AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS

by Anthony Kelly
The term composite originally arose in engineering
when two or more materials were combined in order
to rectify some shortcoming of a particularly useful
component. For example, cannons which had barrels
made of wood were bound with brass because a hollow
cylinder of wood bursts easily under internal pressure.
The early clipper sailing ships, which were said to be of
composite construction, consisted of wood planking
on iron frames, with the wood covered by copper
plates to counter the attack of marine organisms on
the wood.
For the purposes of this Encyclopedia, a composite
material can be defined as a heterogeneous mixture of
two or more homogeneous phases which have been
bonded together. Provided the existence of the two
phases is not easily distinguished with the naked eye,
the resulting composite can itself be regarded as a
homogeneous material. Such materials are familiar:
many natural materials are composites, such as wood;
so are automobile tires, glass-fiber-reinforced plastics
(GRP), the cemented carbides used as cutting tools,
and paper-a composite consisting of cellulose fibers
(sometimes with a filler, often clay). Paper is essentially
a mat of fibers, with interfiber bonding being provided
by hydrogen bonds where the fibers touch one
another.
It is sometimes a little difficult to draw a distinction
between a composite material and an engineered
structure, which contains more than one material and
is designed to perform a particular function. The
combination is usually spoken of as a composite
material provided that it has its own distinctive
properties, such as being much tougher than any of the
constituent materials alone, having a negative thermal
expansion coefficient, or having some other property
not clearly shown by any of the component materials.
In many cases, the dimensions of one of the phases
of a composite material are small, say between 10 nm
and a few micrometers, and under these conditions
that particular phase has physical properties rather
different from that of the same material in the bulk
form; such a material is sometimes referred to as a
nanocomposite.
The breaking strength of fibers of glass, graphite,
boron and pure silica, and of many whisker crystals, is
much greater than that of bulk pieces of the same
material. In fact, it may be that all materials are at
their strongest when in fiber form. In order to utilize
the strength of such strong fibers, they must be stuck
together in some way: for example, a rope is appropriate for fibers of hemp or flax, and indeed carbon
and glass fibers are often twisted into tows. However,
for maximum utilization, a matrix in which to embed
such strong fibers is required, in order to provide a

strong and stiff solid for engineering purposes. The

properties of the matrix are usually chosen to be
complementary to the properties of the fibers: for
example, great toughness in a matrix complements the
tensile strength of the fibers. The resulting combination may then achieve high strength and stiffness
(due to the fibers), and resistance to crack propagation
(due to the interaction between fibers and matrix).
Nowadays, the term advanced composite means
specifically this combination of very strong and stiff
fibers within a matrix designed to hold the fibers
together. This type of composite combines the extreme
strength and stiffness of the fibers and, due to the
presence of the matrix, shows much greater toughness
than would otherwise be obtainable.

1. Prediction of Physical Properties

An important question, both for engineering design of
a composite material and for scientific understanding
of its properties, is that of how the overall properties of
the composite depend upon those of the individual
constituents.
Properties of composite materials can be considered
under two headings: (a) those that depend solely upon
the geometrical arrangement of the phases and their
respective volume fractions, and not at all upon the
dimensions of the components. For this to be so, the
smallest dimension of each phase must usually be
greater than 10 nm, and sometimes much greater than
this; (b) those that depend on structural factors such as
periodicity of arrangement or the sizes of the pieces of
the two or more component phases.
1.1 Properties Determined by GeometryAdditive Properties

The geometrical arrangement of the phases in a composite material can often be described in simple terms
(Fig. 1).
The simplest physical property of a compositenamely its density pc-is given by the volumeweighted average of the densities of the components:
Pc = PI VI + P2V 2
(1)
where V is the volume fraction and subscripts 1
and 2 refer to the components. If there are no voids,
Vt + V 2 = 1. More complicated physical properties,
e.g., those described by a second-rank tensor, relate
two vectors: either a solenoidal vector and an irrotational vector (as with magnetic or electric susceptibility), or else a flux vector and the gradient of a scalar
function (as with diffusivity, and electric and thermal
conductivity). The relations derived for these properties for a composite material in terms of the same

xvii

An Introduction to Composite Materials

1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
,
.~

,,

6:~~~O~

0.8

o;f-S-

0.6

(b)

(0 )

,
\,

~-,

:: =0.1

0.4

,,

(I)",~2)

.........

0.2

0.2

(:3)

---

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

VI
(0 )
1.0 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

(d)

(c)

''',

Figure 1
Composite geometries: (a) random dispersion of spheres in
a continuous matrix; (b) regular array of aligned filaments;
(c) continuous laminae; and (d) irregular geometry (after
Hale 1976)

0.8

~
= 001
E
.
2

"" ,

1&1

<,
u

"

"" ,
"
' ' ' , (I)

",

1&1

0.4

property in each of the submaterials or components

are all formally identical. They have usually been
discussed in terms of the dielectric constant e and,
because of this, the general attempt to predict the
overall physical properties of a multiphase composite
from the same properties of the individual phases is
sometimes called the dielectric problem. Attempts
to devise exact, generally applicable theoretical expressions for the dielectric constants of mixtures of
unknown phase geometry are futile. However, the
dielectric constant of a mixture of two phases, ee' must
lie between certain limits, whatever the geometry. If
some knowledge of the phase geometry is available,
still closer bounds can be set on the value of ee; the
same is true of other properties. There is, therefore, a
good deal of utility in the search for bounds on the
properties. For a few special geometries, exact solutions can be obtained. Approximate solutions are also
often obtained for two-phase composites when the
volume fraction of one of the components is low. Such
solutions are often extended to nondilute situations by
use of a self-consistent scheme, in which each particle
of the minor component is assumed to be surrounded
not by the other component but by the average
composite material.
For example, as given by Hashin and Shtrikman
(1962), the effective dielectric constant of an isotropic
composite must lie in the range
81

[(8

Vz
1
z-8 1)- +(V1/ 3ed ]
~ ez +

where ez >
XVlll

8 1.

s,
Vl

[(1

-8 z)-

+(VzI3z)]

(2)

These are the best possible bounds

(l}'....
o

0.2

0.4

0.6

", ,
",

"

0.8

""
1.0

V;
( b)

