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2 0 0 4
PVC
Authors:
Editorial Direction:
Research Interns:
Editing:
Margaret Stemper
www.chej.org
2 0 0 4 ,
C H E J
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of this report wish to gratefully acknowledge all those who contributed by defining its scope,
providing information, and reviewing the report drafts.
Without them, it would not have been as comprehensive, grounded or as useful a tool. We especially appreciate the leadership of Hans Schoepflin and the Panta
Rhea Foundation, which generously funded the
research and publication of this report.
The release of this report is sponsored by the BE SAFE
Campaign, a nationwide initiative of the Center for
Health, Environment and Justice (CHEJ) to build
support for the precautionary approach to prevent
pollution and environmental destruction before it
happens. CHEJ greatly appreciates the support of the
Bauman Foundation, Beldon Fund, Bush Foundation,
Homeland Foundation, Mitchell Kapor Foundation,
Alida R. Messinger Charitable Lead Trust, Park
Foundation, Patagonia, Inc., Underdog Fund and Alki
Fund of the Tides Foundation, and the Turner
Foundation, for its work to promote precaution and
prevention.
The Environmental Health Strategy Center greatly
appreciates the support of the John Merck Fund,
Beldon Fund, Alida R. Messenger Charitable Lead
Trust and the Proteus Fund for its work to promote
safer alternatives and the leadership of health-affected
people and health professionals in preventing harm
from persistent toxic chemicals.
Several reviewers provided helpful comments on the
draft of this report. Their feedback strengthened the
final publication. We thank the following reviewers for
their thoughtful efforts and assistance: *
Frank Ackerman, Tufts University Global Development
& Environment Institute; Peter Anderson, Recycle
Worlds Consulting; Nina Bellucci, Northern California
Recycling Association; Pat Costner, Greenpeace;
Monique Harden, Advocates for Environmental
Dear Friends,
This report provides the facts and a plan of action for one of the most important changes society can make to protect the public's health and the environment.
PVC is a poison plastic. It has earned the title after decades of harming our health and environment. PVC's
destructive toxic life begins with manufacturing, continues during product use, and then creates devastating pollution problems when it is disposed. I cannot think of another product that is so destructive throughout its entire life
cycle as PVC.
In Louisiana, families gather to talk about how growing health problems in their neighborhood are connected to
the local plastic chemical plant's emissions. In Massachusetts, families meet to discuss the rising cancer rates in
their valley and the nearby incinerators burning large amounts of PVC and releasing dioxin into the air.
I have traveled across the nation visiting neighborhoods that confront the hazards from manufacturing or disposing
of PVC plastics every day. These American families find their homes are suddenly worthless and they are trapped
in a nightmare of frustrationtrying to prove the pollution from the plant or incinerator has caused the damage to
their health. Many of these community stories are briefly described in this report.
Our country's fire fighters and first responders are worried about exposures to PVC's toxic fumes every time they
encounter a fire. Consumers are concerned about vinyl plastic tablecloths or shower curtains that release toxic
fumes, often referred to as "that new smell." Parents are worried about the leaching of toxic chemicals from PVC
toys that their children used in the past.
The sad truth behind the destruction and harm caused by PVC, is that in most cases it is not needed. There are
plenty of alternatives that are readily available on the market today. On store shelves, consumers can choose
shampoo with a PVC bottle (marked with a #3 or V in the recycle symbol triangle) or a safer PVC-free plastic bottle. A growing number of responsible corporations have decided to stop using PVC. Irresponsible corporations, on
the other hand, have refused to move to safer plastics.
An important part of this report is the well-documented fact that there is no "away" for PVC. There is no way to
get rid of the product once manufactured. It is with us forevera legacy left to the next generation. You can't
burn itit just changes to dioxin, another very toxic pollutant. You can't bury itchemicals leak out into the surrounding soil and groundwater. You can't recycle itit contaminates the recycling process.
