CHAPTER 3

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND OTHER ELEMENTS MODELING

Paulo F. Ribeiro
BWX Technologies, Inc.
Naval Nuclear Fuel Division
Lynchburg, VA 24505-0785
3.1

Introduction
One difficulty in calculating harmonic voltages and
currents throughout a transmission system is the need for an
adequate equivalent to represent the distribution system and
consumers' loads fed radially from each busbar.
It has become evident that the use of equivalents
without a comprehensive check on the effect of all
impedances actually present can lead to inaccurate estimation
of harmonic voltages and currents in the transmission system.
On the other hand, it is not practicable to obtain and
represent all the system details.
A detailed analysis of distribution systems, loads
and other system elements is carried out, models discussed
and a simple but more realistic approach adopted. It consists
basically of representing the dominant characteristics of the
network using alternative configurations and models. Also
simpler equivalents for extended networks are suggested.
General Considerations
Although further considerations leading to simpler
equivalents are given later, the basic assumptions used in this
paper are as follows:
(1)
Distribution lines and cables (say, 69-33kV, for
example) should be represented by an equivalent pi.
For short lines, estimate the total capacitance at
each voltage level and connect it at the termination
buses.
(2)
Transformers between distribution voltage level
should be represented by an equivalent element.
(3)
As the active power absorbed by rotating machines
does not correspond to a damping value, the active
and reactive power demand at the fundamental
frequency may not be used straightforwardly.
Alternative models for load representation should
be used according to their composition and
characteristics.
(4)
Power factor correction (PFC) capacitance should
be estimated as accurately as possible and allocated
at the corresponding voltage level.
(5)
Other elements, such as, transmission line
inductors, filters and generators should be
represented according to their actual configuration
and composition.
(6)
The representation should be more detailed nearer
the points of interest. Simpler equivalents, either

(7)

for the transmission and distribution systems should

be used only for remote points.
For distribution system studies all the elements may
be assumed to be uncoupled three-phase branches
with no mutuals, but allowing unbalanced
parameters per phase.

A distribution system comprises a number of loads

conveniently supplied by circuits from the nearest
distribution point. The distribution circuit configuration
depends on the particular load requirements. In general, a
considerable number of loads are located so close together
and supplied from the main distribution point, that they can
be considered as a whole. For the majority of installations,
whether supplying a small factory, domestic/commercial
consumers, or a large plant, a simple radial system is used. 1
A typical distribution network is shown in Figure 3.1

3.2

230kV
230 kV

69 kV
69kV

loads

69kV
69kV

p.f.c.
p.f.c.
cap.
cap.

identical circuits
identical
circuits

13.8kV

13.8 kV
13.8kV

380kV
380 V

Figure 3.1: Typical distribution system configuration

A simplified dominant configuration can be derived
as illustrated in Figure 3.2, based on the basic assumptions.
This arrangement would represent the dominant

characteristics (impedances) of the supply circuit fed radially

from each transmission busbar.

conditions resulted in a lowering of the impedance at the

lower frequencies, but cause an increase at higher
frequencies. Mahmoud and Shultz4 observed in simulations
that the addition of load can result in either an increase or
decrease in harmonic flow.

230kV
69kV

69kV

13.8kV

Transmission
System 3-phase
Representation

Distribution system
and other elements

Figure 3.2: Dominant arrangement

In order to simplify the manipulation of the
distribution system, load and other elements data, the
following procedure based on the configuration of Figure
3.2, is suggested. The dotted lines in Figure 3.3 mean
different possibilities of connecting the load or other
elements, such as, compensator filters, generator, etc.. The
total equivalent impedance is then calculated at each
harmonic frequency in star-grounded and connected to the
transmission busbar as a shunt element. Consequently, there
is no alteration of the dimension of the transmission system
matrix. See illustration in Figures 3.3 and 3.4. A
composition of different arrangements can be represented at
the same busbar.
Trans.
system
busbar