Figure 2
Dielectric constant of composite materials: (a) el/e2 = 0.1 and
(b) Btle2=0.01. (1) Bounds from Eqns. (1) and (3);(2) Hashin
and Shtrikman bounds for arbitrary geometry (Eqn. (2));(3)
Self-consistent approximation for spheres in a continuous
matrix (after Hale 1976)

obtainable for the dielectric constant of an isotropic

two-phase material if no structural information, apart
from the volume fractions, is available.
Figure 2 compares the predictions of those bounds
for the cases etl8z =0.1 and e 1/e z =0.01 with the most
elementary bounds which can be rigorously derived
for an isotropic composite. These elementary bounds
correspond to simple Voigt (polarization in parallel)
and Reuss (polarization in series) estimates. The Voigt
estimate is of the form of Eqn. (1), while the Reuss
estimate gives the composite dielectric constant as

I/Be = Vliet + V zl8z

(3)
If et and e2 do not differ greatly, the bounds given by
Eqn. (2) are very close together, but for e l/8z = 0.01
they are far apart (such as in Fig. 2); therefore, in many
practical cases, better bounds are required..
In the foregoing discussion, the properties of the
individual components or submaterials within the
composite are assumed to be identical with the same

An Introduction to Composite Materials

properties measured in a piece of the submaterial
outside the composite. In addition, the composite is
taken to be statistically homogeneous in the sense that,
if we extracted small elements of the material, these
would have the same physical properties as the whole
sample. In addition, the implicit assumptions are made
that there are no voids, that space-charge effects and
polarization are absent (in the case of electrical conductivity) and that there is no discontinuity in temperature at the interface (in the case of heat flux).
The prediction of the elastic properties of particulate composites is discussed in the article Particulate
Composites; for fiber composites see Fibrous Composites: Thermomechanical Properties.
Thermal expansion coefficients of composites involve both the elastic constants and the thermal
expansion coefficients of the individual phases. An
important function of reinforcing fillers and fibers in
plastics is the reduction and control of thermal expansion. For example, with dental filling materials, a
difference in thermal expansion between the filling
material and the tooth substance can lead to a marginal gap, and hence composite filling materials are
designed to have a thermal expansion coefficient very
close to that of the tooth substance.
With some components, especially at low fiber
volume fractions, the transverse thermal expansion
coefficient of, for example, a glass-fiber-epoxy-resin
composite, can be greater than that of the matrix. This
effect is particularly noticeable with fibers of high
modulus and low expansion coefficient (e.g., boron or
carbon) in a low-modulus matrix.
Fibers are often used in laminated arrangements
because properties parallel to the fibers are very
different from properties perpendicular to the fibers.
The effective in-plane thermal expansion coefficients
for angle-ply laminates (in which the fibers are arranged at plus and minus an angle </> to a particular
direction) show that in such laminates a scissoring or
lazy-tongs type of action can occur, and, with appropriate values of , can lead to a zero or even negative
thermal expansion coefficient in one direction.

1.2 Special Property CombinationsProduct Properties

Composite materials can, in principle, be thought of as
materials which produce properties unobtainable in a
single material: for example, by combing a piezoelectric material with a material showing magnetostriction, the composite should show a magnetoelectric
effect-that is, an applied magnetic field would induce
an electric dipole moment; or a material could be
produced in which an applied magnetic field produced
optical birefringence, by coupling a material which
shows strain-induced birefringence with one showing
magnetostriction.
This idea lead van Suchtelen (1972) to classify such
effects as product properties of composites and so now

there are considered to be two different types of

physical property of composite materials.
The first is the type discussed so far in Sect. 1.1.
These are sum or additive properties where the composite property is related to that same property of each
of the components and so depends on the geometry of
arrangment of the two components. The geometry of
arrangement includes of course the volume fraction.
Examples are elastic stiffness, relating applied stress
and measured strain, or electrical resistance, relating
applied electric field and measured current density, or
the simple example of mass density. The value of the
physical property of the composite in general lies
between those of the components.
There is a subclass of additive properties in which
the value of the property of the composite can lie well
outside the bounds set by the values of the property of
the components; examples are Poisson's ratio involving the ratio of two compliance coefficients under the
action of a single applied stress, or acoustic wave
velocity, which depends on the ratio of elastic modulus
to density. Here, because the elastic modulus and the
density can follow quite different variations with volume fraction, e.g., elastic modulus following Eqn. (3)
and density following Eqn. (1), the acoustic wave
velocity of the composite can lie well outside the value
for either component.
A further, but less obvious, example is the thermal
expansion coefficient, which depends on the thermal
expansion coefficients and the elastic constants of the
two phases. Newnham (see Nonmechanical Properties
of Composites) distinguishes this last set of properties
and calls them combination properties (distinct from
sum or additive properties) when the composite property lies outside the bounds of the same property of
the two or more constituents. However, since a value
lying outside the range of the constituents' properties
can in principle occur for all composite properties
(even mass density) it seems best to view all cases in
which the same property of the composite and of the
components is considered as cases of additive or sum
properties.
Product properties are those cited at the beginning
of this section: the property of the composite depends
specifically on the interaction between its components.
Any physical property can be considered as the action
of a physical quantity X resulting in physical quantity
Y giving the X - Y effect. Product properties are those
in which an X - Y effect in submaterial 1 produces a
Y-Z effect in submaterial 2, producing in the composite an X -Z effect. A good example is the one cited
of a magnetoelectric effect in a composite material
having one magnetostrictive and one piezoelectric
phase. Application of a magnetic field produces a
change in shape in the magnetostrictive phase which
then stresses the piezoelectric phase and hence generates an electric field. In this case the coupling is mechanical but the coupling could also be electrical, optical,
magnetic, thermal or chemical (van Suchtelen 1972).
xix

An Introduction to Composite Materials

Viewed in this way, sum properties are those in
which an X - Y effect in submaterial 1 and the same
X - Y effect in submaterial 2 combine to give an X - y
effect in the composite.
Table 1 classifies some physical properties or
phenomena according to the input-output parameters
X and Y. A small selection of possible product properties is given in Table 2. Practical examples of these
effects are given in Nonmechanical Properties of Com-

posites.