This report gives us hope by outlining how we as a society can phase out PVC in the future, with clear models to
begin that phase out now. You'll learn in this document about the many safer, affordable alternatives to PVC that
are available today.
We need to begin a nationwide conversation, community by community, on how to phase out PVC. As consumers
we need to send a strong message to corporations who are resisting the effort to eliminate PVC and let them know
we will not purchase their products. We need to encourage companies to use their entrepreneurial ingenuity to
develop new products without PVC, the poison plastic. And, we need to enlist all levels of government to pass
strong policies to phase-out PVC.
We must move quickly. Generating as much as seven billion pounds of PVC waste each year cannot continue. We
can't bury it, burn it or recycle it. PVC wastes will live beyond the lifetime of everybody on this planeta terrible
legacy to leave for future generations.
A road map for how society can eliminate PVC is included in this report. If everyone takes a step down this road
we can achieve a phase-out and begin to safeguard public health and the environment. I hope you will join us and
help to leave our children a healthier, more sustainable world.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
THE PVC GENERATION: Large and Growing Amounts of PVC Waste ......................................9
Chapter 3
TROUBLE FROM THE START: The Production and Use of PVC ................................................15
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
DON'T BUY IT: Safer Alternatives to PVC are Available, Effective and Affordable ..................47
Chapter 9
TAKE ACTION: Preventing Harm from PVC Use and Disposal ...............................................55
APPENDIX A Common Household Products and Packaging That May Contain PVC ..................................69
APPENDIX B Amount of PVC Generated, Incinerated and Landfilled in Each State ...................................71
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................73
LIST of TABLES
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
LIST of FIGURES
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
1
2
3
4
P V C :
B a d
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
N e w s
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
Whats so bad
about PVC plastic?
PVC: A Truly Poison Plastic
Unlike the many plastics made without chlorine, PVC
S U M M A R Y
E X E C U T I V E
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In the interim, divert PVC away from incineration to hazardous waste landfills.
S U M M A R Y
A PVC-Free
Policy Action Agenda
E X E C U T I V E
6.
7.
8.
9.
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
P V C :
INTRODUCTION
Electrical/electronic 5.5%
Construction, 29.8%
PVC uses will grow by 2.0% every year over the same
five-year period (CEH 2003).
This report reviews the many hazards associated with
the disposal of PVC in the United States. Although
the report relies primarily on U.S. data on PVC production, use and disposal, the information on the environmental health impacts of PVC are applicable to every
country. This report is not intended to be a comprehensive review of all the health and environmental
risks posed during the lifecycle of PVC throughout its
production, use, and disposal. The key impacts of PVC
production and use are summarized in order to provide
context for assessing the impacts of the disposal of PVC
waste.
Throughout the text we have included a number of
case studies that illustrate the impact that PVC has on
people. In addition, there are a number of sidebars that
highlight actions that some organizations have taken to
address the public health or environmental impacts of
PVC. The following is a brief summary of the reports
findings listed by chapter.
II
More than 2 billion pounds per year of nondurable (short-lived) PVC products are discarded in U.S. household trash, including blister packs and other packaging, plastic bottles
and containers and plastic wrap and bags.
T h r e e s
PVC disposal is the largest source of dioxinforming chlorine and phthalates in solid
waste, as well as a major source of lead,
cadmium and organotins.
I n
C o m e s
As much as 7 billion pounds of PVC are discarded every year in the U.S. in municipal
solid waste, medical waste and construction
and demolition debris.
N e w s
B a d
MAJOR FINDINGS
P V C :
action to break the cycle of dependence on this incredibly toxic and problematic material. If we dont burn it,
we can reduce the worst impacts of PVC. And if we
dont buy it, we can avoid all of the problems associated
with PVC production, use, and disposal.
aging, or a few decades later when PVC building materials must be replaced. Given the widespread use of PVC
and its highly variable lifespan across many types of
products, it is no wonder that huge amounts of PVC
waste are generated on a daily basis in every community.