p.f.c. cap.
Transf. 1

Line/Cable

Different
possibilities of
connection

Transf. 2

Load &
Other
Elements

Figure 3.3: Distribution system, loads and other elements

3.3

The Modeling of Loads

In this section, the modeling of individual elements
is discussed in detail. Considering that there is some
disagreement regarding which harmonic models are best for
loads, transformers, generators, etc., 2 various proposed
models are discussed.
Also simpler equivalents for
distribution and transmission systems at remote points of the
area of interest are discussed.
Consumers' loads play a very important part in the
harmonic network characteristic. They constitute not only
the main element of the damping component but may affect
the resonance conditions, particularly at higher frequencies.
Indeed, measurements 3 have shown that maximum plant

Figure 3.4: Overall System representation

Consequently, an adequate representation of the
system loads is needed. However, it is very hard to obtain
detailed information about this. Moreover, as the general
loads consist of an aggregate number of components, it is
difficult to establish a model based on theoretical analysis.
The necessity of practical measurements on
distribution points, at 13.8kV for example, together with
detailed information of the network under study, is vital for
the understanding and establishment of a realistic model.
Attempts to deduce a model from measurements have been
made. See Bergeal et al5 and Baker6. However, more
comprehensive measurements and system data are needed.
Although practical experience is still insufficient to
guarantee the best model, system studies have to proceed
with whatever information is available.
Thus, load
characteristics are looked at in detail and alternative models
developed in the following.
A typical composition of consumers' plant load
composition may be as shown in Table 3.1 . From Table 3.1,
it seems evident that there are basically two sorts of loads -resistive and motive. That would imply a simple combination
of resistances and inductances. However, the difficulty in
obtaining detailed information about composition, power and
variation with time makes the task very hard.
Nevertheless, it is possible to approach the problem
of representing loads for harmonic studies by using
alternative models according to the load characteristics and
information available.
3.3.1 Recommended Models
Loads are generally expressed by their active and
reactive power P and Q, respectively, which are used to
calculate the equivalent impedance for load flow studies at
fundamental frequency, assuming the system voltage.

However, at harmonic frequency, P and Q cannot be used

straightforwardly because the active power absorbed by a
rotating machine does not exactly correspond to a damping
value and so additional information is necessary. The
following alternative models can be used according to the
load characteristics and information available:
TABLE 3.1 Load Composition
Nature
Type of Load
Electrical
Characteristics
Domestic
Incandescent
Passive Resistive
Lamp
Non-linear
Compact
Fluorescent
Passive Inductive
Small Motors
Non-linear (*)
Computers
Non-linear(*)
Home Electronics
Commercial
Incandescent
Passive Resistive
Lamp
Passive Inductive
Air Conditioner
Passive Resistive
Resistive Heater
Passive Inductive
Refrigeration
Passive Inductive
Washing Machine Non-linear(*)
Fluorescent Lamp
Non-linear(*)
ASDs
Non-linear(*)
Fluorescent
Non-linear(*)
(Electronics)
Non-linear(*)
Computers
Non-linear(*)
Other Elect. Loads
Small
Fan
Passive Inductive
industrial
Pump
Passive Inductive
Plants
Compressor
Passive Inductive
(Low
Resistive Heater
Passive Resistive
Voltage)
Arc Furnace
Non-linear(*)
ASDs
Non-linear(*)
Other Electronic Non-linear(*)
Loads
(*)These loads are harmonic producing. Hence, they do not
exhibit a constant R, L, or C, ie. they are non-linear and
therefore cannot be included in an equivalent network of
impedances. Fortunately, there is every reason to believe
they have insignificant effect (open circuit) on the harmonic
impedance and may be neglected.
A.
At harmonic frequencies, the reactive power
estimated may have a negligible effect in some
cases. Thus, the P is considered equivalent to a
resistance of value R=V2/P, V being the nominal
voltage at fundamental frequency (see Figure 3.5).
This representation should be used when the motor
part is very small, i.e. for commercial and domestic
loads in which the rotating machinery part is so
partitioned that the resistive effect s predominant.

