely passive ‘consumer Lele a reat step forward to have the Stalin abject emerge ssa deologal agen in ts own igh." lbnremy:Danosrion ano TwRonsrica FRAMERS Before prossting further we ned o adres he concee of “eniy™ “This hd become acatchwordin sca science in rece yar, nach over- rod and invoked ina confusingly of meanings Lam incest Sn socal ertber han personal density, by which mean the way people locate themssvesin socal ce group context ater than the way they thle abourthemssves ae nivale ue “iden” to meat sl ‘Mentfeaton andlor self undetanding connrcted with efeene toca ‘enlysoepedcatcporis of social bing. Theres, of cous, diference ‘between seladenifation (a beling proces tht may carry ony ani ‘teumenal purpose) and selfunderstanding (plying belie thac the sel Ina ooe uadesands if). My denon intentionally cer ths dssne- tion sine my aseompton is thatthe seleandertanding of subjects sccesible wo histovians ony rough practices ike seldentiicaon, [a {his book, "entity shorthand for be complex revisions of lien [eation dat were asociated wih the Rusian Revolution, "era on ha ne Re Bera re Coop “eed “SE acca tn of ca eit" ts cemaeo tte sito when can meen eed ‘Dente irl cea hy de, wheter me a cee od ply cme thr hay sd prem ee pon iS eye hc ang Pn rr Aa Near wn nega en te Rus Re” sits he Ruan erin Sd Onn Noe Ys 94h pe ae TF Songer nef aa toner a psn Ne {endo ar Wenn nd) 1710+ Chapert tn ely Sve douse, se cnet salen of he tm “es” wae sa aces ean bower hte ak cere oe alee Howe ca) a Fl sd a eye nt ot elated oe ae mane fled a Uva oo Ma ae cara) Demon ey wos oly Target hare en ocean, sie he Revlon Hak sl pial ee angst edo nd Sad ae Rae cy ma be “im tt er mani aSovet dou, Doble (tack usr) th ae eed ser an ely Cong to oe on bo Sig ot SONGS ade wn mela eed ne Soviet aol Pr ono oy TPN en ae na pte sno ny, ca seni foe cy as psi sof en eo era aa cna ed re sion Sea lear ma wei eae toe ctonin the word andra see nen ob sets a On st eminence he ee Se peinma smaeny emit ie oases ork commen, haben, Res Se eae re onde aie enon =h ar sain ecu, hey aa Bad ab san nr onan b pos cantar ico motor Moe ln ups 9 ee Cn cen amy emeabe obiee. a Pn ean cf cremianc td peel chlo 8 ey a ppt ke stent ean shootin 3 Sa es Seaman a ae Te areca rt i iprcumcete a oro Sic ere ih eae cae SEIS ea li Pasar) tate Sou nig i, 80 promt ee te ea meee a a aes mi ate palaces cao ee the cae of “noble (droriani) a daavancgtons and even dare deny in ove tnes tha made a comet nee 1990 afer decades af nonibly. The reali data pon which det re costed angi very ferent rere rccding ocleamtance and choi: one Sid for example, he multe poses of en alienation faible oa Rusa apeaker bor 0 Rusa wih oo Jewith and one ‘rains grandaree: Morar the comparative importance 3a ne diva of diferent per of sleseniaton (Gor example wile, ‘woman, Commun, intligent, Jew) may change aay ia diferent ‘renal reumascer and wage a ie "Most present-day soil cea and pllosophes sex idenies—s0- il non confessonl, an 9 on—a eonructe” ha earned fom the sounding clue rater than inte, Personal dee are the exception ax posal sient David Latin notes hey are “rely Ccttenched in 4 primoril or gece doug,” so that anyone con ‘trusig nue new ame or cei hiory gnc see 93 perp ‘Cane eae" All de rae thee no real conseuas song ols fon thidguron: in his work on social peycholog, Oxford piloopber Rom Hare auc that personal Sentesto, a een Eioned by individuals he baa of elu aoe.” Of cure, commen see rues some degre of quaiicatin of the “construct iw oil deny. Asp eu, "roc oar iter are bu on rel foundations" and "people ae ied by, [ough] they ate na psec of thei genes, he psognomis, andthe Bi tones in setng om thts owe ents we dik of kl Soviet deny projec would general besarcely feasible fran educated ‘bane without ual connections consuct himself ap ieney oa peosnn” ba this wae spect plus projec fo area es dt whose fami thoagh poor belonged tothe cereal at or bad at ne ine chogh not the pce) prompered othe point of being abled bythe enemies a lake Hari set ono Kinds of ident projet: the one deicated 1 con seoctig scale, which valve ietication witha group of go ad the one Skate conteting persona enti, whose por eTotoexablicha dere of niguenes within one's category The Rs, fe argu the “primary cask” forall “maria pople who inily thckalet scl eaton and need wo “blend anos background, hoe rte ted at oi ing ta Taegagebicee scares eee12 + Oper 2 er ge ent tiny dc oe sit cg eae tre sure rae sete enn por tt ier ashe dg ctor sera ect acc spel ce er mane secgeeks reat Sa olin pe le Si bo cut ge a Si ees os re Hee uber oer Sey cee oe hae iaticeeree nutes aes tou onder tga tac ape Steg depen ener ite coe ne cineca irene encores Geen a ah ere ret af pexonane a lw det wot dew onset of peti aero one ne eb esi lpr 1 A a pate cp ea ca ‘ran EL ce aly Ste Perma and Perm Lon 2279 equi in Big lia, The Premio of ef i sede, Le Fc nd Cle re, B, 990, 7,24, gra Gta, ecoming Soviet © 13, butt iis a dns ace wih te [ib auiece™and coma" ent in wach esc "eleven the ‘sen ey ope ey ts Tea ie renee ee Daten gs sna gréctstants gulag topes mre ‘univecsal for some people, and in some societies, than others; that mar- gal peopled it mor and no doubr re alo more innecested in} sry Rata rel wk eae ay a, Gls and poll ety aad eh ery of prene o nacg ad Sais omens ee Se a aged occ onsen Ine Smee hen menor masses heloin ny anbacimeruelaysineenrse pe efoto henereshor altar oe Cee re eae em SomReUSU ne hota acta eh ances kenesrene acta ate Agora anaes ess onheotfarunedtekboaiaess en "SRF “ring ‘rouge a ies San arin enlist Piet fe tank igh Nee eee ee eee chs Seca ne ae dee a Sore. SEET ats rena emt ei SST tts he tarueatnet tec Sere ener er eee Cie ee ston otc ogee harks eye ed ee Frome ol Ramant enc et etn Rast ans fle Can, The Ey nT ny nit Cato Sage ond Se (besa 260) mie A od“ lf ae Lapin Rela SR ea opts a ee nd Srl aio te, Sean Yor ach 7 ind “Le nes Kit a cr in em 917 Sip nnn nth Seve atdenrprepousrce. "Bec Ppa, “ccoming Caren Te Cael Po14 Chapect E re" were part of ds she 1930 “dy “ear” and “maser coor were part of Seine perfomance cnr pewnr Stasis. _Fasmuomne oF xe Sutves™ Sov ire rennet tena ace ‘he pen’ oars yelp In iaking our Sve ey ree anaes de, ‘nbs cuninal records. “Since most file encounters involve some ot © ‘thon on crip perso relative toa mocal order, dhe fate of one's fl ca nce cna nes" emt create edtonpns pa (etre crerfatreecy ect meonirnet stoi eon) spel apuincs by 1952. and the pry fad become mately es ees tocar deunciodone Dk uc, opener, ePes a thant bad ben bt te wa in 1951, ae ensgting a Snoninton tat «physica an his rents had coma the Fst thn they cae tom fis of pet he Pry Control Commision cls tae the alegaon ver tr utente ae (Sounih to show dara of teas" The conlionwoald surely have a dittre Sn pens ec ‘ior however bd ao desppsazedy ne had shied i os, wired te rg proporion ofthe Soviet popaiton hatha ied der Carman exapon daring the wa, suspen of calabortion (ei athe ania: anopy of etnias reba and outer an feok over fom the ner mpidons a *ourga oat “nted to pathy mike od eine, the Whites, or on-Bolbe- “i police pares Whe ei rope ere depot in the 1940s a eestor whe coying ns Acoma wa orgs freee epaded wih dp spin, snd were sometime ve Da SELES pene yun th le 1940 nd nly Os oig Ste ‘SE fopaar an Seam eve se to saore never abtatated but Fervent ea ofthe "Bec Bot” alleen of 1959) hat owe ould be net onthe fo group deporation. ‘see ump cn TSRADNISH 1683, op Te 26 1 10 (by a po Seatac eae, 9) een a te pba HCAS 17, ce tg 1 00 eps scan ie meme a > pi de arcmin ba roe nes Telecel cena ee a men (OSD 0. 6 174, “The other important postwar change nse ideatiy realn—ingosble to date precisely but carainly wel exablsed by the mid 196D—was ‘auras of Soviet dehy. At crain oie, the Revolution and {s derablizing consequences foc vocal and polis became story. By {he 1960s, what it mean wo be “Soviet” was olnge problematic. Tt ‘Short say haa monolithic model of Sovieienty bel way the Contry, ths was pecod wen te range of hocesavalable to Soviet ‘aes Cxpanded greatly and public debate aboot Mess and mores polite” But the soy war no longer compared of ndruale TEsming to “speak Bolbei” in Kota’ pst: the older generation had already leaned he language, while the younger he majority of {he populon~were naive spears" Indeed “olsevk” wa spoken ‘vires aenzy da che whle Sov ilo ad persona was becoming 1 echt, Foreigners mode jokes abou is inna eres wrote diary Ingly of "Homo Soviaica"; ad by she te 1980s, he contenpraous “tovok” had gained toad currency as term for ightshnking Soviet ieay Noted ny moe enero fe New Soviet an instead, here was a "realy exing” Soviet Maa 0 0 alo swith the realy etngsocaien ofthe reser er "The tablakinen satu ofthe ove persona ince bye capa fnytogneeate both parody and ection, As long a Soviet Hey as su isc, pt was othe prewaepecod articulated counercuures hat payed of and challenged the dominant cle were vicly an own, "The fie reopszblecomtereure was that of he sage fylnconscious young men appropriating Weners futon and chaleg lng the pevaling estnes of Son drest—ol the 1340 and” The Stal were followed bythe dsidensof the 1960s and 70s, who moved fhe arena of chalege from asin t pics. In the 1970s, Western pia scents ered ral toute osfcaton fhe ove pl Calsysten implying someting tht was both sable and ices igly i exible An analogous procs surly existed ince ream of Soi en ti though hee a ey tht bat Yt be ld "Aad thes came the copa of 1991, an evento les dramas ints onseguraces for indidual dent than the 1917 Revolution had ben ‘The aerword examines the proces of Sen change and einen tion inthe 1990 the dcreding of Homo Soi” and Soviet al. ten te embrace of apis snd he ete orecoverResannst Pec ge Nl int re Se a carmen tebe tia een acse ea nee26 + hoger andlocenrepreneri democracy (wich Rossin, unfortunate ‘Sidaioc a pelar oppo) a «basis fr post-Soviet identity. I rms 15 he psrve of ol riventin, the wheel seemed have come fll Lan Sk tothe lat reat tanston afer 1917. This time, boweve i (Eiland codes appropiate fo New FostSover Man, and bow could Old (Be at Mgan sell The Bookends with a sory ofideniy econ Sraton thats sil in progeess PARTI Class Identities‘The Bolshevik Invention Of Class ‘The “imagined commaniies” for which cevolusionares ght re often ‘ation Bat he Bolshevik evlaonaies who tok power in Petograd {mn October 1917 wee exceptions othe rule. They dd nor ere "ima ine” anew Rosson or ven Soviet nation. Instead, being Mariner onli, shy imagieed a clas-ihe international proletacat—whose ‘evolution, begun to Rusti, would toon sweep Europe The lara ‘onl revolution failed to matvalze, however, tad te Balhevks were Jefewith the anexpecred task of ulding a previously unimagned social [station Thi ommitmen othe ieerntionl plea became enol venous, ally daeppearing,pehaps, wit the femal dso Jgooh ofthe Comintern during the "Great Peso War” oalst Naz Gemaay. Mf hii common kom, eters nd comes foe Sovier tcty ofthe Bobet imagination of ls remain ‘Sexo in hr che il angi tat clr es fn imagine cass community ye aera a shauered and ieageaced chs store ta Rusia ater th Revluto, found themselves obliged folnveattte classes tht thir Marit theoretical comatment fold them ‘ist exite* This provider a ering confirmation of Hources e003 tos that clases inthe real wold area lest party a produc of the ‘Marnie theory tha purports o dese tem? Ths apr reed ein of Le: Bhs dee Ce Manone omens endl At cle ahoean ccc SarS Ne See 0 eps rEg “Bl tet af Gave ae hwy ad he Nag of Cas Cee ena Rod Sy a, “he Sae Sot hor ew eS ae mal har ten cpl frome en of Cty PSone Rea te of NE ‘Se npn, lode Heth nar Se nap nT, ‘el in Gest yw a Jor "min ee: Aen Imag Commis elon Orin sn Seno Neato dn “th pr ed with enone Ee eben ote ron reo aged op ae ae i} Haha ee tn ties. 33). Tater pl oni 9d nt ie uh nt sevpoirsmcnn les Php ene e nanae50+ Chager2 ‘Cuass ano re BoisHevir REVOLUTION Macs,» Wenn inert fhe ne nent cy iy wo a Jy among Rusa becasue bw nt ex Serra oerevlaionary ts The nda rola and ap Srey a ee porta cnet in poles acre soe SEE ZEST hg teame asa socioeconomic easties in Rass. By the fi tre ewes cnn, ower hank oa ee ft ee sponred induration nisted i the 18905 roma tg ap mh Marna imainaton. The indus working 1 et enue prevn yeas was sal bt highly 20, See Set pally cn: Dcibarg and Moscow workers rated SETAE Gotdn 1908, a played » crac oe in eoging dwn the ‘Tas regimen Febuary 1917. vi gerd (kal cher eoluonaygropsh the Bol- oe ree mars pry wih bond workings opp in 1917 FONE om ine pee reicliraon of workers und com oa fol so the mont afer the February Revoltion, Hee esy the theeates fom ote oc pares by ti i aa ai be rand he polises of nation andcompo carp aa 1917, he Baer ic be the pry of he Ue med jased by un of decor esc nd Is i tot ey hed a fopac mandate in Octobe for thee 2 Tee efbower inthe name of the worker ev 1 os acenga of Mariam in Rasa had bees ses ik Rte nthe 1880, Mapes ad Populi ad aeued ne sbi ofcaplatindunaaon nossa in et aoe the Mara pedcron bad come pas, Marsan bad ca tn urben workng ia revoionary fre it Fee ei tered tha cs confit ws the bse of poise that Rest lng te coll ofthe Febrear colton beween “bout 2a be Provaioal Goverment ae “proletarian zc. Ho ogc Sov Toth olshes,and even omany ofc a ret the Ocober vitor see al the aes proof tht Janae, ory was onthe Macs sie arta farmed oy, th watt be po us the ates but ao the ee ae eet of arse nn No sone hd dhe pelearan test Rare Bead than, by seca ony, hor abu di mrmaeamrer ates srt tse epi de hr po) qin mc so The tlic ienion OF Cas = 31 owned the Rasian Maas, mocking thee theories by desoying the ‘ihe trucur of Rusia society and the cles ar of evolutionary pl tex! Wag revlon, cv war and Famine i he yeas 1914-23 were the main causes of this debacle The landowning aailty aod expat bourgeoisie Ped been annlated a cases by revolsonsty expropea tion aad emigration. The old bureaucrats elte had sufeed smart clip ae el of he fall of he Tec regime In he conte tbe ‘coeging ler iffeension ofthe peaaney eb Sopa’ gesin {efor bad sought fo stimulate had bee wed ont, at lea tezporay, by the spontancous “Black Repareion” of 1917-18 and the revival of the pean commune “Wrst fa rom the Bother point of view he ndatil working ‘la, batered by hinge the own nd the lsu of nda plats Sdmines, ad fragmented and dpesed during he Ci War A lion xmore workers bad le the tows forthe vilags and were now all ppearancs, peasant clivators ofthe land’ Tn addon, bundreds of ‘hans of worker badge lato the Red Army, ole the cory take ip managerial and administrative pion nthe new governing Jnstitions of Soe power and oe factory workers had become at ‘ans and sal ade onthe back market. The proetacan coach that ‘ha brought Cinder to the revolution hd ered into a amps “The pheaomenon of “declasing” wn not estried indus work Inthe tamale revolton millon of ctizns of the former Rusian Empire werein procs of moving—fom ose oxcupaton another, from fone plac to smother, rom one socal status to noth fom an ld ie {o icthae) anew one cn conscripted to the Imperial Army retard ome, and thon in many cases departed gain ro ere a8 valcts oF nips inthe Red Army ofthe Whi Army ome verved sequently ‘om oth sds) Inhabitants of Northern cise ade the South and East, bv often cermed asthe White Armies reveste. Foumer nobles Beare ‘ookicepecr and black machetes. Volga reident ed West fom fam ings orptshedthee cle rom the sce areas, With he deo [ation othe Red Araya th en ofthe Civil Wa, alos fe lion young en were relented ogo home hi formes Hive inves ot towneon, era 0 go seek thar fran elsewhere The alway sa Sons wee fal of slr, homes cide (sspricorme) and ces inwonsi to detiatons tha often proved irory. she Seashell he Cel es Poa nd Cl Elwin te er ll wh ahr32s Cher “he realt wos that in 1921, when the Bolsheviks emerged virorios ae EI Wan hey fond shemales in tal aew world—one i cn be cance had become relevant. The class hat had hich dla tion was duper and fxpmented, and he cases tht Fade ine longe exited. There were no father ides for te seR enon in Marts cheney, and no Mac bat for underanding pola efor and eset class (but noc yet las oct sce Faas evolutionary aaginason of class had eaced ani aac Ripon, te Bolsheviks had the choice of epudining Mace Free deh egtincy oftheir owe cevolation, or olbenng on regs re Rccourpeisly they chose telat Bu hat eb ed them xo Ie eetmene ti clas be of Rossin polis nd soiety ha istry ado capricious denied chem. “Tur Remwvenrios oF CLAss HE 19205 or the Bolbevit, sce was iid iar two antes as camps. Rt'thocamp reoed2cound the proletariat, om he one ie, and he Feeney he hee The "pectarae cone ofthe inden re cls (very smal at the begining ofthe 1920s, but owing with SORTES/SH ida ander the New Eeonomic Policy, o¢ NEP ait Ae and poor pena alsin the vilages(akhowgh poo pesans dane acl dif to detngush ae sable socieronomc (Fou) Caseansyetolic lender ofthe roleaiat was the Bolshevik Par, ‘ieee asthe vanguard ofthe dictate cass. ‘Tis Shoupesns® wes an amalgam of pre-and poseolusonary #>- cio eovpe cain the remate of the od aobbty and capil censeeemtsa Nepmanpevate eaers and entrepreneur, whose ati se itetced wade te advent of NEP in 1921), and kala (@he more Mroanocs pean whom the Boliheiks eparedasprenil apt aaa coat clas has fac, te coberence nd eersi. BO) plc were inlined to carte ol Rosin nels ow colecielylnbeled the “bourgeois” ineligeni, sn onzas cc eeseie Cotman counerpr,sndinividually known ak “bourgeois eeSinc varies symbol eae This comeyed recognition thot tbe ‘Beigenia hed been ove ofthe peeevoltionary eltes (a peopostion| (Rcaytat i members sehemenay dened), was the only such FOE 0 ‘RaRy che Revlon more oles int, and contitred the Blibevis ‘ram potetial val for authority and leaden. ‘alla ool wa For Rn ma wo cas wir “Tee Bhen eveog OFC + 33 Large segments of the sity wer neither leatly proletarian nor clear bonrgrois Bu thy svethlers ad o be asocisted with on ot the other cam aad given a peste socal location and clas analy. The Bolsberks devoted much ney aad agen co the task of ntipicg theca tendencies of such groups a “mde easan (hose who were futher exceptionally poor nar exceptionally prosperous—chat ithe {ent njoriy ofthe peasantry areas, ad wiecollar state employ (s (elechahche. Aho Soviet saicalindsey sprang opi the {520s around the problem of ening classes and stn, guanelyng them and termining te exact clas compotion” of pariular deme taphic and insainal groups, ranging fom member of pasa coop fate onansations to Red Army seductess, Communi and senior Gril sean, Even the 1926 paonal population census made a vallant Stem classy tapondensby clas a well as occupation ‘bur the Bolshevik reinvention of lar involved more than pusive cord keeping and data ellecion. They actively developed the cone feds by cenng epltive and buresteratic steve that were cas Selbive-sor oy they dictiminted in favor ofthe polar and ine the bourgeoisie. This it of sch teucares in che 1920s incuded Sets niverstes the Communit ary the Komsomal he Red Army {wich dscriminae! in favor of peolomians and agin’ Kalas ond (ther "bouget elemests" in admins and crlmen) cexation de partment aw court, mancpal hosting bode rasoning boa (which fave prefcence to poltarians an penalized the bourgeoisie) an local ‘esos commitets (which hep ins of residens who were ineligible ro ‘ote insovecletion beease hey were "las lens"), The Bolheiks’ WSSdseriminatory policies had both s soll usc and a sacl emp fering sspet Inthe cause of roca jase, hey cred eo redistbute ferourer and opportuni, giving preferential treatment ro hose who fad ben enladed fom privege onder te old cepime and eying io those who exme frm the od privleged clases. fn the cause of social Cagecring, they aimed fo “poceacanie” recaienet to Key iat los and cles in ode to cnsoiat the prion of be ew repie and cute the pains of te Revauion. Tn adn, Bolshevik polices and percepons erated enely new “idases"thae i, colle cl ents whose members had not pe- ‘iownly had «common ident, sats, or consioumess bar acglred Um teough ther experince ss Sorte zens. One such sup Con re 1918 Colt RIS wth toma we Sib i heme wt ‘olen p ses ~ “omenA= Chper2 sid of byoshi, “former people”, who had once eld high postion ad alee fasocey but los ear a cautofthe Revolution. An overlapping [roup. more of a jure eniy, wat that of lent that i persons fpr ol voting rights because of tei class background nd afation swe ol eg: Deprivation of voting rights cased witht oter cl Ubabltes such as lack of enidement fo housing, esions, and bighes ‘Soration Atth end of he 1920s the total number af lishonsy ines Sharply aad so dl the aboot’ horoughows in imposing other cil Alnus on lisbenty and tr meds frais, So faz or dco has armel tha the Bolsheviks were cational actors whose reinvention of class served spec and definable purpose. ut ofcourse ths san expository convention tha conveysoni72 partial trun cy the Boek were general rational onthe question of isin the 1920s beeave it was their cece obsession. Clas was the universal referee the cuchsone of polis! and personal identi. Terie perceptions of clas were valued and coated: fc example, that village blahanith were prleactans, that women nal social stata ened be pet bongo ha Jor were a bourgei ation.” Elbo Faring sch css coumologies was favorit parte of Bolshevik auto acs inthe 19208 were twas the question ofclass enemies tha was central for most Bolshoi The ies of cast could not be separated fom the iden of Frage, lthevik “las concouaness” war above ll an awareness Of the eed foe viglance and raheseess in fhe face ofthe treat of bout ros counerevloton. Working ce Bolsheviks kept keen watch fr ‘Epu of "bourgeois litecali” snd fatatheartednes onthe prt ofthe parysingellctne Bote of maligentia background abused th eves before be tughminded"proleasian sine of thi lowerclss onseca, although t was te paty leadership's poly daring NEP not ov"fan te ames of clas wat the partys rank and file seeped his ‘mesnge only unwiligly and impetfesy. Uscompeonising intolerance SE Nopren lay and “bourgeoi” inelcroas Was sbways considered to bea spn of Bolheve prince "A second premie of cr argument so far has been thatthe Bolsheviks wee sole authors ofthe Soir discourse of eas. Bur this oo neds 0 De galifcd The imagination of cae became a aoietal and indvidal Precccpaton at well aa Bolsevc one afer he Revolution. Inded it ‘ay be snd sat the Bolshevik invention of das produced nal rt dove sey 2 degree and itesity of cas cnscouspess—in the fer ene of consiouses of lat etn ise and problem tat has ‘tecly been equaled ‘Cac ofthe new ceoluionary sate stugued ro sina and im prove the cle ideattiee available fo them. They leaened the new public SSS ee Eee ‘Tre Both everson OFCiase + 35 langage of dss. Th language wat no singly somites sete an Orwellan =Clatpeak that exited in Sone newpapes bt ‘rarshnned by odnay peopl, On the contary, olny peop not {Srmenontlesulr-re fen faceted yy md 1900, ‘hear fc angape we dium oe many rope of oon ty. Sel: Kensomel highschool opi and young nda worker eves ar alring and hea len! nc he gon of the cin ‘oc whch cameo fasion athe sie nd wad prt ‘arb ous pop ene a wel x Communi pol clare inde bam note rls, cls dacouce igh be wed oily, ete sew acronym Somariom, Cea) y whch Soviet nttions wee ow, Bar even tha wat «form of sock acnpence, The colty of he core