Table 1 summarizes available information on the PVC content of solid waste in the U.S. The five major waste
streams shown in Table 1 account for almost all post-industrial PVC waste: (1) municipal solid waste (MSW); (2)
medical waste; (3) construction and demolition (C&D)
debris; (4) discarded products collected for recycling; and
(5) industrial solid waste generated during manufacturing.
Table 1
Description of PVC
Portion of Waste Stream
Percent
Amount (tons)
0.62%1
1,420,0001 to 2,290,0002*
Medical Waste
(Biomedical/Infectious)
3.4 million tons3
5% to 15%
0.18%5 to 0.63%6
245,000 to 856,000
Varies
Unknown
Manufacturing Waste
Unknown amount
Varies
Unknown
170,000 to 510,000
Sources and Notes: 1 - USEPA 2003; 2 - Kaufman 2004; 3 - USEPA 1994; 4 - Marrack 1988, Hasselriis 1993, DTI 1995, USOTA 1988; 5 - Cascadia
2003; and 6 - FA 1998. *These two estimates of total PVC content in MSW are derived using USEPA (2003) and Kaufman (2004) data to generate the
low and high estimates, respectively. Note: There are many inherent uncertainties in any estimate of the amount of MSW generated. This is reflected in
the 140 million ton difference between the USEPA estimate of 229 million tons and the Kaufman estimate of 369 million tons of MSW generated. Part of
the reason for this difference is due to the methods used to derive the estimates. The USEPA relied on economic and population data to estimate MSW
generated on a per capita basis. Kaufman used a survey sent to state management agencies to collect data on solid waste. The EPA estimate only included household garbage, while Kaufman collected data on a number of solid waste categories and then calculated the MSW portion, which included residential and commercial waste, organics, tires, and "other." In both cases, the MSW estimates included primarily household garbage. A third estimate, not
used in this report, was made by the Environmental Research and Education Foundation (EREF 2001) which estimated that 545 million tons of MSW were
generated in the U.S. in 1999. This estimate was generated from a survey distributed to both public and private waste disposal companies and included
all non-hazardous waste sent off-site for final disposal including household waste, commercial and institutional waste, special waste, C&D waste, regulated medical waste, yard waste, sludge and scrap tires. This estimate clearly includes a much broader universal of waste targeted for recycling or disposal.
PVC in Municipal
Solid Waste
2:
CHAPTER
This report often refers to PVC in the waste stream. In fact, what
we often call waste is actually discarded products that we end up
wasting. When products reach the end of their useful life, they
should be collected to be taken apart and recycled back into their
original materials. This is the concept of Zero Waste, which maximizes recycling, minimizes waste, reduces consumption and ensures
that products are made to be reused, repaired or recycled back into
nature or the marketplace (GRRN 2004). Unfortunately, PVC is very
difficult to recycle and when present in discarded products tends to
contaminate the recycling process. Therefore, almost all PVC products are wasted sooner or later.
Until recently, the majority of medical waste was incinerated and much of that was burned on-site at hospitals. By 1990, about 60% to 70% of all medical waste
was incinerated (USEPA 1994, USOTA 1990). This
included biomedical waste produced by hospitals, labs,
11
Table 2
CHAPTER
2:
12
Non-durable Goods
(Short useful life)
255,000
18%
147,000
10%
68,000
5%
PVC in
Construction
and Demolition
Debris
PVC as a Manufacturing
Waste
2:
CHAPTER
Another poorly quantified PVC waste stream is the discarded products and materials that are collected for
recycling. PVC is very difficult to recycle because of
the many different formulations used to make PVC
products. Its composition varies widely due to the
many additives used to make PVC products. When
these different formulations are mixed together, they
cannot readily be separated which is necessary to recycle the PVC into its original formulation. It is also virtually impossible to create a formulation that can be
used for any application. At best, only about 3% of
PVC products and materials are recycled in the U.S.