R
resistive part
only

Figure 3.5: Load model A

resistive
part

R
I
motor part

Figure 3.6: Load model B

B.

The equivalent resistance is estimated as above, but

with an inductance in parallel. This should be
evaluated using an estimation of the number of
motors in service, their installed unitary power, not
demand, and their negative sequence inductance.
However, as precise information on the number of
motors, etc. in use at any given time is unavailable,
a fraction K of the total MW demand must be used
to represent the motor part. This is then multiplied
by a factor of, for example, 1.2 in order to consider
the installed power which should be used. To
calculate the equivalent negative sequence
inductance, a factor K1, proportional to the severity
of the starting condition should be used. This
model is a combination of common practices.
Therefore, one can have:
R=

where

V2 ____ L =
V2 ____
P(1-K-KE)
1.2 K1 PK

P
= total MW demand
K = motor fraction of the total MW
KE = electronic controlled load fraction of
total MW
K1 = severity of starting condition

= radian frequency

K assumes values around 0.80 for industrial loads and

around 0.15 for commercial and domestic loads. K1
assumes values between 4 and 7. KE can assume values
between 0.1 and 0.4. It may well be that it is sufficiently

accurate to ignore the resistive component of the motor part.

However, an additional resistance representing the motor
damping can be included as R1=Lw/K2, where K2 is a
fraction of the negative sequence inductance or locked-rotor
inductance. K2 assumes values around 0.20.
C.
When a big induction motor or group of motors are
connected directly at intermediate voltage levels,
which is the case in industrial plants, the rotating
machinery part is better represented by a resistance
in series with the negative sequence inductance of
the motor. The model can be assessed as follows: - The equivalent resistance, the resistive part, and
the negative sequence inductance of the motor is
estimated as in B, and the series resistance
estimated by R = L/K3, where
K3
= effective Q of the motor circuit ~ 8

= radian fundamental frequency

Alternatively, a series inductance LT to represent
the equivalent leakage reactance of the distribution
transformers at lower voltage connecting the
resistance
load can be incorporated (see
Figure 3.7). A value of LT = 0.1R can be
assumed.
D.
This model (also called CIGRE Model) was
developed from experiments performed on medium
voltage outputs using audio-frequency ripplecontrol generators at EDF7. The circuit suggested
was an inductance in series with a resistance. This
branch was connected in parallel with another
inductance. The estimated P and Q are used in
empirical formulae to calculate the equivalent
impedances. Thus,
R = V2/P; L1 = 0.073R/; L2 = R/(6.7tg(phi)-0.74)
;
tg(phi) = Q/P (See Figure 3.8).
Although this model was obtained based on two
frequencies only, 175 and 495Hz, and the
information available is not clear enough8 on how
the equivalent circuit was derived, the parameters
do not differ substantially from models B and C.
L2 seems equivalent to the motor part inductance
and R/L1 to the resistive circuit.

resistive
part

motor part

part

Figure 3.7: Load model C

Obs. With the approach adopted, a composite load model at
the transmission system substation can be represented. The
expected effect is a better representation of the load. Since
most supply electricity companies have not thoroughly
studied their own loads, a comprehensive investigation of the
load composition is necessary to enable the engineer to
choose a better model or composition of models based on an
estimate of the system load.

L1
resistive
part

L2
motor part

Figure 3.8: Load model D (CIGRE Model)

3.3.2

Other Considerations

When the harmonic number increases, it is

necessary to use larger values of R. As no information is yet
available, a factor of h1/2, where h is the harmonic order,
seems a reasonable value as a first approximation. Pesonen
et al(2) have suggested a factor of approximately 0.6h1/2.
The harmonic impedance of distribution systems and loads
has actually been measured on a few sites in the U.K. The
results could not be satisfactorily reproduced digitally until
the downstream system from 33kV and capacitance at 415V
were represented9. Measurements, Baker 6 showed that there
is a strong indication of an effect of power factor correction
capacitance on the harmonic impedance of 11kV, 33kV, and
132kV systems. Therefore, there are reasons to believe that
PFC capacitance should be represented. The PFC MVAr
could be up to half of the MW numerically, depending on the
local PFC policy and system conditions, i.e. whether
maximum or minimum plant. Hence, the overall load

representation should be as Figure 3.9. The PFC MVAr

should be represented as a fraction of the total MW
estimated.