ean te fogs by ls dey anna pton In Reson fnamoc and sass om thee ofthe colon ed for many decoder ‘here wit Jes sd faba snedons in ean ee seivedbroundclae The tes uso langng in crea le are eeciinsds of ical ois caret and resin {Be 1905 and 1930s rom Zoichenko a if and Peo > Pawan. ‘Remewit diferent pons fo ats daca ecrde in pena Ilion the 1920s Patna were more pale an cyclers by the new clas jargon, nd chore geal les ue Ba ey 2p Preced t potetal fo ivect, ad the word “bur, weal fnknown i he ilge efor the Revolution though well cabled in ban ang, eporedy became poplar ar em of aban in ilps pumas inte cry 12De Tndvda Soi tae were dep inal nh iveton of class tect thy bad ove proal csette, Obiowsy re were foment individ whawe Sse dey was car and amb bree worl large amber who were notin tht poston, econ ofthe chao nd atorphows ondsion ofthe aocey sd ehebigh epee foc and ocepaional miiy nthe evans petiod the a oon of a get many cites wot anblquun Such pope hed 12 lben™ soil sed cat teer"aoe inthe me of hel lng them up borin ese of lrg and inept own Bag Cocad inh 2 wey ov peso opal fw of pee ‘eay and ne: oppor ese Se M Sect ak rcina pal ead na ain aco soe ei il em tome nm, pM nenlom ego“The neem of creativity inthe defi of individual clas identity war all the prone Beaute ofthe lack of eat about the ele. wat teneraliy scoped tht both las origin and currear socal (ocupational) oston were r nigh be eve to an india clay tats Bat there ‘eno bard andasigdelines about he lative importance of theo ‘itera, Adaonl complications were intoduced by the prevaeat opo- {onthat an individu oc position ot October 1917 ws of patcalat Importance ia deering hs or her "real o essential cas. Ab 2 rest ‘of these completes of clsueston, no lass dentieaton could bere {ated a ioncad. Even apparent solid socal dente could cumble ‘when challenged ad such cases the adda was sid ro hav ben Nlamssked "Thay, fom the tndpoin of dividual cizens, especially thw ef ambiguous background and secmatancey, i was nessty ot tale crete cas idenity ba als o put some eff into aiaining and protecting bes already been pinced out hat tela positon oficial ected co indvihal bad portant prt impiatios inthe socey ofthe 1320 A "good" lass dem could ge you ito higher eden, oF nto the Komaomol an the Comanist Party, with all he carer ada tps hat these implied. A "bad™ che ent could eau not of a partment of compulsory wplomene (when the local sovie seed an ‘ther fal in you living pace) special tne, rel of aerployment ‘ene o he social serves, andi you fund yousel befoce court, Increased ietibood of conviction and = heaeyeetene. Tas, pesos ‘with "bad soil origin were under considerable enpestion wo esgise them, for example oven casey nthe Ul ear, xpecally IF they Rad carer ov edacauonal ambitions. ! whole range of Soviet saepes emerged fo avoiding penal Le, disadvanageou cl label) by modifying Behavior in sacha way 2510 fs the lee bor noe the spire ofthe preaing code, mach a6 US, Sinan behave in response the IRS ad tx laws. The best examples, felt to Kelas, since Sov legal and taxation autores and ssi ‘Sons pblsted aay guidlines nthe 1920 he signs y which lak might be ecognied andthe ake render. Ths, eh sig of labor ‘rat aign ofa ress, prosperous and necas) peasants might decide ‘otf increase caltvton by hiring labor, ba ater to ire themseves ‘Seti hore—eo plough land fo hrsls poor peasant "The ate of nv their wn maniplaed or fale lass idencies is ofen ard to determine. It ceaalyeanaot be een fo ‘rome the they regarded the ave enti Sa fale In aobiogra his reicen by pottwarsfugens om the Soviet Unio, for example, theauthors often repom the consis merepresenation of las oii {nalmost the same breath as chey recall how smncerely they identied with | ‘The olberietenenion OFCass + 37 the asm Soi” pron endow devas hy were wen icwas ‘Saleaged® Thre we man ancy teres ee re a ‘Seer eons tsi theplo theinnde was aaron see Ais ei nd snd eon it was et aegis ke St fe put wean Sabor of risk gg rae Iter he iil of her band and teens a ee fost rope Sebove oped utente or thar fe pope Then, hing dreds Rand submited peison oh Prcuntr fhe Ta) Repu tin that her aad ely was ny and pee a vg ee {erthe whe ped fk nro about ten) Yee oe had been mtg er ind em abo aac ‘The cout roparded the divorce as Beto, bu who can tl? No doubt Sacbaoora minty blind Soviet power forthe dante chat had befallen ber pd er besband Bu sometimes she probbiy bled her husband a wing or that prone the “Sve” langage of dat elt tion with which she addressed the cure ana Inaacrne Class Was Tix Photstani's Bid ox HecaMony ale the net fas which it out aja hich - sn hi hae, tha wre donee one pcos in he aD hat gh oe ‘ed oy rel a rman oe Ma see Dee loc eaten sherpa sins thy were arp le ocean of the dead by henew ail pearl soe i Stns revlon from above: coletvton of peta are, te Few Fess Pan innsaation dean carl ean tsp hs calical engineering bythe sx, who Cases were tired nd laf nivel chang cl patna ot Than soap of een si polation athe nd of the 192s che Commas ary eld fo sn ienicaon sr oe ‘ecg hsb the xa cally can alegre dg, henry otc the cc cptal power ante mea oh. iene af llton andthe He Bieter Pa The poets ati waa nylon and al wh seni rl was aly weal Syeymous withthe so ‘Communist Party. " ve "38+ Chagre? a the new phase of imagined class war and acral sate aggression gins segments of the soc, a imporeant symbolic cole ws layed ‘yt catoral revolution of the late 1920. Cauca Revluon was a roca though which the pokuarn alleged cast of bourgeois ge Tony ts elute and aed egemony for sell" Temay be undestood Et iymbelic expropriation ofthe old iteligentsi—which was cll ely beought der suspicion erough the show eile of rome leading “owrgeo pecs” on chases Of reason and ssborage—and its reals cs by at inron of sew proleian and Commons cares. (Ger cls enemies, orably Kalas and Nepaea, were les frtanat, Sine thee “igudation as a as” was more than syabolic. The we Inusking of clas ences roe toa plc of hysteria ad became a eel ‘Wichsning The mast remarkable epitode of cas war” in hs period Mins thedekakisation campaign whoteparpose wasto "liquidate alas a dass" Thin involved noon the expeopriaton of ll those ascribed fo the kak clase and tek “hielings” (plac) bu lo the de- [orton ofa substantial put ofthe prop to dan regions ofthe coun fn. Pes, vctns of ace see that accompanied che closing of ‘arches wee also linbl to "delakizaion” neural areas. Utban Nep- Sten wer emg forced out of busines and ix many cses arrested atthe ‘me pesod; the eae urban ecomomy was nationalized “The “heightened at vglance” of he Colarl Revolton mean that the station of labentay became eter more precarious even as thei of slic defranchised person re longs Lashetzy wee linble tbe fred Kom shi oly eve feos Rousing, and declared ineligible for ‘ons, whether chideen were unable to ater university and join he KKomvowwol or even the Young Ponces (or ags 10 to 14). A wave of focal pursing swep theoagh goverment efers, schools universities, Komsotsel and party oganaaions and even factories in 1929-30, Rural ERhoolteschers [ost thet jobs boas they were sons of pests alas ‘Tho had fel the village and found work in nda were denounced Uiedy widows of Tansegeerala were “onmsked” and subjected ro ‘rons digas. Nejhboes and profesional clleages accused exch ‘thc a hiding dase gies, Persons rom stipmatize clases omens bly eepotaed che parents n a vain elo: ro wipe ou the sin "To complete the pictace of roi upheaval tthe end ofthe 19208 and tegnning of the 1930 oro other imporant toil processes must be [eoduced The fist was pid industalzacon unde the Fs Five-Year pi daa en Rta, 1986195) (eocag 97 sc ss "Gul Rac Cas Tol ont 6 ‘TeBaebnventon Ofte + 29 ee oreo eetet rains ‘Seely elite formation, the making of Bilas “New Clase" With esate fe ler rn ey Fly ‘stable. The seller en ere ee ee ee er ee elec rele oe eee ee Ferman teas eco alee Poae aerate conan See cee eons eS Cee were preferred in other contexts. anions Seems ste nn, es = ‘ett Onesie, ea Sl ron ith Sos Regn 20a 15 Pos nd mean i eat haga Fp,40 + Chapert expaasion ofthe Fes Five Year Panic bon Hooded by new peasant ‘Sun who cansoted a ajc ofall workers in many braces of ‘he economy inthe eaiy 1930 eae bar ose these pesans—fredh {rom the farm many of them fing clectvization and dekulkiation, [Ecapercaced, sggeved-as proletarian in consciousness o cas c= ‘crear endl wert as ad slay 1s Ttany of ts mont capable and “consious" young cadre via “proletarian Promos whisk ok tm way Ee theory bench and leche ie new auminseative end proesional cares. This ejector ‘ised al und of theoretical problems. Could he pleat il be che ‘Eo ofthe Communist coon ft was possible and desirable o “pro store" works ourwards and upwards?” Indeed, the whole concept of “prolemian promorion” war dif squae with the bipolar or dis- Testa Srscrare of erly Soviet iapination, since is impiaions ‘weal erechicl. ths Rernaar nom Class Wa 14 19305 sic of meni ington of a ed ol fw ye “ie ox ne Coen es aed ns Al oe eg th bn cla cen aren corm pop a= Sec ar anf he Kanon so aloe cds a caret docad tore mundane doin sore SANSA a he ny np chat chen ced seer he 50 eny ae te aaa objec deer SUNS alee ed tenses, ond peas ao wor eek Severs Garp he py epee oe ng eee det and ec nolo iced Sree sTtbsae cpr adap bs aly prone bee ate Kans enn eres eae and re 32a) San dtm, New es on eer sdmisions SEUeoe Site tour hows carbon sf sceuon vo be on et See Seta meant be toc ore a6 1981 bt Seri aelyeotseont ind coins Aten 135, SS Stemy eligi and onary west edna stone TRC HRW sto of altos ofboth who post “The Ran et een ott thc ‘naar get pling cmon tpn mre we i tet of ele ae ate eel cng of omen pt ie eer esse a ae ran CRESTS ETS cenit ve WR Ne ee The Rober neon OfCisst + 41 the examinations" Ths removed altace of proleaan pity and lied he ears ban on admin of socal sine” and chen of les and wer deans psons "genera kak cle (hog not klk theme) had eo red tos ofr gh, ncaing te right ro ve, he male tthe 19305. The new ance owsed ak ehiten us pate a ama ferm at thea of 1935 aa onlcaeof Saban wer and combine driven. One of the detqaten combine der Tila, de ‘cid his ara tte son of deksahtacd Kulak comping at, dsp his ne ecard as Stakhanovit, lc pat off had ed to pecenthimatendig the conference because ofthe disgrace of his css ‘ckgound. At this pone, Salnitefeced the momestout words “A son doc not anower foc his tec™™ "The previous ral tat soos did answer for thei fathers had ben en forced with parla zal bythe Komsomol, whose succarv lenders inthe 1920 and eal "0s cherished septation for prokeatan Fg land. The Komsomo! had always used ls era i aden noe mens tothe organization. Thee ceria ware routinely ncorpecsed inthe rat of new Konsomolconscution prepred forthe Tenth ALE Union Congress of the Komsomol, which wat ee in he spring of 1936, Salim, however, amended she dao cininte cos dni tion in admisions, recommending ta the Komsomol shoul no Toner onside ie "pinay prelearian rganeason be rates a en ‘ranzatin ofl progressive Soviet yout workers, olehown, em, ployee, and seers” Te Comminit Pays admission pecedre wre tended not long afer the Komsomal'. Aer several as ofc and ine ‘laine recruitene that had prety ncesed the umber snd pe Boston! weight of woke nd psent meses the purty bad impo Stempocary moratodum on admission of ew meiber in 1935-1e 1936 ic announced new rues. onsdisions which woul come ite force in 4537 In frre the empbusis would be on erent of “tebe peo ein Sore soy ate than, before, pela ceunen The trac peoples was a new concep in Son Scouse imped x vats eachy along conus Chogh without defn eax) edit clearly epeenedadepate fom the orecamp, Manichean appenach