13
Table 3
CHAPTER
2:
14
PVC's Contribution of
Toxic Chemicals in MSW
Use in PVC
Chlorine
Phthalates
Lead
1% - 28%1
Cadmium
About 10%4
Tin (organotins)5
Unknown
Antimony6
Unknown
Organochlorines6
Unknown
Sources and Notes: 1 - CEC 2000; 2 - Thornton 2000 reports PVC makes up 50% to 67% of total chlorine and at least 80% of organically bound chlorine;
3 - Thornton 2002, OECD 2004; since from 90 to 98% of phthalates consumed are used in PVC products, we assume an equal amount will end up in the
waste stream; 4 - Bertin 2000; 5 - Organotin compounds represent about 9.3% of European consumption of stabilizers (CEC 2000); and 6 - UBA 2001.
Other toxic and persistent organochlorine flame retardants are present in solid waste as a result of their use
in PVC. These include chlorinated flame retardants
such as chloroparaffins and phosphate esters, which are
organic phosphorus compounds that may also contain
chlorine in their chemical structure (UBA 2001).
Chlorinated paraffins and antimony are added as a
flame retardant formulation for some PVC textile fibers
that are resistant to soaking and weather (UBA 2001).
PVC includes high amounts of toxic additives, which are released during the use
(and disposal) of the product, resulting in
elevated human exposures to phthalates,
lead, cadmium, tin and other chemicals.
T h r e e s
I n
The production of PVC poses serious environmental health threats due to the manufacture of raw chemicals, including chlorine,
cancer-causing vinyl chloride monomer
(VCM) and ethylene dichloride (EDC).
C o m e s
N e w s
MAJOR FINDINGS
B a d
P V C :
III
TROUBLE FROM
THE START
The major reason why PVC poses so many environmental and health threats throughout its life cycle is because
it contains large amounts of chlorine (Thornton 2000).
Chlorine is a highly reactive substance that readily combines with carbon molecules, the building block of life in
people and animals. Carbon is the most important element in living things because it combines with oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen to produce stable molecules such
as DNA, proteins, hormones, sugars, starches and fats
that are essential for life. Chlorine reacts readily with
carbon, altering the original molecules and their functions (Thornton 2000).
The chlorine in PVC and its feedstocks (ethylene
dichloride and vinyl chloride monomer) results in the
generation of very large amounts of chlorine-containing
15
Ethylene
Chlorine
EDC Synthesis (chlorination)
Plasticizers, stabilizers,
fillers, etc. added and
blended
Vinyl Mixtures
Molding and Manufacture of Final
Products
Vinyl Products (i.e. pipes, bottles, siding)
Use
Spent Products
Disposal
Source: Adapted from Thornton 2002
PVC Production
PVC production begins with the conversion of salt to
chlorine using huge amounts of electricity and the
purification of ethylene from natural gas (See Figure 2).
Chlorine and ethylene are then combined in a chemical
reaction to form ethylene dichloride (EDC) in a process
generally described as feedstock production. EDC
(considered a feedstock chemical) is converted in
another chemical reaction to vinyl chloride monomer
(VCM), the basic building block of PVC. Vinyl prod-
Table 4
Air emissions and wastewater releases from Ethylene Dichloride/Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) production facilities.
Dioxins and other organochlorines released as by-products of Ethylene Dichloride/Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM)
production.
CHAPTER
3:
Use
Additives leach and otherwise migrate from PVC products (plasticizers/metal stabilizers).
Disposal
Landfill
Incineration
Ash, later stored in landfills, contains high levels of heavy metals and dioxins.
Recycling
Diversity of additives prevents effective recycling of mixed PVC products and materials resulting in poor quality
products (downcycling).
Contaminates other plastics during recycling as well as other valuable commodities that are targeted for recycling.