1.3 Properties Dependent on Phase Dimensions

and Structural Periodicity
In Sects. 1.1 and 1.2 the physical properties of the
components or submaterials have been assumed to be
unaltered by the incorporation of the components into
the composite. This is usually not the case. The effects
of phase changes or chemical reactions during fabrication are of importance in a wide range of composites. Excessive shrinkage of one component can
result in high internal stresses, which may lead to
premature failure or even preclude successful fabrication. Matrix shrinkage also has an important indirect effect on the mechanical behavior of fiber composites, since the resulting internal stresses can determine the frictional forces at the fiber-matrix interface.
The dimensions and periodicity of a composite
structure also have an important effect on the properties when they become comparable with, for example,
the wavelength of incident radiation, the size of a
magnetic domain or the thickness of the space-charge
layer at an interface. The dimensions are also particularly important when the properties of a material
depend on the presence of defects of a particular size
(e.g., cracks). The strength of a brittle solid containing
a crack depends on the square root of the length of the
crack. Since very small particles cannot contain long
cracks, and because the surface region of most solids
behaves differently from the interior (a small fiber or
sphere contains proportionately more surface material
than a large piece), the breaking strength depends on
the dimensions of the piece tested. This is particularly
important when considering mechanical strength and
toughness of composites.
Many of the optical effects which depend on structural dimensions also depend in a very complex way
on other factors, and optical effects produced by
dispersion of a second phase within a material are
often used to determine the distribution of that phase
(e.g., determination of the molecular weights of polymers or of the size of crystal nuclei in glasses), rather
than regarding the material as a composite with
special optical properties. However, a composite material containing aligned elongated particles of an
optically isotropic material in an optically isotropic
matrix may exhibit double refraction as a straightforward consequence of the relationship between dielectric constant and refractive index.

xx

In a ferromagnetic material at temperatures below

the Curie point, the electronic magnetic moments
are aligned within small contiguous regions-the
magnetic domains-within each of which the local
magnetization is saturated. Magnets of very high
coercivity can be obtained by using very fine particles:
a particle with a diameter of between 10- 1 and
10- 3 urn would be magnetized almost to saturation,
since the formation of a flux-closure configuration
would be energetically unfavorable. Magnetization
reversal cannot take place in a sufficiently small singledomain particle by boundary displacement; it must
occur by a single jump against the magnetocrystalline
anisotropy and the shape factor. Fine-particle permanent magnets of rare-earth alloys such as SmCo 5'
enveloped in an inert matrix such as tin, have been
developed which have superior properties; for
example, the energy product can be up to 30 MGOe
(1 GOe = 79.6 x 10- 4 TAm - 1 = 8 J m - 3). The preparation of these fine-particle magnets shows that attention to small size alone is not enough, and that care
must be taken to prevent domain-wall nucleation at
the surfaces of the particles.
Considerable attention has also been paid to rodtype eutectics as permanent magnetic materials. If the
permanent magnet is long and thin, the demagnetization energy can be very large as a consequence of the
shape anisotropy, even in the absence of high
magnetocrystalline anisotropy. This is the concept of
the elongated single domain. In the Bi-Mn, Bi system,
very high coercive forces (e.g., 24 kOe = 1.9 x 106
Am -1) can be obtained but, because the volume
fraction of magnetic material is low, so is the energy
product.
Composite principles are also used in the construction of powerful electromagnets containing filamentary superconducting composites: for example,
high-performance electromagnets producing field densities of 16 T with a Nb-Sn (intermetallic) winding, or
8 T with Nb-Ti. One of the problems here is instability
in the interaction between the superconductor and the
magnetic field, which causes quenching of superconductivity. When this occurs, a very large current must
be carried by other means, and one solution to this
problem is to surround the conductor with, say, ten
times its volume in copper. The copper can then cool
the superconductor and return it to the superconducting state. The energy dissipated is proportional to r 2 ,
where r is the radius of the wire, and the cooling is
proportional to r. The ratio of surface area to crosssectional area per unit length varies as l/r and therefore small wires are more effectively cooled.
The theory of how instability is produced also
shows that it can be almost eliminated by ensuring
that the diameter of the individual superconducting
filaments is reduced below approximately 20-50 urn.
This size effect arises because instability occurs whenever a small rise in temperature reduces the shielding
current (proportional to the superconducting current),

~.

><

Tahle 1

piezoelectricity
piezoresistivity

stress birefringence
triboluminescence

heat of transition of
pressure- ind uced
phase transition
piezoresistivity and
Joule heating

pressure- ind uced

phase transition

Electrical (field/
polarization,
current) (3)

Optical and
particle radiation
(light or particle
flux) (4)

Thermal
(tern perat ure,
temperature
gradient, heat
current) (5)

Chemical
(chemical
composition,
chemical
composition
gradient) (6)

Electrical (field/
polarization,
current)(3)

electrostriction
Kirkendall effect
electroviscosity
(suspension)
indirect: thermal
expansion
magnetic susceptibility superconductors
galvanic deposition of
ferromagnetic layer
direct generagtion of
magnetic field
magnetoresistance
dielectric constant,
( + electric current)"
dielectric
polarization
Hall effect ( + electric
current)"
Hall effect
ac resonance
(+ magnetic field)"
induction of voltage
Faraday effect
electroluminescence
magnetooptic Kerr
laser junctions
effect
refractive index
Kerr effect
deflection of
charged particles
absorption by
gal vanic deposits
cold emission of
electrons
adiabatic
dissipation in
demagnetization
resistance
Nernst-Ettingshausen Peltier effect
temperature
Nernst-Ettingshausen
gradient effect (+
temperature
electric current)"
gradient effect ( +
magnetoresistnace
magnetic field)"
effect + Joule
heating ( + electric
field)'
electromigration
galvanic deposition

magnetostriction
magnetoviscosity
(suspension)

Magnetic (field/
polarization)(2)

Indicates the parameter in parenthesis is essential as a second input

piezomagnetism

Magnetic
(field/polarization)
(2)

elasticity

Mechanical
(force/
deformation) (1)

Output parameter (Y)

Mechanical
(force/
deformation)(I)

field)"

light or particle
stimulated
reactions
(photosensitive
layers)

absorption

ionization
refractive index
fluorescence
scintillation
color-center activation

photoconductivity
photoemission
photoelectromagnetic
effect ( + magnetic

photomagnetic effect

Optical and particle

radiation (light or
particle flux)(4)

Input parameter (X)

Soret effect
(temperature
gradient)"
phase transition
change of chemical
equilibrium

thermal conductivity

thermoelectricity
ferroelectrics at T~ T;
(+ electric field)"
temperaturedependent resistivity
(+ electric current]"
thermol uminescence

magnetic field)"

atT~Tc(+

thermomagnetism
ferromagnetic material

thermal expansion

Thermal
(temperature,
temperature
gradient, heat
current)(5)

reaction heat

chemoluminescence

dependence of T, on
ferroelectric
composition

dependence of r, on
ferromagnetic
composition

osmotic pressure

Chemical
(chemical
composition,
chemical
composition
gradient)(6)