fo dass hat had been characeic ofthe 1920 ln rece he nee Rain of TOE Sonata eine in ie eu sn tay Ta 30 Dc Bp. Rete a ha roa 2 cmt 9359.2 eter Sema rr hr nh oksa + Coser scat hm sh nisin leo way v esi santos cu eae pny weno cle er ty can var came i he non Foe eR Tne or San Come a a entre prion nt oi Fear ui cree ee ain tee py ral ie, Ts sh eh ed ts pm an oe ome er a ton mi he fortcaing Costin sa Sain a= a semen warpage og soc ae ronan i Nowe 9 Leo Ta ee so pode ere Sel eal Serban aan anon ners Sain se oe a ones Teen hi oe eco eolape enon tne at ochre nd wort a ee erty een Sc ar ee ecey son soe nor cae ce oi cae coon sang tee epouderta” oal Sviosei See lg coum fein ce cog Dts eps is wh tegen Tac oo “ae re lige a A et wipe pan a ‘atone Soe rt rae hen one ac) yg eli See tty med och com hance ‘hinimize any connotations of hieraschy. Nevertheless, 2 sense of social ‘ie er mein eae an dg Ten Srehieriieea amie he oie ovenson OF Chast + 43 quences definitly creping into the Communist discussions ofthe Second halfof the 1930s. In bis speech othe Eighteenth Party Congres, for example, Sain rebuked thse comrades who were sil inthe pp of the “old theoey" that woskers or pean who inoved up int the ineligensia were “second-rate people” compared wth these who fe ‘mained inthe proletariat" How could hey be second-rate people Stalin Shed, when thy belonged otha al aly rately stl proporson (ofthe popation thar was “clare and edcsted"? In tine, clare and ‘sucaion woald he accesible oa worker and peasant bot unl i, impli members the "new Soviet nteligenten” wer fsa peo le supesie i sail worth ro the escalated Workers sa pants. (Cass Teapscronis: “Tue ano “Now" In ge 19305, a nthe 1920s, the Soviet approach co las involved an inpbeanteetorpetve dimension. Even more signa than anid tal cucrene soc peson wa ici oven Areas entation ‘equied thar both situations ("ten” and now") be conigred. was tot enough ro know that a inivdeal was a woke wat hea "eade™ (baron) or "heedsaey”(potomstvenny) worker or Workee "om ‘he peatanty™? Similarly was 2 member of the inteligena “fora the old ioeligensn” ox “from the workers"? Was a kohouik a former oor east ora former klk? This preoceupaion wat elected inthe natal saves of various ‘rou taken inthe 1930s. There were fewer inthe Stalin peo than ‘ats, bat alnostall ofthe foeased on "the and now" question. The 1932733 Trade Union Census, for example, had 9 special ctegory of trade union members whobad cece aired rom the vilag, ad een ‘rovded a mote detaled breakdown oa this precolecvirtion css ‘aus as peasants (whether they were klk, idle pensant, 0 poot peasants) The 1835 Cena of Soviet Trading Personne! diiaguised mployees ond mansgerin sate and cooperate trae wh bad fomesty fren Nepmen or employed in pivate enterprise A surrey of senioe ‘adres published in 1936 identiedthore who were of wotking dass backend, aswel aa raecwer group tht had il ben “workers st the beach in 19282" "Oh dn” Sian Sochinov19.9. 39 “ron pepe 832 185 goa 189, goa ep 135 a yee Mom 1236, Sty monde itor! spn oa Sk oe a04 Cpe 1 ingorane of “he nd now” Hetcaron ills bythe oer wed in anes om Sontag dae SESE SSS afte 190 oie by he umber of geo ‘Sth cate tec oth sunroom andr SSIS Santon wa ol cused more porte han bi eae Sect ey amiy ta snd eesti so ae thtnared in jamin war pty and pal ct ica we ave Malntors ssarnce pete 055 Tiel ay dow he tenn he 930) ha he oi Gk Sa Taids wee ten exrene eiou™ ‘Re haking quan weed on ol pston* earings abet amavis ara a al cee gf eee eae cl te ago fet nck dee rae ni cape ei Deze ga dt tee a nel oir carta ced vg Sieroter rateteten eee atone tenant ace Sere Sore eae ncel eee ne nr te enn ih aarp eb sella te ato dg ch gis te arerrae coer eammtinetsd emer sot wesc Renita tga thane rok contains the sme usc. In both at opto ia wt ‘tgp norte ee ane thay to have occurred inthe feof he average Sovie cizen, and ase when iwat. Taken asa whole, the ois ofthese questionsis not so uch to sdeniy an individ lation invocial space htt eabish his trator “There wo apc term for socal oily in Sabet doors, but the ides was wry familia to Soe cine ofthe 19308, One trsiectory in particle wat often described and offered for emulation. This wae he Somer reson af the Horsto Algestory, which young man ie frm ‘he working as or peasy by dint of hed wock aad comment 0 the Revolution is elped by the parry to aque an edcation, and be comes + manber ofthe “sew Soviet inelignsa" hat, the roe Sonal and adminisacv el." Atypical example isthe short atobio- trepbicl ser oeed bythe ss yong pliician PS pk when Eotanascandkatinthe 1938 elestions forthe Rustian Supeeme Sov My life the ie ofan ordinary wari of the pact of Lenn and Salin. The son of landless poor peasant, I worked as wshepherd fom sso year of age Then Twas labore 4 crpentes arablak ardent, ‘iver student lo 1937, became an engieer Paphos peasant’ von who had worked for afew years 382 young ‘man in vasios blue-collar ocupations beloevctiving hs “pelearan romoton,” was of lowers origin, but ceary his actual working "se fliasons were marginal His roetaian oot wetein the nvenced {Sn of he 1920s, and ha lar war in process of concepl ewan inthe ner pre the 1930, le was bocong an iagioedcommanity ‘har exted only the past tenses place people came om, but not lace hey carey habe. Tthe spectrom of “then and nom” tjecrres, natal wera Benign 5 Popkows A second wajectory that frequently attracted aention in {he 1330s was the ofthe apparently harmless Soe ciently 2 Sshchashoi ot wekex, who kad suresh concealed his “alea™ or (int eget suc people always bad height eo employment, ad {om 1936 even had the ight 0 wor In practice, howeve thee presence In the workforee, when dscoreree, was almost invariably regarded 35 undesirable, and snr inerpreation was put on thei temps 0 “pas” ab aormalczene 'Thecoctmon “allen” cxgin of sch petont wat of court, thei vented bourgeois ofthe 1920, Like ke atten the invented peo Jag thirclats underwent evolson Butts evolution was diferent een lng te nn, Te Cul Prone rn oe 946 + Chagee of tring remained ino new for, it had arly made the tansion from imaginaton to substance Par ofthe orginal invented bourgeoisie spi off and assumed contere form in he 19205 a yesh (people who had low thee former privileged status because of the Revolution) snd liens (people who were Gaeaenachised ar socal alien) athe 1930s, the sme procer oncrred wih peasants expropie a klaks during folleesizaon, who formed anew soil das of he dekulaized (ask lachenne) “Tart one ofthe moe interting examples of Soviet invention of las, since econ be een a second steer invent lak eas afer the Fret atompt ad fled to win universal acrpanee. The concept of ilk caer of pests, eine by it exploitative celationsip to other peasants, wes very arate Communit athe 1920s Bat peasants Stee nt cei convinced that sachs ln exited in thei mia and Communic ofial fen found ical define there for kul ‘rt sy exactly which pestnte aa given commoniy they Sed. This Stsiguty wae complered resolved by delalaizaton. There might p= ‘iowsly have been rom ec agurent abot wheter peasant X—with is two cows, anorhar aod am uncle in ra nearby towa—was ot tos nora kala Once had ben formalydkalaiae, owes there Viena oom for futher apumentaboarhis tase wes raskulachon trthat in by defini former (Akslaized) kak. Thos the Soviet Tiida ofthe lak cles coal even be regarded asthe final definitive Suapoms oF Ovo Cuass ENDS “Then as eo, “Thabo the ban seer out the man won de, ‘nd hr on end thy ris ai ‘tub ceny mortl mdr onthe ers ind pn fom or oe tieirmeore ange Than cha moder Wiliam Shakespeare Macbeth Soviet Communist ofthe 1930s had the same trouble with the lass humy a2 Macbeth with Bangoo. The liquidation was eared out, bu che host earned vo tune then a the fest. Aesoeding to Marxist theo, trenformaton ofthe Soret Union's economic base and the relations of production had not only removed th ae emma of capitalim but so onranteed against the possibly of esrrection. Yee Communists could ‘The tloltevi tovenion Ofc + 47 sll ease the peesnce of thse cas emi that had been consigned to the dustheap of history andi red out o be lms more tril o ‘ght them argo. ‘This had been sombvely predicted by Stalin in 1929 when he ft for- mulated he they thatthe more cra the defeat othe clsseneny, the more desperate and ncompromiing would be his easances The theory had thea seemed impale nd in-Marsstorany Comins inclecruals, Five yar lates however, ster prctalexpecenc of he “Tigidation as a clas” of Kulak and Nepmen, the paradox may have acqiced broader resonance. Sali, a any cate had developed ‘thought mre fl His remarks on he bjs in 1594 were praphrsed ‘thos by Sate Prosecutor Kye How doc the question [of las cae] stand today? ste landowa- ing css in estence or not? No it has been awiated, destroyed ‘The eapialss? No, dearoye, amihlated. Merchants? --- ann Ing: Where are the [ld exploiting} clase It cetera none! ‘wil! Tie wrong! Those people ext... We did nor physically estoy them and they have fersied wi ail hi las yates, niathies, ations habits, opinions, woe views and 9.00 The thas enemy, deste te annlation of the clase of alo hase ‘mained in he person of living eepesenttvs of those formes ses An entrenched Communist mental of suspicion of class enemies ‘meant that he policies of cass concintin introduced inthe mid 1330s (sce above) were nether wholes recommended by pasty leaders or systemically implemented by lowerleve pay offs. Thee was. basic ambivalence on thle ise athe 1930s thar swung ove owed ietune relaxation only atthe end of the decade nthe perio of exh fon and hungover soir that flowed the bacchaaaia ofthe Greet Purges, Before tha ing i was alway ikely that a Coniunists head andhshear inluding, do dout, Sal's would be todd on gussons Of class andthe class enemy. The ational man might accep tha lat isciminatory polices had oulved thi day and teclass enemy was longer a el threat, bot he nritive man retained dows ond fal “We se examples ofthis at every level not only within the ary bot slko ouside i, The Sooensk Archive erin larg nb of party Jnvestigations based on the denuncone of perrns “linked wih the clas eaey” that conned to pour ia fom all idee—vllage 9 wel a 550 pcs eM hp 10 nil ein wo 2 pin jl efi Mah 34 fom er ha,48+ Cope ovens, aoapaty cars aswel party atv Tes sking that not ‘up ler zn icine 0 inform om hidden lst enemies” in thet rae, Commons oficias continued wo digaty these accosasons DY ‘Pe Satng theo srouly and conscensously. Hage number of bo SEER" Bantours were apent‘on carfal on-site Investigations of ‘Shee Kolkor gad leader wa ely maried wo he daughter of Tein rian, or Komsomol 7 died vo conceal the face that his Tse had been deklakize, ‘Th bar leadership was comets, bu not alway, more relaxed os sc quspon aches exons than rankead fle Communi With regard eter tals for example lal activists objected strongly when 2 ‘opel oallow the o eet rom ole fer thee yacs was Hated Erbe Second Congress of Kehoe Shockworker in 1935, peetumably Ae Sve the Charl Commitee secretary in charge of agree” [he proposal war eabsequenty dropped andthe deported kala re cee er ebjec: wo rswicton on moby wal fer te Seoad World Fee Spe th fact thar they werecalled up for wartime mary service ong with everybody ee)” Rta of snr nlecivenes i sociated with Stalin's inveiction ar tbe Saknanoits Congress of 1935 that “A son docs not aeawe for STR" ec above, pl). Uncharaceriscally, his emark was Ie i alo concntry the Soviet pees of 1935. Several aewsps see ien pbahed editors and areles shor afterward dat reat ‘ied te pars commitment ovganceapaist Cas enema, sft ‘neat impace, Moreoves, Si Basel dd aoc repeat he thought iat re nel coment ot