Does not reduce the overall demand for raw materials to make plastics (virgin resin) and has no effect on the
amount of vinyl produced each year.
detailed description of the production and manufacturing process for PVC can been found in numerous references (Thornton 2002, Thornton 2000).
In 2000, there were 12 facilities in the U.S. that produced VCM (CEH 2000). Seven of these plants also
produced PVC. As of 2003, there were 24 facilities
operated by 12 companies that produced PVC resin in
the U.S. (CEH 2003) and an estimated 2,332 PVC fabricating facilities (ARCC 2003). These PVC production facilities released 811,000 pounds of VCM and
18
C A S E
S T U D Y
Mossville, Louisiana:
PVC Production in the New Cancer Alley
PVC Use
PVC plastic used in consumer products is not a pure
material. By the time a product containing PVC reaches your home, a wide range of chemicals have been
added in order to change its properties to meet a wide
range of product needs. These additives include stabiliz-
The citizens of Mossville are determined in their search for justice. As descendants of African Americans
who proudly settled the community in the late 1800s, they have inherited not only the land, but also the
fighting spirit to survive and demand what is rightfully theirs. Working through MEAN, they have lobbied
successfully for government action. Through use of a Bucket Brigade program, which allows residents to
test their own air, they have caused industry to be fined as much as $300,000 when testing showed benzene levels 231 times greater than the state standard. In 2001, Sasol Ltd., a South African company with
chemical and fuel operations in 20 countries, acquired Condea Vista. Working in solidarity with communities in South Africa, SasolWatch.com was created to expose the companys record of violations and toxic
dumping on poor communities. MEAN is working with a local health care provider to develop necessary
environmental health services for Mossville residents. The organization is educating the public about the
dangers of PVC production, use and disposal. MEAN is also demanding significant pollution reduction, the
clean-up of industrial contamination in the local estuary, and the just and fair relocation of consenting residents to a healthier environment (Sources: MEAN 2000, Ermler 2001, LBB 2004, SasolWatch 2004,
Greenpeace 2004a, Greenpeace 2004b).
3:
In 1998, Mossville Environmental Action Now, Inc. (MEAN) appealed to the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to test residents for exposure to dioxin, a highly toxic compound that is a byproduct of vinyl manufacturing and other industrial processes. In 1999, ATSDR reported dioxin test results
showed the average Mossville resident has three times more dioxin in their blood than the average U.S. citizen. Furthermore, testing of breast milk from local mothers found elevated levels of dioxins as high as 30%
above the national average. Cancer mortality rates for Calcasieu Parish are 1.6 times the national average
and many women suffer from endometriosis, a condition linked to dioxin exposure.
CHAPTER
In Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, residents of Mossville, a small unincorporated community of about 1,500
African Americans, are confronting numerous toxic industries including four vinyl production facilities that
include two major vinyl chloride manufacturers. Louisiana is home to more than half of the 12 vinyl chloride plants in the U.S., and Calcasieu Parish produces more vinyl than any other county in the country making it the unofficial PVC capitol of America. At the urging of Mossville residents, air monitoring conducted
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in June 1999 showed vinyl manufacturing facilities
emitted concentrations of vinyl chloride, a potent human carcinogen, that were more than 120 times higher than the ambient air standardmaking the air in Mossville unhealthy to breathe. PPG Industries and
Condea Vista in Mossville leaked hundreds of thousands of pounds of ethylene dichloride, a feedstock for
PVC, and contaminated the groundwater. As a result of this contamination and a lawsuit settlement with
two companies, a significant portion of Mossville families have relocated. This has transformed a once highly populated neighborhood into a virtual ghost town. The Condea Vista facility has changed ownership,
but has not improved. The portion of the facility now owned by Sasol Ltd. continues to be ranked in the
top 10% of industrial companies that create the highest cancer risk from air and water pollution according
to the USEPA 2002 Toxic Release Inventory. This data shows that in 2002 vinyl production facilities in
Mossville generated 238,458,615 pounds of toxic waste that were dumped on the community or transferred to disposal facilities. Over 30 million pounds of this waste wound up in landfills and incinerators
located in other communities.
ers, plasticizers and fillers that are mixed in with, but are
not chemically bound to the PVC. A list of common
additives found in PVC products is shown in Table 5.