Matrix classification of some physical properties or phenomena in materials according to the type of input and ouput parameters (after van Suchtelen 1972)

An Introduction to Composite Materials

Table 2
Product properties of composite materials (after van Suchtelen 1972)
X-y-Z
(Table 1)

Property of phase
(X-Y)

Property of phase 2
(Y-Z)

Product property
(X-Z)

1-2-3

Piezomagnetism

Magnetoresistance

1-2-4

Piezomagnetism

Faraday effect

1-3-4
1-3-4

Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity

Electroluminescence
Kerr effect

2-1-3
2-1-3

Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction

Piezoelectricity
Piezoresistance

2-5-3

N ernst - Ettingshausen
effect
Magnetostriction

Seebeck effect

Piezoresistance
Phonon drag
Rotation of polarization by mechanical
deformation
Piezoluminescence
Rotation of polarization by mechanical
deformation
Magnetoelectric effect
Magnetoresistance
Spin-wave interaction
Quasi-Hall effect

2-1-4
3-1-2
3-1-3
3-4-3

Electrostiction

Stress-induced
birefringence
Piezomagnetism

Electrostriction
Electroluminescence

Piezoresistivity
}
Photoconductivity

3-1-4

Electrostriction

4-2-1
4-3-1
4-3-4
4-4-3

Photomagnetic effect
Photoconductivity
Photoconductivity
Scintillation
Scintillation,
fl uorescence

Stress-induced
birefringence
Magnetostriction
Electrostriction
Electroluminescence
Photoconductivity
FIuorescence

4-4-4

causing a flux change which in turn leads to heating,

and so on. The energy liberated per flux jump is
smaller if the superconducting element is narrower,
and the time to cool the superconductor from outside
is smaller if the diameter is smaller. Both effects
produce an upper limit to the diameter of the superconductor for effective stabilization. For ac applications it is also necessary to reduce the eddy-current
losses in the copper. This can be done by using a
material with a high electrical resistivity to decouple
the wires.
To produce the very highest magnetic fields attainable in the laboratory (50-100 T)pulsed-field systems are used. These require the conductor to show
high mechanical strength as well as very good electrical conductivity; a composite has the ideal geometry
for producing this combination of properties.

2. Advanced Fiber Composites

The best known and most striking example of a
modern composite material is as we have said, the fiber
composite, designed for high strength, high stiffness
and low weight.
The breaking strength and the stiffness of typical
specimens of a number of modern fibers are shown in
Fig. 3. Steel wire and glass provide the strongest
materials and pitch-based carbon fibers the stiffest.
XXll

Magnetically induced birefringence

Electromagnetic effect
Coupling between resistivity and electric
field (negative differential resistance,
quasi-Gunn effect)
Electrically induced birefringence
light modulation
Photostriction
Photostriction
Wavelength changer (e.g., infrared-visible)
Radiation-induced conductivity (detectors)
Radiation detectors, two-stage fluorescence

.S-glass

4
E-glass FeeB 2

quartz

steel
Wire

Celion

SiC whisKers

Bon C SiC on C

~gh str~~~ : .
.AS

Bonw. W

Al 20 3 whiskers

Kevlar 4ge
AS-I. .h~:I;O~~~~ Borsic
PEt. AS-2 T-300
Cellon G-50
stainles~ steel T50
-Her;J,;;>H~S

rayon-

CGF~~t~~;C~~5_
Nb_
.Ta
Mo

Fortafd

-Nextal

zr0

T75

Pitch VSB 32 Pitch

2

, A12 0 3

VCS-32

- P-IOO

-GY-70

Pitch

-SN

Figure 3

Tensile strengths and stiffness of a variety of fibers

The strength and stiffness of the same fibers divided by

their density and by the acceleration due to gravity is
shown in Fig. 4. The resulting physical unit is a length
and, as far as the strengths are concerned, represents
(intriguingly) the greatest length of a uniform rod
which could in principle be picked up from one end on
the surface of the Earth without breaking.
Quantities such as specific strength and stiffness are
often quoted in units such as strength divided by

An Introduction to Composite Materials

20

Kevfar
S-glass

E
u

Celion HTS

15

T-3g0~C- /i~~t:ilskers

quartz
E-glass

T-75 ..
.Bon~ _CG-5.CellonG~0
-AS
~. HMS
T-50 Pan

S~~~I

o ~~~:I. z-o-

Borsic

T-50 rayon Pitch

CG-3
_ A1z03 whiskers

Ne)(tel

VSC-32

GY- 70

Pitch

FeeB z

.AIO
BN - stainless steel
2 3
Mo

~:~

\0

15

20
8

Specific modulus :" (10 em)

Figure 4

Specific strength and stiffness of a variety of fibers. The

specific value is the value of the property divided by gp
where p is the density and g the acceleration due to
terrestrial gravity

specific gravity, in which case units of stress are used,

or else as stress divided by density, the resulting unit
being a velocity squared. In the case of stiffness the
velocity represents that of longitudinal sound waves in
the material. In Fig. 4 a unit of specific stiffness, Ej pg
(or of specific strength, (Jjpg) of 107 em is equivalent
to a value of stiffness, Ej p, (or of strength, (J j p) of
9.8 x 109 cm 2 s - 2 (E is Young's modulus and (J is
tensile strength).
Figure 3 shows that the stiffest materials are ceramics composed of elements from the first rows of the
periodic table (B, C, SiC, A1 2 0 3 , etc.). This is because
these elements contain the highest possible packing of
strong covalent bonds directed in three dimensions.
Such materials also each have a high melting point, a
low coefficient of thermal expansion and a low density.
All of these are very desirable engineering properties.
The strongest materials are the glasses and the metals.
In all structural applications, the weight of the
structure necessary to bear a given load and to do so
with a minimum elastic deflection is important, and so
strong fibers are compared on the basis of strength
divided by density. The fibers shown in Fig. 3 are
compared in this way in Fig. 4. When this is done the
stiffest materials on a weight-for-weight basis remain
the ceramics but the strongest are the plastics (PEt,
PBT, Kevlar) and the glasses. The metals make a very
poor showing on either stiffness or strength. However,
fibers cannot be used directly and must be bound
together within a matrix.
A set of aligned fibers in a pliant matrix is only
useful as an engineering material under direct tensile
forces parallel to the fibers. The salient properties are
represented by those of a pocket handkerchief which is
stiff in the direction of the warp and weft (parallel to
the fibers) but shears easily parallel to these. Hence the
properties of fiber composites are very directional (see

