Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
It is quite common for one to perceive literary works as disparate from the human historical
reality. One may perceive literature as indeed an escape from the complexities of human
existence; a man-made hallucinogen that transports the mind of the individual beyond
societys pandemonium satiated with class conflict, political upheaval, and economic
exploitation. Literature is equated to an escape from the human historical reality instead of
demonstrative of it. This is not an invalid interpretation of literature per se. Said also
concedes that this interpretation of literature as an expression of culture is that [which has]
relative autonomy from the economic, social, and political realms and that often exists in
aesthetic forms, one of whose principal aim is pleasure (Said 1993, xii). Yet, it is also not
only sufficient but necessary to depart from this widely accepted and arguably onedimensional view of literature as an articulation of culture, in the pursuit of an alternate,
possibly more complex perception.
Hence it could be quite justifiably argued that either by reading certain literary pieces at a
superficial level, or by exclusively reading those works which suffice merely as the
hallucinogen; there occurs a perpetual evasion of literatures other purpose: to voice the
human experience in the historical reality. Contrary to the latter description of literature, this
one compels a marriage of literature to the human historical reality. Quite pertinent to note;
this voice can be utilised to satisfy two rival purposes: 1) to perpetuate a [false or
constructed] reality in order to influence a certain situation or maintain dominance over a
particular group/entity through a promotion of a particular ideology or 2) to give a voice to
the voiceless; in other words, to bring to the forefront unpopular or suppressed truths; which
may clash with or seek to delegitimize a dominant ideology.
Applying this notion to the text at hand, the cortex of Saids work is this marriage between
historical reality and culture, wherein the historical realities of humans throughout time
cannot be divorced from the expressions of culture produced. Edward Saids ultimate focus
is on how culture, specifically through literary works, perpetuates an acceptance and
legitimacy of imperialism, or on the contrary fuels a resistance to, thus delegitimizing, the
acts of empire. According to Dana Polan from IPFW, throughout the text Said calls for a
contrapuntal reading, an approach that by juxtaposition of texts and histories would catch
the complex relations of art and society without ever reducing one to the other (Polan 1994).
Hence, Said imparts a myriad of multifaceted literary classics interwoven throughout the four
lengthy chapters of Culture and Imperialism and sets forth to extract the formerly cryptic
messages within the subtexts of the works to establish its relation to the human historical
reality (specifically to issues of imperialism).
To proceed, this monograph will attempt to review Saids first part of the text which explores
an acceptance or perpetuation of imperialism through literature; focusing specifically on his
example of Jane Austens Mansfield Park. Proceeding the latter will be a summation of
Saids portrayal of resistance to Empire. Finally, this monograph shall attempt to reach
beyond the parameters of a mere review of Saids book, and attempt to establish the relevance
of this text to contemporary intercultural communications.
From the Imperialist Eye
The first aspect of this marriage that Said attempts to represent in the text is that literature, as
a manifestation of culture, may be employed in an effort to prevent domestic mass resistance
to imperialist expansion/activities, and subsequently pacify the masses by legitimising the
acts of empire. This is further elucidated in the common held notion that those indigenous to
the colonised lands, were somehow of an inferior breed; requiring assistance, guidance, and
dominion from those deemed superior. Additionally, as an infant capitalism began to surge
through colonial world, there began a mass awareness that indeed the empires survival
depended upon the continued expansionary activities in the far corners of the earth. Thus by
alluding to both sentiments of duty towards those inferior through exporting civilisation and
survival through the encouragement of continued profit accumulation and territorial
expansion through mediums of literature, the empire, amongst its domestic population was
legitimised.
This complimentary marriage between literature and Empire is further typified in Jane
Austens Mansfield Park. The main character, Fanny Price, the poor niece, the orphaned
child from the outlying city of Portsmouth, the neglected, the demure and upright wallflower
(Said 1993, 85), eventually is taken in at the Bertram Estate and gradually acquires a status
commensurate with, even superior to, most of her relatives (Said 1993, 85). As this socioeconomic metamorphosis occurs, Fanny comes to analyse the world in which she lives. As
many critics note, Mansfield Park seems to be a story principally centred on domestic issues;
leaving a connection between the novel and imperialism seemingly far reaching. However,
Said claims that this perception is derivative of a superficial analysis. Going beyond the
surface, one encounters two very different analyses as they relate to Empire.