The most important of these chemical additives are the
plasticizers known as phthalates (pronounced thal eights) and the metal stabilizers. Plasticizers are added
19
CHAPTER
3:
20
Other flame retardants added to PVC include chlorinated paraffins, phosphate esters (organic phosphorus
compounds some of which also contain chlorine or
bromine) and aluminum trihydroxide (UBA 2001).
These additives are used in high volumes but are also
used in many other polymer applications in addition to
PVC. Chlorinated paraffins and antimony are added as
a flame retardant formulation for some PVC textile
fibers that are resistant to soaking and weather (UBA
2001). Chlorinated paraffins are complex mixtures of
short-chain and long-chain hydrocarbons containing up
to 70% chlorine. Chlorinated paraffins cause liver and
kidney toxicity in animals while the short-chain mixture is an animal carcinogen and possible human carcinogen (NAS 2000a). Chlorinated paraffins and phosphate esters in PVC also function as secondary plasticizers (UBA 2001).
The phosphate ester flame retardants used in PVC
include tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate, tris (chloropropyl) phosphate [TCCP], and tris (dichloropropyl)
phosphate [TDCPP]. These compounds are added to
PVC floor covering and are released as off-gassing
occurs from the vinyl (Marklund 2003). TDCPP was
widely used as a flame retardant in childrens sleepwear
until May 1977, when it was withdrawn from the market after published reports that it was mutagenic in bacteria (Sanders 1978). The use of TDCPP as a flame
retardant may pose significant cancer risks and reproductive harm (testicular atrophy and decreased seminal
vesicle secretions), according to a committee of top
U.S. scientists (NAS 2000a). The German Federal
Environmental Agency has recommended a reduction
Another hazard associated with the use of PVC products arises when PVC is burned in an accidental fire.
Not only are many building materials made from PVC
but it was once standard practice to use PVC to insulate
wiring in buildings. In 1995, there were an estimated
574,000 structural fires and another 406,000 vehicle
fires in the U.S. (USEPA 2001). When the PVC in
buildings and vehicles burns, a variety of toxic substances are formed that pose major public health risks.
The primary combustion products are hydrogen chloride
gas, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide (OFM 1997).
Hydrogen chloride gas is a corrosive and highly toxic gas
that can burn the skin and cause severe damage to the
eyes and lungs. When hydrogen chloride comes in contact with the mucous lining of the lungs, it is converted
into hydrochloric acid that can cause severe and permanent respiratory damage (IAFF 1995).
Accidental fires that burn PVC also generate phosgene
gas, benzene, toluene, xylenes, dioxins, furans and other
products of incomplete combustion (IAFF 1995). The
poor combustion conditions that are typical of these fires
are ideal for the formation of dioxins and furans (TNO
1996). Dioxins were found in the air, water, surface soil
and nearby vegetation following the burning of a plastics
recycling plant in Hamilton, Ontario (OMEE 1997). In
the World Trade Center fires, dioxins and furans were
identified as significant components of the smoke given
off by the smoldering buildings (Landrigan 2004). In
Germany, dioxin levels in indoor soot remaining after a
house fire were found to be as high as 45,000 parts per
trillion (ppt) TEQmore than 300 times the German
governments health standard (Fiedler 1993). After a fire
at a plastics warehouse in Binghamton, NY, dioxin levels
in soils were found to be more than 100 times higher
than other areas of the community not impacted by the
fire (Schecter 1996).
Firefighters and emergency responders are especially at
risk from smoke and gases generated by fires burning
PVC. Exposure to combustion gases from building fires
has been linked to a high incidence of leukemia and
laryngeal and colon cancers in firefighters at young ages
(Wallace 1990) and to other adverse health problems
including pulmonary hemorrhage and edema due to
chemical pneumonitis (Schreiber 2003, Dyer 1976).