Figure 5
Measured variation of tensile strength with angle c/> for
specimens consisting of a number of alternate layers of
fibers. The fibers in each layer are parallel and
continuous. Alternate layers are at + and at - to the
tensile axis. Open circles represent data for a volume
fraction of 40A> of silica fibers in aluminum. Full circles
represent data for a volume fraction of 66% of E-glass
fiber in an epoxy resin

Fig. 5), being very strong and stiff parallel to the fibers,
but rather weak in shear parallel to the fibers (because
this property depends principally upon the shear
properties of the matrix), and very weak indeed in
tension perpendicular to the fibers. In order to overcome this, the fibers are arranged in laminae, each
containing parallel fibers, and these are stuck together
(Fig. 6) so as to provide a more isotropic material with
a high volume loading of fibers. Figure 6 shows the
specific strengths and stiffness values of laminated
forms of fibrous composites made of some of the fibers
whose properties are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The
advantage over conventional isotropic constructional
materials represented by the metal alloys is seen to be
considerable but is much less marked than in Figs. 3
and 4.
Alternatively, the fibers may be randomly arranged
in a plane or in three dimensions; such arrangements
limit the obtainable fiber packing density. Fibers are
also often woven into mats before incorporation into
the composite because this aids the handling of fiber
arrays.
When carbon- or other fiber-reinforced plastics are
made with woven fabric rather than nonwoven material, distortion of the load-carrying fibers parallel to
the applied stress reduces the tensile strength further
XXlll

An Introduction to Composite Materials

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Figure 6
Specific strength and stiffness of some isotropic
materials and of fiber composites. The designation 1 on
the composites means the following arrangements of
fibers: 50% at 0; 40% at 45 and 10% at 90 to the
stress; 2 denotes balanced laminates with equal
proportions at 45, 90 and 135;0 indicates aligned
fibers in the specified matrix. The volume fraction of
fibers in the various composites are not the same in
the different systems. They vary between 40 and 60%.
The metal alloys are those without such designation

and reduces stiffness and toughness. When, however,

woven fabric is oriented at 45 to the load direction
these properties compare favorably with those for
nonwoven 45 material. Indeed, the residual
strengths after impact can be greater. At present
between one third and one half of the market of
carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) consists of
woven fabric; the rest consists of aligned material.
The anisotropy of the properties of advanced fiber
composites represents a completely new feature in
engineering design. The nonisotropy can be varied; in
fact it is possible now to place the fibers precisely
where they are needed in a structure to bear the loads.
In fact it is also possible, for instance, to vary the
amount and stacking of the fibers in various directions
along the length of a beam so as to vary the stiffness
and torsional rigidity of the material.
This is precisely what is needed in helicopter rotor
blades, and within a few years' time all rotor blades
except perhaps those for heavy-lift helicopters will be
made from GRP or combinations ofGRP and CFRP,
despite the fact that such composites were not applied
to helicopter blades until the mid-1960s.
The AV 8B, the latest version of the Harrier vertical
takeoff and landing aircraft, employs composites in
torque boxes, auxiliary flaps, the forward fuselage and
cone structure, the horizontal stabilizers and in the
ammunition and gun pods.
It would be impossible to make use of the inherent
advantages of anisotropic materials such as CFRP
without the invention of computer-aided methods.
The reiterations and the number of variables involved
require computer programmes both to relate the
XXIV

properties of the individual laminae to the properties

of the fibers and to take into account the interactions
in terms of bending-twisting coupling between the
various laminae. Initially, of course, these complications were viewed as a great disadvantage of the
material, since the engineer was not happy with anisotropy. Now the problem of how to use it and make a
virtue, not so much out of necessity, but of a supposed
vice has been solved. The latest Grumman X29 aircraft
makes use of bending-twisting coupling so that, as the
loads on an aircraft wing increase, the structure can
deform but remain tuned to the aerodynamic requirements. The material possesses almost a form of
"gearing," so that it changes its shape automatically
without the need for sensors and levers.

3. Applications of Composites
High-performance composites use fibers in order to
attain the inherent properties of the fiber, coupling this
with a judicious choice of matrix so that toughness and
impact damage are not lost.
Strong fibers, whether they be stiff or not, have the
great advantage of restraining cracking in what are
called brittle matrices. It is this use of fibers which is
often referred to when showing how the ancients
employed composite materials. Quotations from the
Bible are made, such as that from the Book of Exodus,
Chapter V, verses 6 et seq., which refer to the difficulty
of making of bricks without straw. Fibers restrain
cracking because they bridge the cracks. The principle
is very simple. It has been used in asbestos-reinforced
cement and the principle of reinforced concrete is not
too far from the same idea. The principle is illustrated
in Fig. 7. A crack passing through a brittle material
may not enter the fibers but leaves a crack straddled by
fibers so that a material which would normally have
broken with a single crack now has to be cracked in a
Without fibers

With fibers

Figure 7

Demonstration of how cracks are prevented from running In

a brittle material because of the fibers in their path

An Introduction to Composite Materials

large number of places before the fibers themselves fail
or pull out. This is utilized in fiber-reinforced cement,
which is based on the same principles as reinforced
concrete, but since the fibers are very much finer than
reinforcing bars and are often not visible to the naked
eye, a homogeneous material is effectively produced
which can show quasiplastic deformation.
This judicious use of fibers enables us to think
nowadays in terms of using brittle materials for construction purposes, because if they are cracked the
fibers will render the cracks harmless. Building panels
and pipes, of course, are made of such material. Glassreinforced cement is becoming commonplace. However, a much greater prize appears ahead. Metals have
limited high-temperature capability. The ceramic materials described above as providing the best fibers also
provide the materials of highest melting point. For the
construction of prime movers at high temperature
these will have to replace metals. They cannot do this
as monolithic pieces because, as we have seen, these
would be easily broken. However, they can resist
cracking if they contain fibers. The composite principle then leads to suggesting that even fibers of the
same material as the matrix may give marked resistance to cracking and fracturing. Such is true of
carbon-carbon composites which are used in brakes
for Concorde and in certain ballistic missile and
reentry vehicle applications. Of course carbon oxidizes
and so would have to be protected if exposed to hot
air. In contrast, therefore, a good deal of interest
centers on the use of refractory oxide glasses such as
cordierite or a material of almost amorphous silicon
nitride or silicon carbide for use at high temperature,
containing fibers again of silicon nitride or silicon
carbide. These will restrain cracking and give an
engineering material usable for thousands of hours at
temperatures in excess of ll00C. As yet these are not
commercially available but aircraft engine manufacturers are making and testing pieces of ceramics,
sometimes unreinforced, for aerospace applications;
but the main thrust of research is towards reinforced
materials.
Ceramic materials are of widespread abundance
and are all essentially cheap. If they can be fashioned
by simple chemical means, such as reacting acids with
alkalis, they are classed as phosphate-bonded materials. These again have great potential for replacing,
say, sheet steel in normal household use, again provided cracking can be restrained. Fibers will do this
and, if the material is not exposed to high temperature,
glass fibers or even textile fibers may be employed.