The first and perhaps the more pronounced of the two, is Fannys gradual recognition of the
factors which ensure the preservation of a particular socio-economic status in society. This is
epitomised by her uncle, Sir Thomas Bertrams constant absence from the Bertram Estate. It
is occasionally mentioned throughout the novel that his estate in England is maintained by his
work in Antigua (it is assumed that he owns and operates a sugar plantation; Said 1993, p.
89). Thus the notion emerges that the type of socio-economic status that Fanny comes to
enjoy, is dependent upon British imperial activities overseas. This illustrates the survival
sentiments of Empire mentioned earlier.
Somewhat obscured from Saids analyses of Mansfield Park, is another element in the novel
which alludes to imperialism: specifically the duty sentiments mentioned earlier. This is
best explained by attending to Fannys character and development itself; the premetamorphosis state in which she is first introduced. Fanny begins as an orphan,
impoverished, arguably naive, from the perspective of the higher socio-economic classes. In
order for her to develop; or even survive; she requires direction, requires the patronage and
outside authority that her own impoverished existence cannot provide (Said 1993, 85). This
statement is reminiscent of the common held attitudes towards the victims of colonisation and
imperialism as mentioned earlier. This attitude thus manifests into another; a sense of duty
and legitimacy of alien control over backwards peoples. Fanny is in fact symbolic of those
colonised by the British; requiring direction, patronage, and outside authority.
An ostensibly pleasurable work of art reveals through Saids contrapuntal methodology, the
imperial influence (and hence cultural influence) formally concealed between the lines. By
Mansfield Park fostering both sentiments of duty and survival as they relate to British
imperial activities overseas, the novel subconsciously validates and legitimises the concept of
Empire and the imperialism required to sustain it.
cultures, and are to a greater degree invisible within the global sphere. Culture in turn then
can act as a catalyst to reinforce or subvert this hierarchical structure within the human
historical experience; wherein the dominant western voice typically results in stifling the
subordinate non-western voice.
The implications of this are found in cross-cultural or intercultural communications. If it is
allowed that this dominant-subordinate cultural relationship supported through the vehicles of
literature, art, and music proceed in its maturation, what will result is a continued attitude of
superiority attributed to the dominant western voice, whilst the subordinate non-western
voice (specifically that which critiques western values and actions) is continually stifled and
considered illegitimate; or at least of lesser importance by comparison. Thus, this bias in
intercultural communications not only hinders a global cultural intelligence; but can create
mass discontent amongst and within non-western societies. The amalgamation of these two
consequences in turn could fuel a continued North- South divide, and in effect could fuel
the fire so to speak towards potential cultural clashes and subsequent global conflict.
Thus, when examining the discipline of intercultural communications, it is not sufficient to
approach the concept of culture as divorced from the human historical reality, but
complimentary to it and reflective of it. Of equal importance, not only should one examine
this relationship between culture and historical reality, but also the implications of this
sometimes imbalanced or detrimental relationship, and its subsequent role in intercultural
communications. For, if intercultural communications is to be truly effective in the future to
come, there exists a necessity to balance the relationship between cultural and historical
reality; whereby a hierarchical structure fostering the subordination of one culture, and
dominance of the other, must be dismantled.
Works Cited
Inkson, Kerr & Thomas, David C. 2003. Cultural Intelligence: People Skills for Global
Business. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Polan, Dana. 1994. Art, society, and contrapuntal criticism: A review of Edward Saids
Culture and Imperialism Culture and Imperialism by Edward Said. Clio 24 no. 1 (1994), in
the Proquest Digital Library, http://proquest.com/en-US/ (accessed October 17, 2008).
Said, Edward. 1993. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Walia, Shelley. 2001. Edward Said and the Writing of History (Postmodern Encounters).
Cambridge, UK: Icon Books.