linear
load

P.F.C.
capacitance

harmonic frequencies.
Experience has shown that
capacitances start to have some effect at 10KHz, i.e. well
above the common harmonic frequencies present in power
systems, i.e. 2hkz. Transformer impedance is shown to be
proportional to the leakage reactance an linear with
frequency. Various impedance representations have been
suggested.
The following alternative models can be
represented:A.

A resistance in series with the leakage inductance.

Here a correction factor of h1.15 can be used10 (See
Figure 3.10).

Figure 3.9: Overall load representation

3.3.3 Sensitivity Tests
In order to illustrate the sensitivity of the equivalent
harmonic impedance with the load level and composition
several examples were simulated using typical parameters for
a 69 kV distribution system. The resistive, inductive, and
capacitive parts of the load are varied and the equivalent
impedance calculated.
The results show considerable variation in the
equivalent impedance for variations of the resistive and
reactive components of the load. For instance, when the
resistive part of the load approximates the surge impedance
of the line, the resonance effect is significantly reduced.
Conversely, changes in the reactive part may affect
considerably the equivalent impedance. A general point is
the magnitude of the peak impedance at resonance.
These examples do show very clearly the importance
of an accurate estimation and representation of the
distribution system and loads. Although the variations
imposed seem exaggerated, it is very likely that such
deviations between the estimated and the actual parameters
may occur, as the information is not easily obtainable.
3.4
3.4.1

Modeling of Other Elements

Distribution Lines and Cables

Distribution lines and cables are represented by their exact

equivalent pi11. An estimated correction factor for skin effect
is applied by increasing the line resistance with frequency
by:
R = R (1 + 0.646h2 )
lines
192+0.518h2
R = R(0.187+0.532h1/2 )
cables
3.4.2 Transformers
Complete representation of transformers, including
capacitances, is not practical and cannot be justified for

FIG. 3.10 Transformer model A

B.

The leakage reactance in parallel with a resistance.

This is calculated by multiplying a factor times the
reactance. A factor of 80 is suggested in the CEGB
program11 (See Figure 3.11).

R
L

FIG. 3.11 Transformer model B

C.

Pesonen et al2 suggested a resistance Rs in series

with an assembly of inductance L in parallel with a
resistance Rp. Resistances Rs and Rp are constant
whatever the frequency and an estimate of their
value can be obtained as provided by expressions:-90<V2/SRs<110
13<SRp/V2<30
with S being the rated power of the transformer,
(see Figure 3.12).

R1

R2
L

FIG. 3.12 Transformer model C

3.4.3
(a)

Rotating Machines
Synchronous Generators

circuit, Personen et al2 suggest a parallel

combination of R and L. Here a series combination
is more appropriate, as the equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator can be visualized as an
induction motor for harmonic frequency. However,
regarding practical values, the skin effect
representation and the way to combine the
impedances will not cause any significant difference
on the equivalent impedance. In the program, a
series or parallel combination can be used. Skin
effect and inductance correction can be represented
too. A damping resistance based on the losses can
be added for both series or parallel combination.