4. Arrangement of the Encyclopedia

With this introduction the reader will now hopefully
be able to understand the appearance of the various
topics within this Encyclopedia. It is arranged, of
course, with the articles (all by world experts) in
alphabetical order to facilitate ease of access by the

reader. The content of the book follows a pattern

perhaps not apparent without explanation.
It is the existence of manufactured strong stiff fibers
which has given rise to the utility of composite materials. Fibers, not necessarily very strong and stiff, are
used alone for many .purposes: in textiles, hence in
clothing and apparel; in industrial belting in gaskets;
in automobile tires; and in many other uses. Nowadays both man-made and natural fibers are used. The
newer, strongest and stiffest artificial fibers have extended many of the conventional uses of textiles. The
uses of fibers in textiles are reviewed in the article
Fibers and Textiles: An Overview.

5. Fibers
The very strong and stiff fibers comprise the following,
each with a separate section in this Encyclopedia:
asbestos (a naturally occurring fiber), boron and carbon of varying degrees of graphitization, made in
principle from a number of starting materials but in
practice mainly two: PAN (polyacrylonitrile) and
pitch. Inorganic glasses based on silica yield many
fibers. Those made in the form of continuous filaments
are most important for composite materials. Many
linear polymers such as polyparabenzamide or simple
polyethylene can be processed to form very stiff and
strong fibers. The ways of doing so are very varied.
They are all described in High-Modulus High-Strength
Organic Fibers. Fibers of Al 2 0 3 are important for
high-temperature use in filtration and other applications because of their chemical inertness. These,
and fibers based on silicon carbide and nitride,
again made via various routes, are described in
Oxide Inorganic Fibers, Silicon Carbide Fibers and
Silicon Nitride Fibers, respectively. Whiskers or
tiny (,...... 1 urn diameter) fibers are known of most
materials. They are often very strong and stiff and
possibly will have uses as agents producing toughness, stiffness or wear resistance when introduced
into other materials. Their genesis is described in

Whiskers.

Historically, the first materials designed specifically by chemists to hold fibers in a composite
material were the organic thermosetting resins. The
modern varieties of these resins are described in

Thermosetting Resin Matrices.

6. Examples of Composite Materials

Many natural products such as wood, shells and
manufactured derivatives such as paper and plywood
are of course composites, and the understanding of the
physical properties of these materials both illuminates
our understanding of the properties of wholly synthetic composites and, more frequently, is itself enhanced from our knowledge of the behavior of the
modern composite materials. The sections in this
Encyclopedia on the principal composite material
systems describe both. Hence there are sections on
xxv

An Introduction to Composite Materials

natural composite materials, on the breaking strength
of woods, on the production and properties of paper
and paperboard, on plywood, and on molded fiber
products (where articles are molded using essentially
only water as the dispersing agent, which is subsequently removed) and on wood-polymer composites. To these must be added a description of
composites based on natural fibers other than wood,
such as sisal, sunhemp, coir and jute. The incorporation of these into matrices such as polyesters is
described in N atural- Fiber- Based Composites.
The principal composite systems in use commercially are of course described. Glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP) is by far the largest in commercial volume. The
fabrication and properties of glass-reinforced plastics
based on thermosetting resins are described in GlassReinforced Plastics: Thermosetting Resins, and the
properties of G RP based on the thermoplastic resins
in Glass-Reinforced Plastics: Thermoplastic Resins.
Carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) has been
developed rapidly within the last ten years or so; based
initially on thermosetting resins, they have recently
employed thermoplastics. The methods of fabrication
and some of the properties are described in CarbonFiber-Reinforced Plastics. The newer thermoplastic
polymers such as poly(ether ether ketone), polysulfone
or the modified polyamides have advantages over the
thermosetting resins: they can withstand higher strain
before failure, they have lower moisture absorption
and they can be shaped when heated and repaired
without requiring a lengthy and intricate cycle of cure.
They also have, in effect, an infinite storage life at room
temperature. The newer thermoplastic polymers are,
however, expensive. Their properties when containing
glass and the stiffer fibers are described in HighPerformance Composites with Thermoplastic Matrices.
The automobile tire is made of a composite material
based on an elastomeric matrix. I ts properties are
better appreciated than analytically understood. An
analysis of its performance in terms usually used in the
description of modern composites is given in Automobile Tires.
There is no reason why a fibrous composite need
contain fibers of only one chemical type. Hybrids are
possible containing more than one type of fiber and
the advantage of these is described in Hybrid
Fiber-Resin Composites. Nor is it necessary that fiber
and matrix be chemically different: carbon-carbon
composites, in which strong stiff carbon fibers are
incorporated into a matrix of quasiamorphous carbon
produced by pyrolysis, chemical vapor deposition or
by other means, have a number of important uses and
great potential for use at higher temperatures (see
Carbon-Carbon Composities). It is the potential of
ceramics to displace metals for use at high temperatures (> 1000"C), because of the ceramics' greater
oxidation resistance and lower density, that primarily
causes interest in the use of these materials in composites containing fibers. Ceramic materials used
XXVI

alone are brittle and hence produce fragile

components. One way, perhaps the only way, to
produce very high fracture toughness in them is to
incorporate fibers. Fiber-reinforced ceramics possess
great potential but have few uses at present. However,
the incorporation of fibers to increase toughness has
been commercially realized (see Fiber-Reinforced Cements) . In order to provide adequate toughness,
the fibers must be spatially oriented in three
dimensions.
The
modern
three-dimensional
arrangements of fibers are described in the article

Three-Dimensional Fabrics for Composites.