include iin any of his published work, sara dcparre frm normal pact fas onl acl ced by his Bitagues" Ava erly hong the remark seems isa to hare co sa cfllore aed was fly aceite o Stalin, a cereaia mystery eesSepdedie Wasi Sal's opinion, but aoc tha of cers i the ade ‘upraia "son docs not names for is father"? Ha Sai ely said Seite the persteea ramor that he ha si it spread by enemies for the confsion of Commas? ag et cm Si in, 90 phat aS eel a ents 1 fra Se na shane oe» SSR Mosom 197) np wn ein he ced ab Kafr hima of he Aon cos ger in nathan Some Mah So re ier yn 9 re one 9h 8 ‘Te Bote nvenon OFCiame + 49 Inch ce pcr he 1930s, Commis hated soon theo a” knowing inci Bt et ‘em must be somehow to fame. This happened during the 1932-393 ‘Sine, whea he NKVD expelled andre fond “Case alias td liboy kom Mono, Leningrad, and oer ie te ne of theinoduction of pauper: Tere were sl tse epuio om rsinged in 1935 afer kro’ mare and local newspaper sporng them scarey even bothered fo extn why comnecon tight Oe pcted beeweeaKiroy's amin and abc ch forme Baton Tipo [rho ha) orhiowesjob nan indoeial eater even account, Sree sew ar aracheof soar relma Komendanor who] was tecnica tatty) Cera pasty felwsacgrecesiernekonss nn The ater war repented ven nthe Gist usps despite the ce tht leona” wer long rice Fe ie Yen Pan] he piary ‘are of itimzaon an that oc se gat enemies ote Fis see at ether nt nan of 157 EN sie ingsd RVD etd wry an wernt and Nepen a a patcdar eaegory of enemies ofthe eole™ Sthouhoud betpnclusdtondous® hierane pel te See colada pry of mee on treondr of len scl ogi, onnction by ange wih cae som inant och ng and conan sno bg ame ins were formally reise nthe Komsomel in 1938 afer Spang thar exeisonay® a Chelan forme dan cen were ‘ong thre eaced se counteceoleionnes n 1997-38 ‘The Hluheie “invention of las” in he 1920s probly sred at ese Soi well oegaizatonal and rertrcring functions, br there wa 4 rice co be paid In the Bs place, nda lar ete hat had be invented” were lable o cousin ments of derpion. That i opts ec i PEt teeta rose —abessieaieati erea srt Bosircerereeee scenes en.creed he ein’ at fi ens and ine at ofeach ShsSeon plac, bs noten of ene becane separable rom see tylintodsnta corse chemical note Hobhes! erties war emowsesedin he Get Pare ret ag rg o th acco agains “xem cern” eco al compere ay werent eh Scher mapas ete recuse he "Ce ee Rs tans sa potently har eo socety regardless of is pectic a eel tenons, abd ofea wore 2 mask cooling Bt rat ewer aimenies wheter ie kaewixor ocho mene ce en enone mest ramets OSE PORE Sa eat conceal sep fom being aro nine cass Toad to being per fan amend conspiracy, One sep fre, Se gine cs bs ol he oapicay wont all away. Class Identities In NEP Society (CLASS RELATIONS arco sry impotent by Cm ‘mut adr, im acndoce wt throm, These, ‘rns apple mary cones sa fi ee yop of slang nd of eld gre "ede laud pty ours nlite ma of de Sled person te employed the mas ht ass te ‘Shalini profi he mas of i fragt.” “The 19208 were he great age of Marit ana of Soviet soe. The cians coleced daa om te as compestion of very conerrable ‘onion and organization, nding he Common Fae The ‘esas was diigey snl ro Senn the bred st cat Enteric of-poor esant™ mle peasant and kul The oc ign of ate oiasand verity Stes was epee investigated ‘od tabolaced. The stata department part Cenrl Comte ed guidelines on occupations and clas dasiiaon: rvediggs and ‘hauteur ened ost wee poetan” bo domes sera For tery and shop amltane belonged ro the clas of uno eric pron So lad oblast persona Te was no ja tlre etoty that ed he Bose fo colece these fviologial data on sac a lesa As doused in the perous ‘Bape thy need the norton oderta cary oth omnes Gcininatory lepaton, which afte people's cvryday if ax wel ssc sts in the new soi. Bo it gk became Obvon that ‘denicaion of indo by clas was ny ar sey that ‘adjust brn hough evolutionary upheaval a 1924 oficial condos {nga peg of Pers Usiveniy found ieroediney dita to enty ‘heclas positon of india den, despite itemive interviewing ‘spy td ein mai "Peto Ca ey NEP Se fi Sl ps Atak oes "FS ak rts! pth cabin igo enh 9 i oe a ERO pr open ods sos Hoan pita ata Meno Se ‘del 08 pin52+ Chaps wha did your parents do before the Revolusinl?* "hy father a work her sche document.” ‘tke doctmen which twenty Yeats of sys: "Metalwork in depot ofthe Singer Company.” “And wie did he doin 19182" “Heworked here st bake be wasn bakes are “Hinva metalwocker anda bakey” says the registrar in bewdermet. hd then in 1919 and 1920, where dl he work?” ‘the Almercan) Rll Aeron) offered Pap place asain esto, He worked ar an ARA inspector unl 1923... And hen be was unemployed fora yea” sha des Beda sow?” “Now be bas go a job. Hece i the document from the Labor xx change" remade Sena the request of «priate entrepreneurs ‘manage he Ihe dege of occupational an social mobility was balling ro the Bol Theis, was lo tewideting an feghening for dhe individuals con ‘oe Was thc ern sradene fate in his own eps, # spray Feast preerartan ou anew cert 0 she ranks ofthe whitecola ‘pay bourgeole? Was bs social slsdeneiication shared by his ds Tero aceed to quay ar proletarian inode: ro stayin college? If ‘Re saeed the eating regia, would she fel es to be prletar LEE’ she fale would se aezape» per bourgeois Henig? qe Bousutvgs Avo PRotsraRAn IDSSTITY “The mos desirable las ident ia NEP Russiaproltarian—va, for thac reason, the mse problemas The Bolshevik ary defined sas the prey ofthe proeara and the events of October as he pecetan ‘evalua The nda working las had, for the mos art suppor ‘he Bolsheviks in October The Bolsheviks assured that this ass would ib provide the neesary sil support fr fhe new revolutionary 5 {ine the “ictaochip ofthe proletariat.” Tot what ith rane out pat be 0? 1320 and 1921 the Blais contonted a double disse Inthe fiat place, the industrial working Clase had largely Asinerated, Ya the Second place many of he remaining Workers Rad become ested 0m shin my yo fiat amen Kn mad’, sets ia NEP Sosy +53 the Botherik parry, as was erent in he stices ia Petrograd in ealy| Bal and he Krona revot, Wahine pry the Worker Oppostin fad mounted ssgacan, hough imately ener, challenge to ‘he Bolihevik edership. Al hie prodsced ects ofa in which leading parry member (incloding Leni) hovered on de bin of sil sionmest with the Rusia working cas’ Bur proved impossible fr {he pany ov abandon the pelearian connection. A major fal party ‘memert in 1931 had been wotkers before the Revolution and dened thenssver st peoletarian. The pay nella who often sa them {elves ahaving adopted peoleraran” deny when they bec real tlonare,werealso emosionlycomuited. The intelectual, moreore, Fecnugit onthe hors of + Macse dilemma. Hf the proltatae was no longer the bse spporton what cla dd the party andthe new Soviet depend? To that question, here was no scepable sree! “The party remained proletarian by sldeion, anda the beginning of 1924, with the announcement of ee muss reerumoeat of workers gown athe Lean lrg” the pry lenders id thie br fo crm eit Tuo sali For the Boley, however the word “role {rat not simply a oynonpn for working ats” Rest poleaians ad to have prolesrian cosoarness, which om the Belshevie standpoint Implied commitment wo the Revolution and che Bosbevie Paty. There twee many actual worker at the beginning ofthe 1920's who fae ds ‘stand wee theeforeshowa tobe Saciental ements” nthe working ‘dhs, people whowe mental wat eretaly peas or per bourgeois “Thee wore als increasing mombers of “proletarian,” often but not invariably members ofthe Bolshevik Pact, wo had once been workers byoeespeion and social postion bur were nowy inthe atemah ofthe Revolutoo, Red Amy commisirs and commanders carer inthe 2 Seviet and pasty bureaucracy, Ie necemary forthe Boles to sings then fom "workers he bench,” while a he save ine tmphasiing thee consioning pokearanwdeniy™ By the early 1920s, therefor, anaes ofthe cas composon of ini tons, ncladng the Bleheva Psy sel, sed eo categories for Css cee sinh ee len FTC ot naw in an tl ia nor aie Teh Fry Coes. lor sess un nog whine eh ‘a pees py oh poy Rags ee age (CE erat ad pry hc” Bey ead RRP Mr 31 Srepaptas oder acon 1906 "eles ek! ml “ea tedenifcaton: “before and “after” the Revoluion, The Sie ctegory, Social positon, wa based on socal origin and ocupation in 1917, oF fome ces occupation at ce moment of ong the Bolhewe Paty. The Second exegory wat current oecapatio. Thus, a wotking-las party adr would beled a werkng-dasby socal postion and whitecol (ucharbhi by care xeupation. A Bose worker who had been &pessar at the te of joining the party wold be Hite as peasant by ‘etal postion and werker by cure oceaption.” ‘For latex purpose in the 1920s, the before” category was sll the crsial one. Whately matered about cass, Gom the Bolshevik "tandpoint, was itsmpliaton foe politcal atid Tsommcone had been ‘member ofthe expotng classes o9 the eve ofthe Revolution, he was likely to rere the passing ofthe ol rege and dist he Bolshevik Bor someone hid bonged tote exploited mass, he was probably fn these ofthe Bolsheviks andthe evolution, There remained a resideal problem about the “before” eaegory, ‘namely that social origin grokhoehdri| and peevolasonary occupa: ‘ion di no always coincide, For example, twas common for & worker to have been born and spent his ery yeas he vlage For porpeses ‘of par entry aod the ke, hi steal pono was deed as pecan, ‘Bot what wat the gh eategory for former workevlage bom, ead ‘ov acadre? The snswee was stil proletarian, even thowghhe individual in question might have spe lest than ten of his thiry yess srualy| ‘working ae rorker in a factory Since there were many such case, the Bolseviks isin moved tor cows of formative proleran experienc ata detenaant of ‘las postion. There were n feral gullies, bata aul of chumb, Seven or more yeas experince as a workers factor before te Revol ton or before josing the precevoltionaryBolhewk Party and Beco inga profesional revliionay) was assumed o make ran prota. "ain, became widely cropted that Red Army sericea vol sneer ding he Gt Wars consied footie proletarian exper- ce, a lea foe persons of lowecclas urban or pesaat background. ‘has a young man of provincial, probably peasant, origin could legit smacly cla that he ale forthe abla (he workers’ preparatory ‘ehool sat wae «ppg stone to higher education ithe 1920) “Way ‘dont they take me ered inthe Re Army aaa volunteer, am wordy, have eared the Rab. "* See So mtn so Varn inp 1927 eso 93 ey 2b no kent og Comrie hed RAP at (Gs essa NEP Seciey 55 Proustanay av Wonkive-Cias anrimas ‘When worker ofthe oder (pcerevolasionsy) generation described them selves a peoetaran,” this was sign that thee consciousness had been ‘aise by contact wth the Bolshevik oe oer eveluionryiaelecuas: ‘he word woald no aterwisehave ben apart of thie voabulry. "Fo Jearan” was somptimes used interchangeably with “wodker"abochi, ‘bur was mort often sed to denote a parla ype of workerone wh had perticpate ia labor organizations ad pote deed with the worker faetory (shop collie and wat aware fei as (he as enemy and he Tees tate a he apa al “When the Bolsheviks spoke ofthe polar inthe 1920s they sei, ‘hough above al ofthe type of worker “tempered inthe revolionary struggle.” Ba the eolainarysugge was ove, and this ie of ple {arian consciousness probably could not be eprodced in future grec: sos! As he Bolsevis gradually redefined the concep of proletarian ‘ovsioutesintoa notion of revoltonar and lima civ rrpon Uy, the distance beeen the ideal proletarian and the actual worker stew lager ‘With the revival of indusuy and reformation ofthe working css in the 19205 new wockng let mentale merged and old