When non-linear currents/voltages appear

in the stator of a synchronous machine, the
fundamental component is responsible for the (b)
Induction Motor
energy conversion process and sets up a rotating
mmf wave which reacts with the rotor mmf to
The well known configuration of an
produce the resultant fundamental mmf gap flux.
equivalent circuit of an inducting motor is shown in
Conversely, the harmonic components set up mmf
Figure 3.14a. The slip, s, at harmonic frequencies
waves rotating at different frequencies, but there is
s(h) is approximately equal to 1 as
no armature reaction. Therefore, the reaction
offered to harmonics is not related to synchronous
s(h) = h(1-s(1)/h) ~ 1, where s(1) ~0.02
parameters but an equivalent impedance which
should be a function of the leakage path. Also, it
may be assumed that synchronous machines
With Xm negligible, the equivalent circuit in Figure
produce no harmonic voltages and they can be 3.14b is a reasonable approximation. Here L is the lockedrepresented by a shunt equivalent impedance.
rotor inductance, which can be calculated from the severity
However, the literature is not in agreement of starting condition. R is the damping resistance which is
regarding appropriate impedances at harmonic derived from the motor losses. For detailed analysis, see
frequencies. Westinghouse, 12 Williamson,13 and Chalmers17 and Klingshirn and Jordan18. Induction motors
Pesonen et al2 suggest a reactance derived from are generally present as part of the load and in a group of
either the subtransient or negative sequence
inductance:-X = 1/2(Xd"+Xq") =X2
Shilling14 suggest X = Xd", while Campbell and
Murray15 suggest X = Xd'.
Fresl16 suggests X
=1/2(Xd"+X2), where X2 = 1/2(Xd"+Xq").
Westinghouse12 suggests a correction of the
equivalent inductance.
This is because when
frequency increases, a smaller amount of flux
penetrates the rotor. The amount is not known
accurately but normally taken as the unity for the
fundamental and 0.8 at 1000Hz.
When using typical values of synchronous
machine reactance to calculate the equivalent
reactance X, it can be observed that the subtransient
reactance seems a reasonable value and should be
used. A resistance representing the damping can be
incorporated. Electra 3211 suggests a skin effect
correction factor of h0.96. Regarding the equivalent

R
R

Ld

Ld

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 3.13: Synchronous generator representation

(a) Series combination
(b) Parallel combination

R1

L1

Lm

L2

(a
)

R2 /s(h)

L - locked rotor
inductance
(b
) representation
FIG. 3.14 Induction motor
(a) Complete representation
(b) Equivalent harmonic model

The harmonic impedance of a transmission system is

determined/affected by factors such as fault level, system
loads, capacitance of lines and cables, compensations, etc.
In general, an increase in fault level reduces the harmonic
impedance at lower frequencies. However, the behavior for
higher frequencies is unpredictable as small capacitance may
have
a
dominant
effect
producing resonances.
Measurements3 have shown that in some cases the minimum
impedance at the higher frequencies occurred at the minimum
fault level.
The net effect of increasing the load is to reduce the
impedance to both fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
The combined effect of increasing generation and load is to
reduce system resonances by increasing system inductive
elements and increasing the damping by lower resistance
paths to ground.
The effect of the line capacitance is to reduce the
harmonic impedance for higher frequencies. However, the
combined effect with inductances may cause parallel
resonances and, thus, have the opposite effect.

MVA sc
MVAr cap

and which can be derived by finding the unity power-factor

frequency of the system. This calculation reveals that the
resonance frequency is around 10.95 times the fundamental
frequency. At the resonance frequency the impedance of the
11 kV bus becomes very large as it. Thus, significant voltage
distortion may result at the 11th harmonic.
The high
harmonic voltages will also result in high harmonic currents
both in the capacitor bank and the system reactance. A more
detailed analysis, however, reveals that the resonance
frequency varies with the resistance of the system and the
amplitude of equivalent harmonic impedance or the output
voltage is not necessarily maximum at the resonant
frequency, and is also a function of the damping (resistance)
of the circuit. However since current is only injected at the
11th harmonic, one does not need to consider other
frequencies, but rather remember the
sensitivity of the system harmonic impedance (around the
resonance frequencies) to parameters variations.
When the harmonic currents are injected, it can be
observed that at the 11th harmonic, the resultant voltage
obtained with a parallel representation(Model B) is 66 V or
1.04%, whereas with the series representation (Model A), the
11th harmonic voltage on the 11kV bus was 332 V or
3.23%. Thus, near the resonance parallel frequency, the
impact of the load representation can be very significant.
Using an alternative series/parallel load representation (EdF
or CIGRE Model), the frequency response of the equivalent
impedance is slightly altered. Two important facts can be
noted. First the resultant voltage on the 11kV bus was now
48 V or 0.69%. Second the resonant frequency shifted
slightly higher (from 11th harmonic to near the 13th
harmonic).
Table 2 shows a summary of the cases
simulated where the model and load and composition were
varied.