Under some conditions metals such as aluminum or

magnesium may be better vehicles for carrying fibers,
and hence for making a useful fiber composite, than
polymer matrices. These metals have been reinforced
with a large number of fibers because as a matrix they
show advantages over all thermosetting resins and
some thermoplastic resins; they have high thermal
conductivity, little hydrothermal degradation and
possess dimensional stability, and they are not susceptible to radiation damage or low-temperature brittleness. Their higher melting point can be an advantage.
The article Metal-Matrix Composites describes these
and also the use of fibers in order to ameliorate the
properties of a particular metal, e.g., lead or copper.
Some metals, e.g., tungsten, are extremely stiff (tungsten has a Young's modulus of 350 G Pa) and possess
very high melting points besides being well known as
fibers. If they can be protected from oxidation, they
offer the possibility of being used as a reinforcement of
another metal, e.g., nickel-base alloy, or of a ceramic
for high-temperature use.
The idea of making a composite for engineering use
has arisen in recent years from the desire to utilize very
stiff and strong fibers. The fibers cannot be used alone,
so they require a matrix. The need to manufacture the
two component materials separately could be avoided
iffibers were made in situ in a matrix. Here ingenuity is
at a premium since the resulting composite, if it has
adequate properties, is likely to be more cheaply
produced than if each component is made separately.
It may well also be that the two components in the
final product are so chemically related that the stability of each in the presence of the other is ensured. In
Situ Composites: Fabrication describes the processes
used with metals and inorganic materials; processes
such as plastic deformation, eutectic solidification,
precipitation and the recently discovered method of
great promise, melt oxidation, which can form ceramic
fibers or particles either alone or within a metal
matrix.
The corresponding processes in organic-polymer
systems are based on copolymerisation and extrusion,
and the drawing of multicomponent mixtures containing polymers of different melting points are described
in In Situ Polymer Composites and Polymer-Polymer
Composites.
Although the great majority of composites referred

An Introduction to Composite Materials

to are advanced composites, the increasing use of stiff
fibers and the interest in these enhances interest in
particulate composites where a stiff and thermally
resistant phase of nonfibrous form is used in the
composite. Some of these composites have been
known for years and have found use as cutting tools,
wear resistant parts, etc. They are described in Particulate Composites.

7. Properties of Composites
The science of the physical properties of composite
materials relates the properties of the composite to
those of the individual constituents and of the interface
between them. Most of the simple physical properties
such as density, elastic modulus and thermal expansion coefficient can be calculated and, noting the
remarks in Sect 1.1, these calculations and their comparison with experiment are dealt with in Fibrous
Composites: Thermomechanical Properties essentially
for unidirectional fibrous composites. The elastic
properties of laminates which consist of thin layers
(lamellae) stacked upon one another, the fibers being
parallel within each layer, is an important topic for
design and details of how these calculations can be
made appear in Laminates: Elastic Properties. Another
form of arrangement of nonparallel fibers is that of the
woven fabric and the elastic properties of these are
dealt with in Woven-Fabric Composites.Properties.
An engineer may wish to choose a particular
arrangement of fibers of given properties within a
given matrix in order to attain or to approach a
particular set of properties within the composite. For
the simpler properties, where there is confidence in the
prediction of a property from consideration of the
properties of the constituents, such as for elastic
modulus or for thermal expansion coefficient, attainable combinations of properties can be displayed
graphically, leading to the concept of a structureperformance map, described in Structure-Performance
Maps.
Properties such as strength and toughness of composite materials are not as well understood as the
simpler elastic properties because in many cases the
modes of failure under a given system of external load
are not predictable in advance. An added complication
is the fact that the breaking strength of individual
fibers within a population shows a spread of values.
This variation is described generally by what are called
Weibull statistics. Since the breaking strength of a
composite will depend not only on the highest breaking strength of the individual fibers but also on how
the individual breaks are arranged in space within the
composite, the accurate prediction of the breaking
strength requires a complicated statistical theory even
when time-dependent effects are ignored. In the article
Strength of Composites: Statistical Theories, a simplified account of the breaking strenght of unidirectional
composities is given. Despite the complications of

arriving at an exact prediction of the strength, advanced composites are used nonetheless and their
strength measured. Because of the anisotropy of elasticity and strength, these quantities must be measured
in special ways. Methods of achieving reliable
measurements of strength and what simple rules there
are for variation of strength with orientation, fiber
length, and so on are dealt with authoritatively in
Strength of Composites.
I n engineering practice, the static strength of a
composite in the presence of notches and stress concentrations due to geometric form is at least as important as that of simple test pieces used in the laboratory;
a very short account of some important features is
given in Failure of Composites: Stress Concentrations,
Cracks and Notches. In practice, composite materials
must be joined to one another and to other structural
members. The peculiar methods of joining employed
are dealt with in Joining of Composites. Here every
effort is made to minimize stress-concentrating effects
such as abrupt changes of elastic moduli and of
geometrical section or form.
The ability of a material to remain serviceable when
containing cracks, or when cracks arise during service,
depends upon its toughness. It is by no means clear
that measures of toughness or crack resistance, such as
the concept of a critical stress intensity factor derived
from linearly elastic mechanics, are applicable to
composite materials, and some aspects of the problem
are dealt with in Failure of Composites.Stress Concentrations, Cracks and Notches. Some progress can be
made in elucidating the primary mechanisms responsible for the energy required to break a composite
material. These are the sliding friction between fibers
and matrix if broken fibers pull past one another, the
deformation within the fiber and matrix, and the
formation of subsiduary cracks. These energy-dissipating mechanisms depend on the variables of volume
fraction, diameter of fibers, etc., and so representative
diagrams indicating the relative importance of these
can be constructed, as in the article Toughness of
Fibrous Composites.
This description of the mechanical properties of
composite materials has so far made no mention of
time-dependent properties; in particular, strength has
been described almost as a static property. The
strength under oscillating stress is described in Fatigue
of Composites, and the variation of deformation of the
composite with time is described in Creep of Composites. Both are aspects of a general investigative
analysis of the failure of composite materials which has
been called damage mechanics. In Fatigue of Composites, it is shown that emphasis on the strain range to
which a given load subjects a composite can simplify
greatly the interpretation of the results. During cyclic
testing of a composite material, cracks in one of the
constituents occur usually within the matrix. The same
occurs in a static test where it is called multiple
fracture. It is necessary then to understand the physi-

xxvii

An Introduction to Composite Materials

cal properties of a material containing a large number
of cracks.
The creep deformation, though not the creep rupture, of aligned fibrous composites with continuous
fibers stressed parallel to these cracks is, on the other
hand, relatively well understood and can be modelled
in terms of the constitutive equations of deformation
for the fibers and matrix deforming in parallel. Discontinuous-fiber composites can also be dealt with to
some extent and hence deformation normal to the
fibers at least partly understood.
The long-term stability of composite materials
under load depends on chemical factors, oxidative
stability of the two components, and so on, particularly at high temperatures. For most composites based
on resin matrices, water absorption at room and
slightly elevated temperatures is of great importance.
Epoxy resins, for example, absorb water and this alters
their glass transition temperature. If the fibers are
susceptible to water attack, as glass is, the ingress of
water leads to attack on the reinforcing fibers (see
Long-Term Degradation of Polymer-Matrix Composites.