nes revved in ‘ew forms. Among the recognaable workings (ot not completely "prleterin”) iene of NEP was tht ofthe skilled worker with ee to the land. Altnough Mari sociologist ofthe 1920 often red 0 iinimize oc explain away these i they see to have been sengtene in the Gl Wie yeas, when many workers inclodng skilled worker) ‘went bck othe lagesPeshaps the most interesting eae of workers “es othe and” during NEP that hey were in many cases othe Anmproving frmer—somedmes the worker peat hintel somes 8 close famiy member In ome inde, ke eles ne fav ‘Gon, whole commune of worker were nwoled in potable frm ‘aati wr) spat ote ID) maa lr im, x ee Se ie Rowe“ ad Coon Sx Sc: Were he ‘igh ig Naas of NE eRe p 7 "te rep ng apy of Raa wre ws fai sols eceeay more ot tr ear prncly age ‘Shien gers eapethepole 7, epee yop ehis i ems Sonny eee permed fee cureye erent pr, Seeing apron pnme me aS cal em aS Unga Orda ova cod nen low egnieing" The sal of this phenomenon was ceogniaed ony athe nd of he 19205 and chen onl semipubiiy), when many sil workers and their families wore tresened with dekeiakiztion = “Another emerging working-class mented might be describe, with spologes vo Lenin a6 “rade union consclousoess” The wade unions of NER, whowe tone sem to have been set by mal, middle aed, femly “urban wotkers ho had been nthe facroriesbfore the Revolution, were commited to working within the system bu alo to defending labor's forthe union} teres agaist Sovee management Since unemploy- mene was high, dhe unons did their best to enforce closed-shop rales Sind line the infu of conunionied pean Thee bar war not oly fnsiperane bao some degre anwomen and antadolecen a wel Irene was seramed by mort rade anions ht adult urban ales needed he jobs mos. "Young worker ofthe pontrevolionary cohort often hd prickly el ios withthe elders in the factory. They were sid vo be dese, ‘overconfident and noc amensble ocolectvecscplin. The ds donot always want to obey the admiration or the foreman toc asyone se. f forthe good of prosxon, they ges tranfrel 0 ‘tore work ia anober hop, they ake objection aa ete 0 ge Toth he foreman andthe admiration a tating Boye til wer be nd the er ea the chers and delay “What did we ht foe? ‘Youth unemployment was high, ad it was haed for young peopl to get ‘actor jos Those who did were an educated and ambitious group, ie “Uren in sococlrral pole" and poiical cule rom their white- Collar and student pes, whose sights were often st (orsieusl or a onsiosh beyond the factory. Young prolesians were am ec group Sn NEP socesy They were the ores, the coming gneraon the fate ble of socal The Komsomol and party wanted hem ames, fn every edocational nstton athe county wanted them a dent ‘meet ts proletarian quot. To bea young sled male woeke inthe an entre pe vrei ere ate erg sm esi ay oe te rr ay ‘aie aE er renee teeta ee accra ‘escent crmeearreas aaa TES, i aaeenaerainprecnarase emer Are ir a (heer in NEP Soieny +57 1320s was to havea new kind of proletatin consousnese—dhat of 2 potently spwrly mobile prolarianvydvchenets ‘Tue Bourcsors Orie Inthe rection er. many words changed hi ein conection theca of tne ‘nd with the moods ond fering of seal pros. Bowens and pty-bowos nc hee pairaie ‘The bourgeoisie was, ofcoare he athe of th proletariat in Maes nas sod elite sia oe was one the Bolsheviks aricully de liked yee in Some specs could be seen inheriting In Soviet irae of the 17205, the tem “Bourges” was applied othe lass enemy ingen sear we ato dhe diet cl oun NE oan “bie (cher ofthe ol privileged clases, including the landowning and bo ‘eaucrtic abit), Nipen, nd the non Commune inelignsa ‘Alchough Russa had os age past ofits prerevolionary eles dur inthe ears of wag eevoltion, bd cl wag ata ert oF expropriation and emigration the old "bourgcosie" wasslseem aya tres by Base viks Tas was becte ofthe possibly of captalitrvanche sage From abroad Lenin explained They [Russian bourgeise] have retained thie class organization aod, ac an emigration which probably number oe ad al to ‘vo milion persons and possess more than By daly newspepes of allche bourgeois and "soi (cat, pry bourgei) partes, the ‘erants fan amy and many lnk ith the ternational Bourges. ‘Thiemipeion devote lite ength and resource tthe destucson of Soviet power and he restoration of eptalin ia Rosa” ‘The byhio~thoe af the former privileged clases who had emained in [Rusia—were aasumed ro be potential also the Rusia and foseign ‘apa abroad, Boh feared the inflsenc in Soviet aie, ren ‘when (es was peal the case) they occupied hamble poston ered ‘er of pies, abd tied ro conceal hi past. Tie children, abo sen S54 pose source of corroption, wee barred fom the Prone he Romsomol and as ar as posbl higher educational nine Stic ek 19295. ME en Peles soci 55m rl (Moon, 3969.3 ii in ea oo Ry ht eeNepmen—the “new boxrgose™ of private entrepreneurs engendered by NER wer also regarded with reat disvust and suspicion. While [Nepaen, ike Derbi showed few signe of pais atv or apis ton the Bolsters si bought o hem = poem challengers and f= Tur leaders of «rer to capital, and regarded thir ecence as 8 Soy of anning. Although thr actives were no longs les they had been when they operated on the back maker snes Wr Cor ise id age corey any marked irae in socal oerace on he Bieri side Nepinen wer eartote gure, epced a lated nd rapacious exploite, avoling slong the aly with elf tnportane x Pression in thecompuay of heave, nrediby well-roomed wie, Sresed up ok” “The ajc of Nepmen sem ro have been paren, oe descendants of the old merchant capt busines dase Neverthe Poni inks forged beeween Nepmen and member ofthe ol ites ‘was snxowly monitored ad ooe ober (a contemporay criminal Investigator) aimed that "Leningrad Nepoen exgesy ariel brides ids pricy and dacl es andthe way of fe and manners ited the riba high sock inevery ay" Selmore alin, and ‘more pla ws the dang of rapprochement beeen Nepmet and thenew Soviet elite: Under NEP conditions, the max protabe entree ‘ei cies were sees the boundary ofthe public and pena e- ton and te Nepmen's function as elhach mahi a valsble contact fortobheie manages and indus fei a Sov dicoune of the 192s, educated pcofesonals (member of the nligensa) were alo “bourgeois” oles they had prove other ise by joing the Bolshevik Prey core the Revlon The te Bo. Sheva ed forthe ineligestin as *boarens special” This hed Sn fnic ing snes hotly the Rassan eigenen had suppor radical causes, padediself on being above cas, nd despised the cou ‘mercial bougeae ar pilin, Neretcles the ligentsa had been {ne of th lite of prererluionary sce ad, unlike eke prereol tionary lies, thal energed fom the wpheaval of revolion sad ‘war more o site, unayapae to Boles, and only cow ‘ech was a el ad ater ace por Kor Spe ang ane on en pe dar Mon 9999338 (tose 1979p. 1-17 Lado Ruy Renna borbev SR ace ete eFC 7 "Rae retro cmped of ig ‘ios of es density a group. The Bolabevibs had sone eon to fae the iuligenusa as viable competing elite with preasons o moca if oe polit edeship. “Bourgeis specials” remained a claivelypivegsd group inthe 1920, becuse the Holiheie leader concaded that their sls wee ee plceale. Bur tis poley was aoe popular wit the rank and fle of the ary or ity kan lowercase sympathizers. “Whatever privileges you five them, ke the proverb—’No mater how much you fc wal, fe il loks the Foren." one sovieedepury Koes the provinces complained "The word ‘intligent is becoming» erm of abuse" an Ol Boles ‘clea cormmeated with sar in the mid 1920" Icligetschin, fn vnambigeovs porte, war widely ed daring NEP eipecally 0 Komiomol cle desibe wader that were Uber, rail, ‘wen, and Inking the necsary Bole quale of ted” ugh ‘Biedednes) The dst wih which any lowerdas Bolheiks wed ieligensia i well conveyed in a report bya Workers" Conta ff on the Stansaky These in Moon Te shenter people mocked ‘the Dolev slogan and ancred hee hired banners wer "antet cally ipcasing,” the geval nnagar was a repellent manifestation ofa cas tha has hd cs day, a peophant "Today he shakes our party members hand and wet bow low to icy ba ia fac bates tat Communist o che depts of his soul, hater everthing Communit, eery value thatthe woking lass apd the party neues -Rovrczots avo Parry Bounceois TexneNcies Rank-and-le Blohevisofen used a “genealogical” apposch to cass inthe 1920s, although hi upee the Pctye Mars intellectuals ™ "Once st bourgois always 2 bourgeais™ was What the genealogical approach pera sis Dewatoge Mpegs Kame SSK 40 sop. Sm ref ce, lon 0 ale "Shay eS VI ime ofa Konner Aten ky Sanam 16 mow a8. Rae C3 Faas Msc Coal Commi) ington ‘ata wos tnfosae VERO ten jay 199) baleen "lan roca ste le ee ding fee “hc start Witt wen aye pune ey oo ae te al San dite enemas es REP). Toe 122— Sapa cw a 91S60+ Caper smenot in pac, but that dino mean tat members of eter clases ‘weresafe ro the siren song ofthe bourgeoisie. The Bolsheviks bleed ‘hat chee evolution had inerered wit he sociey'saataralprofeson to capitals, and they wee conrtanly on gard agin a sponta reversion. "Bougels” and "petty bosgens”Infuences were evry ‘wher and person ofan soil clr wer ale eaccumb f then Discussion of “bourgeois” and “pry boargois" tendency could sometimes be taken mace ot lest ierly. Fer example, a worker whose ‘vile was in rae might be sade be under per Bourges ene gcnc: [El iasence, anda workeepestant who clang to his pot and in the vilge might be thought vo show peny bourgeois propeetoril instincts, In other cass, howeve, the acetone had's moe tensouscoanecton| ‘0 social reality For example Bolhevie Oppoionss and pstons who bad once belonged to her poieal partes were idendfable io facto 2 bourgeois opty bourse There were serious reasons for the party o fae embourgoiement of is cadres In taking power fom the old cling classes the Boers ‘ke inherng materialist bourgeois values an lof ie ae wel. Ts vas decribed nthe 1920535 the danger of “degeeration”—that i lost (ofthe Parry's revolutionary dedication, Sach degeneration might ceca, Bolsheviks feared, if paty cadres were corrpted by Byosle Nepren, snd bourgeois intellacuals or by contr wih the freien capitalist word ‘Nepmen might courup dhe Soleil with whom they dd busines by aroasing “sprains towaede the ‘eye’ and wig “bribery end allkinds of smal serves, ctetainments and ‘pf As ated above, this was not an ile fear in Moscow, a lear, Nepmen, meee ofthe old ineligensia and party leaders mingled nthe cale sce of NEF, and itis reasonable wo suppose that in thie mien "bougeo” valet ‘were mot likely eo induence Communi than vce verse Blehevies slto feared degeneration of cades through contact with the boargois Speciatswih whom they worked. Iwas assumed tha the cadres would feel chemselres tsi! and cla diadvantage nce the yet wee likely to now more about the buss at and than thie Communist superiors, and they migh react by inating aed asimdatng the vals ofthe pen. a ely Sei year he mang psn” diy eae iin sin ayn heroes Oe iy ye inn nary ry member ol cela fon ming ay lsat Ith Sn ents nen Coen et bn po oui’ A Boe ap nes Mans AN "SS Zire “Thece were dangers onthe domes on, of eades of lowecclass ign martied wives who came from the od pied tnd cent thasis Sich mariage were noe uncommon and often ad vse est fon the Commanise husband’ este growing taste fo oy, chi teuing of ciren, and soil interaction wih aie ls element” a lading the wives relatives, were noted ae consiquae of such meal ‘anes. The Pary's Cental Contol Commision recived. many ‘ompiinsfeom akan le Communists about adres wh had marred ‘or of their clas or example 1s i pecmisible for an old party man o indulge in» pesonal fie that is often pilitine and pty Bourgeois (with an aristocratic wie tnd ao one