3.5 Distribution System Example

A simple, but typical distribution system was
modeled with the following characterisitcs: A customer load
of 865 kVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging and a power
factor correction capacitor of 250 kVA is connected to a 11
kV bus. The customer wishes to connect an adjustable
speed drive using a 6-pulse converter at the 11kV busbar.
The system fault level at the busbar, including the
transformer, is 30MVA and the source impedance may be
considered as purely inductive.
The maximum harmonic
currents (5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th) injected are specified and
typical for 6 pulse drives.
The dominant parallel resonance harmonic
frequency is estimated commonly by:

Table 2 - Load Modeling and Conditions Simulated

Case
Linear Load Model
Case 1
No Load Representation
Case 2
P, Q - Basic Load Flow
Case 3
P, Q - Basic Load Flow
Case 4
50% Induction Motor
Case 5
25 % Induction Motor
Case 6
50% Induction Motor
Case 7
75% Induction Motor
Case 8
90% Induction Motor
Case 9
25% Ind. Motor + Skin Effect
Case 10
75% Ind. Motor + Skin Effect

100

V5 (%)
V11(%)

10

Case
1 CaseCase
2
3 Case Case
4
5 Case
6 Case
7 Case
8 Case
V11(%)
Case V5 (%)
9
10

0.1

Figure 3.15- Harmonic Voltage (%) for Different Load

Model
Skin effect was included in cases 9 and 10 to
account for the impact on the system impedance of the
frequency dependence of the resistive component of the load.
Figure 3.15 illustrates the amplitude of the 5th and 11th
harmonic voltage (%) at the 11 kV bus for all models used.

4
3.5
3

V5 (%)
V11(%)

2.5
2
1.5
1
Case
3 Case
4 Case
5 Case
6 Case
7 Case
8
Case
9

0.5
0
Case
10

V5 (%)

V11(%)

Figure 3.16- Harmonic Voltage (%) at the 11kV Bus for

Different Load Models

Figure 3.16 demonstrates more clearly how much

the resultant voltage can vary depending on the model and
load composition used. When comparing to standards such
as the IEEE 519, it becomes clear that the violation of the
standard, as far as the harmonic voltages are concerned, may
depend on the load model used for the calculation of the
resultant distortion.
Modeling loads using just the economic model (P
and Q only) is inadequate for harmonic studies. No load
(case 1) representation should not be used for harmonic
studies. The load models (suggested in the literature can not
be used indiscriminately without a comprehensive check of
the actual load characteristics and composition.
The
appropriate representation is particularly crucial near the

parallel resonant frequencies of the system, exactly where an

accurate estimation of the system behavior is most necessary.
Frequency response of the system impedance is sensitive to
both the methodology (modeling/topology) and the actual
load composition.
3.6 The Need for a Complete Load Representation
General loads in a transmission or distribution
system are generally expressed by their active and reactive
power P and Q, respectively, which are used to calculate the
equivalent impedance for load flow studies at the
fundamental frequency, assuming the system voltage.
However, at harmonic frequencies, P and Q cannot be used
directly because, for example, the power absorbed by
rotating machines does not exactly correspond to a damping
value, neither does the motor equivalent inductance bear any
direct or simple relationship to the reactive power estimated
at the fundamental frequency. In addition a measurable
percentage of any general load nowadays is electronically
controlled and needs to be properly represented. Electronic
loads are harmonic producing and consequently do not
exhibit a constant R, L or C. Therefore, they cannot be
included as part of the passive component of the equivalent
impedance. They should be represented by a harmonic
source at all frequencies of importance.
With the
proliferation of the utilization of power electronics, a
progressive conversion of traditionally linear loads to
electronically controlled will happen.
Another component normally overlooked in
harmonic studies is the Power Factor Correction capacitance
of distribution systems. Measurements have shown that
there is a strong correlation of the effect of power factor
correction capacitance on the harmonic impedance of
distribution systems. The PFC MVAr could be up to half of
the MW numerically, depending on the local PFC policy and
system conditions.
Therefore, the proposed model shown in Figure
3.17 makes an attempt to incorporate all these aspects in the
modeling general loads for harmonic studies, and
consequently make the so called general, normal or "linear"
load representation for harmonic studies much more realistic.
Detailed research should be carried out to assess the actual
load composition and determine the proper representation
and parameters of each load or aggregate of loads.
The equivalent impedance should consist of a
combination of series and parallel combination of
resistances, inductances, capacitances, and harmonic current
source as indicated in Figure 3.17.
Since the reactive power of the load estimated at
the fundamental frequency has little to do with the equivalent
impedance of the load at harmonic frequencies, it is