Before composite materials enter service, and while

they are in engineering service, their properties must
be evaluated in a nondestructive manner. In the article
Nondestructive Evaluation of Composites, this is dealt
with from firsthand experience. The principal objective
of nondestructive evaluation is to provide assurance
on the quality and structural integrity of a particular
component. This can be achieved directly by using a
nondestructive evaluation technique (NDE) or indirectly by monitoring or controlling the fabrication
process. The latter is really only an extension of the
usual procedures of process control necessary to
achieve a consistent product. But NOE can also assist
in optimizing fabrication procedure by, for example,
monitoring the local state of cure. Since composite
materials are essentially arrays of fibers assembled into
place, the possibility arises of using the fibers themselves as monitors of their performance in service or
alternatively doing this by incorporation of other
types of sensors. The monitoring of fracture within a
glass fiber or of the failure of resin adhesion to the
surface of a fiber of glass is quite possible using visible
light, and other fibers may be interrogated using other
wavelengths of radiation.
These ideas raise intriguing possibilities of monitoring performances in situ by NOE so that the
material itself becomes perceptive and says "how it
feels." These ideas may be of great importance for the
use of advanced materials generally, not just for
composites (Kelly 1988). They have developed
greatly recently and are described in detail in the
article Smart Composite Materials Systems.
A section is of course included on nonmechanical
properties. In Nonmechanical Properties of Composites, composite structures such as multilayer
capacitors, piezoelectric transducers, varistors
XXVIll

and sensors of a variety of types are dealt with.

Composites have become such an exciting part of
materials science and engineering that other structures, many of which have only recently been
recognized as composites, are now being described
in the same terms as are composites (see Nanocomposites) .

8. Applications: Use of Composite Materials

in Engineering
It is already apparent that the applications of composite materials, even if mention is not made of those
based on naturally occurring composites such as
wood, are very wide, ranging from a simple glass
reinforced plastic (GRP) tank or boat hull to a sophisticated aeroplane wing aeroelastically designed, or to
another primary aircraft structure such as a helicopter
rotor blade.
In Applications of Composites:An Overview, applications of GRP in the building industry, in marine
applications (boats and minehunters), in building,
transport and the electrical industry are covered. In
many of these applications it has been corrosion
resistance which has determined the success in substituting for a traditional material. It is mainly in leisure
goods, medical materials and in aerospace, where
performance requirements overcome the considerations of cost, that the newer advanced composites are
gaining ground. Consideration of manufacturing
methods (see Manufacturing Methods for Composites:
An Overview) will often dominate which composite is
to be used, because an important principle of composite materials is that almost any desired combination of physical properties can, within certain limits, be
obtained.
The manufacturing methods depend, of course,
upon the feedstock, and again the glass-reinforcedplastics industry has developed most of the methods
employed. Glass is available in many forms, as
rovings, chopped fibers or fabrics. The fibers may be
laid up and then impregnated with resin, or guns may
be used to spray liquid resin or fibers onto a suitably
shaped core. Alternatively, preimpregnated arrays of
fibers (prepregs) are used which in their simplest form
consist of parallel tows, rovings or aligned individual
fibers spread out to produce a uniform distribution of
fibers within the thickness of the sheet, which is
impregnated with resin to produce a material of
controlled volume fraction. The resin is partially
cured (B-staged) to a slightly tacky condition. Sometimes this must be refrigerated until used. Sheet, dough
and bulk molding compounds are variants of this,
generally using discontinuous fibers.
All manufacturing methods aim to avoid the entrapment of air or the formation of voids since these
represent gross defects. Articles may be made by hand
or spray placement, by press molding using heated
matched male/female tools under pressures of

An Introduction to Composite Materials

3-7 MPa, or by vacuum molding using a flexible
membrane to obviate the need for a press. If higher
density and lower void content are required, molding
is done in an autoclave using pressures of, say,
1-2 MPa at an elevated temperature, "" lOOC or
so.
Alternatively, fibers may be enclosed in a mold and
the resin injected, the resin being precatalyzed so that
it cures. In reaction injection molding, two fastreacting components (usually based on urethanes) of
initial low viscosity are pumped into the mold. This
method gives low cycle times (1-2 minutes).
In the process of pultrusion, continuous fibers are
passed through a bath of resin and the impregnated
fibers passed through a heated die so that the resin
cures. This process is good for the production of rod,
sheet, tube and bar forms. The most accurate positioning of fibers necessary for some high-performace applications is attained by filament winding, in which fibers
impregnated with resin are wrapped onto a former
mandrel which is withdrawn after the resin is cured.
Modern filament winding machinery can produce
complicated nonaxisymmetric shapes as a result of the
application of robotics. The process is admirably
suited to computer control and this will become more
widespread in the future.
The extrusion process is described in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Systems: Extrusion. This is essentially
a form of polymer processing involving the incorporation of discontinuous reinforcing fibers such as
chopped glass-fiber or natural cellulose.
All of these more conventional methods are used
with high-performance composites but the increasing
interest, and some use, of higher melting point thermoplastic matrices (such as poly(ether ether ketone))
containing carbon fibers, is leading to the development
of forming methods in the solid state by pressing,
drawing and extrusion comparable to conventional
metal-forming methods.
The application of the new composites in a variety
of industrial sectors and with diverse applications are
also described in this Encyclopedia. (See Aircraft and

Aerospace Applications of Composites; Artificial Bone;

Automotive Components: Fabrication; Composite Armor;
Dental Composites; Friction and Wear Applications of
Composites; Helicopter Applications of Composites;
Solid Fiber Composites as Biomedical Materials).

The introduction into use and the commercial

prospects of all materials are greatly affected by the
possibilities for extensive recycling and so an article

on this topic has been included (see Recycling of

Polymer-Matrix Composites).

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Chou T W 1992 Microstructural Design of Fiber Composites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
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XXIX