How dots the Cenval Conol Comission ret wes our party smembes, especialy those holding responsible postions, throw over their peasant or working clas wives end familie and go off with ‘ret daughees and the former wives of White ofers>* Mn chairman of the Central Control Commission, sympathized with the concemsexpesed in hee noes He told young Communi tat ‘Weare the governing cat, nd that's how we ought o tink of ou selves: Repprochement with «person ofthe camp host ow ought to provoke such pblic cece dae person woul think tity ne before making sucha decison... People ought to think many tine ‘before deciding to macry a wile com wn alien class” Inadatonso the fears shou bourgeois infuse in Commis private lives, young Communiss and Komsomols i parsesag were coneeted shout pey bourgeois influences, gamely the daager of succumbing 1 ‘meshchanso, pery boargrois phism and rlgay The term “meschasto," derived fro the prerevautonay eran ssl (o cial exam mushchone, was always sed pejocativey. This ange had ‘root ithe dacoore of he prerevluinary Rusianineligetsi, fr hom the ales sscited with mashes conastte the sites ‘ofthe value ofthe itligensi. For Commis youth mesbchonsto was the antithesis of proletarian, ‘evolutionary values, burcalso hada nore specie meaning. Inthe Yung Cammunis milieu of NEB ashchnsto meant opps, patarhal, ‘arrow contensonal views abou sx, maage, and he foal. The Implication (rjc by many ole pay aes ichdng Lenin Was ‘nt Ren comps Kansas ye Sok Baw Leig, 92), 6.that proletaians and Cocumanits should berate chests from any sch conventional resin on thee personal ive: ‘Dott shin hat your family—husband, child apd 50 02—should con tte an obstacle eo yoa or me fon felings foreach ater ae deep Shiner wrote the young “proletarian” writer Aleks Fadecy in 1924) Welie i the Land of Soe and woul be share for ut to bebave like pty bourgeois Pisin (pothodi” na mach)" Noo ring to work hay na he prosperous pe rye reach mow. oeryone yng work Inset tbe poor peso, because that bs Become ‘ore adnate lage “The Bolsheviks and other Russian Maris beleed thatthe peasantry ‘ras divide ort lertin proce of dividing) int ase, with “halk exploiting the “poor peasant cls, while “mid peasant,” a et an- ‘erent, oecupied the socal erzinbeewee he two exzemes. This view ofthe peasantry and is development was disputed in the 19205 by nco-Populise like Chaianoy and has ince been contested by many histor nd saciologirts." wae cen problema is pp tion to the Russian pesanzy ofthe NEP penod if nly becase Ofte ‘equaling fect ofthe redstution of land in 1917-18 "Nevertheless fons of economic and sacoeulcral differentiation did xis n the Rosian pesantry in tht 1920s, Some peasants were wholly Sependenr upon clivation of thi lltment for sari, while otere ha mponan secondary occupations (ade rf sesonalSepartre [oethod] wo wage-earing jobs in mine, acti, aod commer a Calere), many of which brought them in contact withthe town. Ook mii, in parse, had lng bees aasoclted with the iaeoduction of Urban ates and mors iat village soe.” ule A 4h 4a dad Fa Mayne api Wc. ing ts pings Treo Mode vi Rain Pn ove oer Cando, 68 nd ‘ol are err Cit Pla nl of Penny ns Dig Sat ‘hey 109905 Oe 7 rnp en itn Ton abr th a fe coy elias eee ae Thea of tn Nes, 0 (ls Len NEP Socey + 63 “The Bolsheviks were inlined to interpre al confit within the pat any a sas conti: berwnenexlotedpooe peasant and exiting elute, While the existence of cast bas ight be disputed, conic of ‘rious Kinds exited Dosing the Civ Wax, when tbodaiki and Yorker pennss were forced eum othe vloger aed ike «ing ‘he lund ote whoa he animal and expen to reader hi fea Ste many conics aoe between tbe ne arias an the ol inhi ins Probably the new cals with hi cba experince, kl and Ieracy, were dene! to det the eid ofthe commune. Wien etkned and oppremiy for ose ersngs mish a Sartor prov. fic he wid 190 the former ood “poor psa ates thr opaciy osppor themes by agrcltre stone, "were forced fostay inte lage and entered tha coi with he lak hoses (oer) “Conic lio azote onthe basis of generational differences, on ia connection with ood which was pry commen soe YOURE? le pasa ore return of young men from aay serie. Te, [Grovamie here ourmigrtion an rthod had ong ben «major fact, tf peannt ie there wore aor geeeasonalconfics over calare.The [elon ofthe 1920s forthe young male pests of Tver was "Ce “War” ties (Red Ary anflrms or homemade imiatns wor With trv lentes bes nd denn) Young pest women ee region roe simiertyaaced vo sie of moder, aban rs that hei elect Elona” ‘Einreaomaleoesume tha peasaas who wee young and bad ad contact with mon arb ort tough wage wok inthe owes of itary seve war ore ly han herpes syne with Sone fower The Komsoma whore conriaeny was youth, proved centage + te nt te "L.A. Andina ad M.N. Smal, Kaftan yt bloc Kain obs) ancy an Sot a Oot he tn Sovetwaedf he pny at pepe ‘re oon, Th ape ee oe de Seoebiceeghat ube caeteciar+ Chamerd one ofthe most flee purveyors of Sore vals in the county Youn pesans who bad serve inthe Red Asmy probably payed ini Istlyimportae ro. In 1927 more than half the cain of Rossa ‘ura ove were Red Ary veterncs™ The Bolshevik’ description of tc url sympathizers a por pat ant and thie opponents a lal wes simp thi ott ny that the clas categorie they applied othe pesanry were meanings. The terms "poor pearant” and "kak" had lng bad menning in he vila, Moreover, they sequredadlonal neaorng in the 190, becae the Bolsheviks gave dem practical sigifcance-A new "poor pentane” cle wat ratedaer the Revolution ata real of the fc thatthe Boltherks Fewarded people dete as poor peasants. Silay, a new "hulk" ‘olecame nto existence beat the Balser poithed peopl ented Skala “The bass of “poor peasant” identity wasthe possession ofan allotment ‘00 small for is cultivation to suppor the peasant family. Poor peasants ‘were therfore peasants who were in danger of being forced of the nd who ofen had to seek ouside income as oehodnik The Base of “kala ident was oficial the exploitation of poorer peasant, 28 ‘mans, for example, i hiring of nonfamily abor In pace, home “kala was often almost syaonymous with “prosperous penant” In many acas, kulaksofen bad nonageclarleasings (om wade, il {ng and oon} ar well aya compartvly lage area under clvaion, Both poor peaans wich slow average sown are sn prosperos pea. nt (th above average sown are) tended bemore iterate than oer (mide peasants Daring NEP, peasants often denied the exience of any special group of poor pease inthe village ("We have no poor peasant; we ae all poor petsant")” This shoal be taken wih large rain sl since it ‘rat surely sme prima athe xx collector Lae, daring the clei [Eaton and dlalakizaton carspagn at the begining ofthe 1930s, pea ‘nt aio often denied the extenceof lake But sch denials wee ot Characters ofthe NED pried when the term seems to have brn ed faily fel by peasants a well as Sovierofial Te main beet avalable for "poor peasans” inthe 19205 waselease ‘oom te agrcalrl tx. Poor peasants alo had preference in edie: Gina a memantine al cn kt pa i San mmo oh, (Clas estes in NEPSociny +65 ional, Komomal, ad petyadmisions at lest ia pial, and were ‘apposed to have st eights ojos in indus, cecal and admits: tiveyobsin the ural svi Kolake were pnaled by being Seprved of the might to vote, and they ba lat priory of scousin al seasons ‘ther poor pesens ha spirit. The exience of ch pales and ‘ewards presumably ant tha the egal premise oor peasants ‘were Soviersympathists,and Kalas were hostle—becane at least ‘ome deze, effing prophecy. Tn rome context, sotaly toxon, pone pearnts were recognizable by ther marginal saat a eltvson Bu i ober cote (education, Komsomal membership, jos) it was probably thi racy and stats ‘pan or present eed har eabled ofa to wentiy them 35 faniidats for advancement (ydezhoi), Foren kulaks were wel wae of thei poson during NEP andoffea ook caceto avoid behavior likely to ean te bel In Seria survey of peasant wading babi di ‘fone nt lak bought “maa jrdeal books” and knew more about ‘he Soviet Land Code andthe Geiminal de than most local ayers ‘Since was advantageous fora peasant to "work his way int te poor peasantry” this group undoubediy covtained many persons who were ‘Seely importers i the ategory—partialacly prosperous peasants Shd rol pras and thie clden, who were ofa dedvastaged ‘bt tended like tbe poce peasants, o bave above-average lacy. The Fig rom one [cass exegory vo anos” Such egal recansication was nonsensical foe thinks of cassn Mansst ‘terms, Buc made perfec ese om the asmpion that clas was ately ‘reclationary way oftlkng about ssl, Tn the higher educational system, to, car ensties ware often com tested by persons refused admision on as grounds or expelled nthe course of socal pares. The whole ee of Cast dcrminaton in edoce- ‘on was a pail oe o Boies old enough to semember the Hine wiz ina policy sift unisenally condemned by Ratan radials, the “ari government had sought ort the educational tou of se bers offower solovia "children of cook and washerwomen"). Nobody weorsofarao ei thee of anew Soviet sadovnast ooslvi ores) Erplicyin public debater, bat the “quota poi” that developed it fbetionin the 1920s had daconertng overtone, When, fo example, ‘teachers pes a goverment spokesman on the ee of"acy of ght with workers” in regard o univerity admins i wa alo aif 2 time wasp had plnged Rusia back 9 1767 and Cate the Geeat't Legale Commision was arguing shout sore privileges. “ns of sosiovie surfaced too, in the “genealogies” approach whereby an indole” late was determined by the classe came rom, not the clas postion he caret osepied by virtue of excapcton, ‘The “genenlogia” approach clas was mocked bythe party's ine Seca 92 20 eghati 5 Toran kere ssa Rap Comi of En, sorbent aus see conten: ah esi te ties eon ‘Settle nin ard opengl py ae ‘pis Scene RR ae (OT hue and Sodore «77 ‘uals an dadsined by the Central Comminee’s satiticans, whos de- terminations ofthe caesar ofa Communit wed the ewe intiesont of “soil positon” (erully dened in ts contrat an individuals bse occpaton in 1917) and exrrenteccupation. In general, Comets nists in the 19205 used genealogical tem relly Spann in the discussion of proletarian: twas, of cours a nae of pee Be "heredity works” (potomtvem rach ba the otha 20 ny workers, including worker Communi, bad infact been born earns was no donb an inhbting factor, as wee the sonpoltcan ets of ‘many ofthe pre's leaders. As Caneral Commitee’ stasstcal depare ‘nent put, wth regard o party spembers i was Ro so poreant who the parents of a Commas wee for ti lays sles ght imei on| his whole spiital pole” chan his own meet lass experince sn cccuational history” Genelogy war iveked rani for purpove of ‘Stigmaczacon Regardless of exupation or convictions, was very di cu frs pris son t shed his "“rom the clevgy" abel nel, his inerted membeship ofthe dutoonoe soli) and nats hard fot ‘noble’ son wo live down hie aristocratic origins 1 Soviet classdscrminatory laws. were creating new “sosovie clases," howevey hs was as lnvolunary pris tht went wonoted| bythe Bolheike,Rosian Marx inlesoals were dep commined tothe bel thacases and cass relations were objective socioeeoncmi pPheoomens, and that gathetng ifonaation on them waste oly way fogaina siete understanding of octyl was in thi spr, undoube, ily thar even before dhe Ci War was ov Lenin was pressing fr 2 palin cn a woel prov te don osu clas ‘A national population census, designed and aalyed acceding to im pecable Masse principle, was conduced in 1926 ané pblabed in ‘ys volumes. ts base spioeconomic ago were wage ad salary ‘earner (praetor onthe one hand, and "proprocy” (Rhos), lurkan and roral on the other In the