suggested that Q (estimated for the load without any PFC)

should be totally disregarded for the estimation of the
equivalent harmonic impedance of the load. Thus, starting
with the total active power P and additional information
about the load composition, the following procedure is
suggested for calculating parameters for harmonic studies.
Figure 3.17 - General Load Representation for Harmonic
Studies

V2
R1
h ,
P1 K KE
XL 2
R2
K2

XL 2

should not be neglected. Harmonic simulation studies will

have to include background distortion if they are to be
become more accurate. Background distortion can increase
or decrease the resultant distortion depending on phase
relationship.
A harmonic current or voltage source
representing the harmonic contribution of the non-linear

V2
.h
KmKK 1 P

V = System Voltage
XL1 = Transformer Reactance
C1 = Estimated Capacitance of the Load
I1 = Estimated Harmonic Current Source
where
P
=
Total Active Power
K
=
Fraction of Induction Motors
KE
=
Fraction of Electronic Loads
R1
=
Equivalent resistance representing the
purely resistive component of the load

=
factor for skin effect correction
XL2
=
Equivalent inductance representing the
induction motors
R2
=
Damping factor for the induction motor
representation
K1
=
Severity of Starting Condition
Km
=
Installed Motor Factor
K2
=
Fraction of the locked-rotor (or negative
sequence) inductance
h
=
Harmonic order
XL1
=
Leakage inductance of transformers at
lower voltages connecting
the resistive load
I1
=
Ideal harmonic current source (use typical
values according to type
of load feeder).
The resistance R1 is estimated from the actual
resistive load connected to the bus, that is, discounting the
induction motor and electronic load part. The skin effect
can be incorporated in the equivalent resistance by choosing
an appropriate factor as indicated. The inductance of the
induction motors should be evaluated using an estimation of
the fraction of the total load that represents induction motors
and their installed unitary power (not the demand). Also a
factor K1 representing the severity of the starting condition
should be used to calculate the equivalent inductance. R2
represents the damping component of the equivalent
induction motor impedance. Also background distortion

component of the load must be modeled.

3.7 Conclusions
This document demonstrates that the representation
of the power system loads and extended networks can be
improved by using alternative models. The distribution
system, loads, other elements and equivalents of extended
networks have been considered in detail. The models
developed allow a more realistic representation of the system
and, consequently, a more accurate assessment of the
harmonic currents and voltages throughout the transmission
network. Guidance has been provided on modeling of
individual loads and on typical load composition. System
tests are necessary to provide verification of the modeling
methodology developed, as well as adding to the knowledge
of system load characteristics.
This paper demonstrates that the representation of
linear elements is very important for harmonic studies and
should not be neglected or represented without full
consideration of the load characteristics and composition.
Guidance has been provided on modeling of individual loads
and on typical load composition. System tests are necessary
to provide verification of the modeling methodology
developed, as well as adding to the knowledge of system load
characteristics.
And don't be fooled: utilization of sophisticated
harmonic penetration programs with inaccurate basic
information, and or inadequate modeling is a waste of
money, and the consequences of the interpretation of the
results might cost even more. Never forget that the accuracy
of any calculation cannot be better than the data on which it
is based.
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