ite oup, which ineloed the ‘aire peasy as well as urban anne and businessmen hose "Sting aot oa VP ene Poi 92 de Naw cot ein win b wt wring Te Dsante Copii ae Rene Sipe igi ca etc are 141M Dren ker deme Dns a wd 8 ‘ieee of apa ees78 + Chapter loving hired ahor (cpa!) were cgoroslydifeentingd from thos ‘working alone ot withthe asstance of family members The cea, ‘which was exhasivel anand and stud by contemporary demogre: hex, socolgis, journalist, and polticans consiuted a major sep {nthe Marsit"lerng” of Rossa sock” Of cours id not sad could nor care clases in he real werd, but it ereated vomnething chat might be ale viral clases a satis representation that enabled Sovie Marsa (ond foare generations of historias) operate the rons that Rasa was a ls soir. Pastronrs ano Satna Sostovwosr K ‘Ac the end of 1932, the Soviet government invodacedittenal patsporc foxthefsctime since he flo th old rene. This was reaction othe lmmedite cheat ofa lod of peasant refuges from the famine shen ‘countryside overwhelming the towns, which were aleady dasclly ‘overcrowded as a esl ofthe largescle out-migration associated with ‘ollecvizaion and the rpid expansion of industry under te is Fve- ‘Year Plan. Butt also cused out to be something of «milton i the tveluton of new Soviet soslove order (elornse) Jar at Tarit pes ors had idnifed the bearers by sstovi, othe new Sone passpors ‘ented them by "socal poution”—in fer, by eas. [Notable featres ofthe new paspoct system were tha the passporc ‘were sandt urban inhabitants by the OGPU (oreruane f the NKVD nd KGB) along with ey esience permis roi), and hat paerports| were nt aatomatially ised co peasants. As in Tsarist nes, pesans bdo apply othe local eutorites fra passport before depaing fr ‘erporay or permanent work ouside the disc, and ques were focalways granted: Kolhos members also needed pemision foc he kolo to depart a in theo dys of rugosa poruha they bad SV ppl ne 17 dea 36 oi oli op 10 or cog eRe poh lr seco en king eT of Con Cag 9 ne ‘Sue Repmmn MThYola sf Camber Comme Se ewer Puig 1A6 ae Conran ae tof ay Seas "Tie bcm of eo any ge ihe spr fhe 19305 ee sy so ml psa oe polenta en soma Ost of Deemer 93 -Ob un int pore ay {SOR Pr 3 Deter 8 pS pn” a owe "ese nee hs pr. id you el” “oli it wi tar enn mony“ Drseng by las om Kook 35 eo pte “ sede permis from the mie was ado fnove he sve oee tones, ee the peassty ws placed in sch» jaa dig ond Foo proniienr atnaeetrrentantsrionerd hanged inte couse ofthe 950 desptetic egal pe that was Gcared fo be a foundation of Soviet iw aod government by ‘he Contos of 936 “the somal paspr ee under the "cl oso” hedge 1930 were works employe kasi ad orem of ee lige a desgnatinof pros auch w dct eager echo fry decrr™ With the exception of “Latnora”te pape olen eps oem perenne eet Titman Mn lp of a ne a anh ay New To, Bl =. tn Har Re ae80 = Caner tiga seem ually to aye ben an accurate representation of che ind ‘vidual baie occupation,” No doabe de fac the puspocs came under [NKVD jorsition proved tei acariy, bin adeton should be towed hath the decline of le Sciminatory laws nd procedures, thore was coreponding dene in contestation of soil Wen. NO {Signa ia the old see tached to any of the as denies given a Despont. "Kolkhoonik” and “ediaolchaie™ (aoocoleivaed peas fn) theo jie! steporie of peasant isthe 19305, which replaced the thee goa-legal, quatreconone categories of the 1920e—were c= tainly infor statues in Soviet society, bat nee ca be eearded 35 baving the path status of deol "ulak™ "Wheat Coens ary and Sovie society ererpd rom he mac strom af ollctvzation and clesrlreroluson in the cond quarter of ‘the 19305 the depeh and sincere of the leader commiumen to Marxist Doncipeson las had nicely waned. Aras already been noted, he Tegime sated maving away fom practices of cas sigmatztion ard (is dscimiaon, adits mean en thee of the new Cost- futon cal changer in Soviet peaciceocsrred i oer reas for exam Bl edvetonal opporcniy and ee vecrement via Kemsomol snd party membership. The decline of genuine concern about cas was also anes ch abrupt collapse of octal tics, major reese oda fy in she 1920s i parca the appearance of te formerly ubig tous tables showing these beskown of every imaginable population sd ison, ‘All the stn it wool be misleading to lave dhe impression tha he Soviee authorities no longer bothered ro ol dats on Soci iin and hos backgronnd. The concern about hidden enemies cise in he previous scion were selected in Soviet recordkeeping pracy, but hi ‘as maa ate context of personal dese. Ar Malenkoy fd a na- ‘onal party conference Inte ae 1941, "when 20 ofa appointed is many pacty and economic organs dept he Preys intrctos, people ‘pend mote time exabishing his genealogy ding out who is grand ther and grandmothee wer han studying personal manera and pal quale ona) hie cities" The saadard quesionnie fled ot byallstat employee and party members inthe 1990 pursued every possible ccurstance bearing on socal deny, inclding eas Ones opr cd fs Rayon us TS he: Daly io ‘eu aoa oy denon so od tain Klis sae, Ar he ast ic i when tno er ena ad pace betes UUs ety bred nsyetscenanpog hen "pueda randy wr 1H CassandSrbwie + #1 orisha pono bebe crea gon pent ce i Setanta pri pcenomeao The ppl ca fe 0 conan oh #26 en tata sy with coal postion Inston hsp cecal nen ocd ceases epee Neon ee iets cpr oc cae ae arent nd eed ee hea aan et an al ey Suey a ne Sealed snd Woe a sen pe cae ‘ietcmlone csr pier seinge tenet eosngy old ae eset eo eit Seve rca onc ee ped ie By mon ae ran weep ein sy ae ones on ar wcrc luego ees! Soca tats cgay see men oie cece note dwelt naa iy wed aig re as ‘haiti branch of enplonment ey Worked rea Theven arte al nae sper a Ct om 1930s afar al he Soe Una ad ofa rand eae chan ‘tome (ale water eat a Selick of evel ay sou le ehtoaip oe c Sones aca act ie ‘Sy enn Sein ect See See ‘Steg a Send cong ey ete Forbes nang 7a 7 2. rt bm ttt st ne ere sping Sater Reece as ‘reeset apie arvmedend mms Sedans ny wonyey wane ig aaa ea no na spon nile "Te bcninonerwn“N wean Seidecd theorising sbowt his categorie would hve take im into ke ‘esd terior tke as expotaton sway rom the Mari omen of ‘Sivand win contin oc ler ike Nee dam than Roa sod 1 the apt of Caen the Great claifying the pois of onl: aoe ine ihe etry, Satin ad on the tee moe eroupngs ‘of Soviecsociey: wo cles, workers and peasant Roithornoe Met Srv) and arta, te elena * tn fat, Sais hes ens ‘teres rnsonabe spent onemporary Soe eamaoce of cnt ar slovaca vain wth co Soviet precedents Was the Goppng ofthe od “employes” {Sttgan,bish war subrumed together the lige ad he Conmaisaciinisrative cto form a chgle whitecolacenglorer Stead "be Soverinligentn™ By teed of he prewar prod, Soviet zenshad become complely cased othe ide hat -ls* (whatever that might mean} was pct ‘fee publ det. Ash author he porae Hacrrd nevi Project reported wth oh of pepo, he Soviet eee respon dens had no efi all dering themaler in temas of lang™ ‘dept the fc that they sowed oly a modes degre fs xtlny ‘or coir” and ths presumably posesed “ony mild class conscious ‘en The perplexity sone out of the Haracd scholar sumption ‘hat Soviet canes wee clases nthe Map ese, ded in terms of explosion and in elason to cack other In fc of our, Sala's ev ‘Stic and rrr wee to cane inthe Mansa so at lke Soon they were defined by th eltionshipof ach group to che wa, Sy irate ce Son sped nt nd aonprobemaccl cognition of cs, ur asthe anceros had had ‘tuoi, cate thy were ed To Being he deny themseles "Daca he noe stn ndings ofthe Hard ‘One ofthe more sikng ndings ofthe Hard ej ata pps catconBrmaton of Sans aretio thatthe oniovia-ces of the wo. sata ome wr nema sgn Gee ca agonsm ofthe 1920s expel of lower clase against “bout Specialy” i comes a8 sures to fd that lowersiss respondents chee ith ed (out ee on tof pat “fem rn, ora societal eo ha 1 Niet hay Bn Pe sotto. Day if Toren Ec mmeeheri at (ls an Solos = 83 fnrervewed inthe Wet afer the war expresses ie snags to the iments pas ofthe sce’ new ele: Noy the sry Ye sponded thy di or hin the ntligenca or any ies sce frp 1d dn acs ope. Ox "he par hed ats The poe, implies «ble on the respondent pat tat the tye ha chon recto oftheoldexploting dates of arses suc os {Baton of the unintended consequences of ie sates sos spe “ensny” cass tthe ed of he 120s had bec to dcse os a social anagoian th he ald been supposed tossobiae, Tewouldof couse, bea xoggenson ca fl bos sor sie srt emerged tthe So Ulan nthe 19500 Neverthlon hee ese many ges ofa endency owaté sommes in Sort acs ona Jaton thine, stating wih teeny 0 socal poison isnt Passos dncued above The pastry hd the to eal ofc sri racer, ale te os bs lene wees fd ineligents, peasants didnot have te automa to peop ‘oc has a peel reseeon om tnby They hore sce obi ton the sat to roid lake and hors fo Tendo den fe hn er ca we tae On pons ‘hr ledge, peasants were alone harng te cllece righ oe Hand and ey aloha the nih, Sed oo Sov cits nthe 193, of engaging in indian eae “More able nso in thigh end pve of difecscia \poups so exited in Soviet sciny nthe 19500 Some of ea nee feshinedin i forexample the ig of oaclrizel pecan inne Kelds—in contrast o Salts housd and mers of arton ate via 0 own ahr, nd the ight of “worker” and “enpapee boas lost the uso lage pos or rbansloxment of «deipated ser Cossacks on ofthe tional mint seta unde he rege, ‘scoveredgussonlovi sta wih gard womitay soi posh in 1936, afer wey yours in digrace ecssc othe oppeston tS. ‘et poner daring the Cr War sd coltcvaton* Rese spre ‘alana Sve Copp. 20612, 34 Nenad pans aed el in iat ilo, shape, e ‘Th ip wm nied ce dpe py be “hon meno ‘yeh niin pennant eines erent ne Boa an epee Seb ee fo Conca he Day ed Th ing yay Sveti Prd, Fc 1985p. saa son ce ae ped ‘yh Celie Commie Caps fof he USK 3 Sed Bi cia ti ep net oy iax th begining ofthe 1930 ac ote “ie sees” (petaose iensyin Ser and cere mar asobe regeded asa spares Since the ight and eatcton a arcuate and india workert ‘tere carly pled ourin ws well secret isrctions” "We an alo Gating seat one *promsslove™ whose existence sat corte! by cu sn ofa eatin can aby Ine Ts the cw Soe upper cas the adminis and roe Sonal ee tha constned he oy oer fhe ener whiecolle grou Shar Sis eal “ineligens Toe formal designation of ts te {ed ipsa analyst oft 1930s that were ssualy unpublished, (Was adn aes ad specials Member of he gop nye a Tenge of spel ptlger nding ace closed sre heed ‘hn and poverene dich Teds Connection, should be noted chat he whole economy of sa ciqy and “cowed dutibon” networks that developed in te 19305 {Ended voeacourae oe end oward solomon” Ths applied net ory {She new upper dae of leading cadres and special” but aso ‘reupslower the sot hierarchy tht lo eloyed acces prvi of Sera nd” Ar the belong of te 1950, for example the cowed otehuton snd public Sng room sytem in acres fen isn fred uct caego the sdouniorate-poesnal TTR. onde noel bor oc engnering tea peso pe leged workers and ordinary workers Later, wth he developmen of “Raxco oen cw mathe pie Be 1D a ave ae ale SS em impo pet AVDA SER Sai cee ee Seco, Zant “anes owed mec Paik (052 tpt Soop nnnon, Da T "data iy tant epi Ss mse se ia ey na SN ee ‘ng fio S58 194-94 gp Dakomeny nen oom, Wohlte Ese ern sede Wa Elton od Profeneal ‘olen Sk aon BG, el yp ED ae eof vest atten lege so Say a Lifsyeraner ac dation ote and sce commer pnt cpl rk ‘tQhoatweden” sr) raced righ hoe the Stakhanovitemovementinthelater pare ofthe decade, Stakhsnovites tnd adam came to coast adore rata of workers who te sive spl pegs and ewatde forthe achievements In ther, Stkianovie sats wat not permanent but dependat on performance, Bucie ila hae many workers perceived ita ane “honored wodker™ stars—