This is one of the reasons why the International
3:
CHAPTER
21
CHAPTER
3:
22
C A S E
S T U D Y
Montreal, Canada:
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
MAJOR FINDINGS
P V C :
IV
THE DEADLY
CONNECTION
23
T H E D E A D LY C O N N E C T I O N P V C , C h l o r i n e a n d D i o x i n
4:
CHAPTER
24
Table 6
14.8
7
1.72
0.11
3,125
0.43
0.73
76.6
Sources and Notes: All data are from the USEPA Inventory of Sources of Dioxin (USEPA 2001)
which reflects data generated in 1995, the most recent year for which data are available. Since the
2001 Inventory was published, dioxin air emissions from municipal waste incinerators have declined
for two reasons related to a December 2000 compliance deadline for new federal regulations on
toxic air emissions: (1) the closure of 25 waste combustion plants, nearly 20% of the total number,
between 2000 and 2002 (Kaufman 2004); and (2) added air pollution controls that shifted much of
the total amount of dioxin formed to incinerator ash, which requires land disposal. The USEPA now
estimates that dioxin air emissions from large municipal waste incinerators are 12.0 grams of dioxin
per year (TEQ) from 66 large incineration facilities in 24 states (USEPA 2002a). Dioxin air emissions
from 39 small incinerators were estimated at 50 grams per year TEQ in 2000 and are projected to
decline to 1.8 grams per year in response to a December 2005 compliance deadline for new federal
toxic air emission regulations (ERG 2002). These more recent estimates have not yet been peer
reviewed or published according to USEPA.
* TEQ = toxic equivalents; a measure of the total amount of all forms of dioxins, furans, and dioxinlike PCBs found in a sample.
T H E D E A D LY C O N N E C T I O N P V C , C h l o r i n e a n d D i o x i n
4:
CHAPTER
Dioxin Releases
(grams/year TEQ*)
25
CHAPTER
4:
T H E D E A D LY C O N N E C T I O N P V C , C h l o r i n e a n d D i o x i n
Nonetheless, most studies focus on dioxin concentrations in stack gas as a means of assessing the relationship between chlorine and dioxin. The fact that many
studies examining miniscule dioxin concentrations in
this hard-to-measure source still find a positive correlation between chlorine and dioxin testifies to the
strength of the relationship.
26
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
MAJOR FINDINGS
B a d
The Hazards of
Burning PVC Waste
P V C :
DONT BURN IT
27
Table 7
CHAPTER
5:
28
5:
form of ash. Incineration is not a solution to waste disposal, especially not for PVC-containing waste.
CHAPTER
Waste incineration has been linked to a number of serious health problems in plant workers, as well as in surrounding communities. Many of these troubles implicate PVC as the root source of contamination. For
instance, workers in incinerator plants have increased
levels of chlorinated phenols and lead in their body tissues, which may result from PVC, as well as mercury
and arsenic (Allsopp 2001). The USEPA has reported
that metals emissions in incinerators rise when the
chlorine content of the waste rises. In one study, metals were up to seven times higher when the chlorine
content of the waste was increased from 0 to 8.3%
(Carroll 1989). Elevated chlorine content levels also
impair the efficiency of the scrubber (an air pollution
control device) to remove metals from stack gases
(Carroll 1989). Incinerator operators are not the only
exposed group. Populations living near incinerators are
particularly vulnerable to elevated levels of dioxins and
heavy metals in tissue and blood, as well as to respiratory ailments and cancers (Allsopp 2001). Elevated levels
of congenital abnormalities have also been observed in
newborns in areas in the immediate vicinity of incineration plants (ten Tusscher 2000).
CHAPTER
5:
Open Burning
Perhaps the most under appreciated
source of dioxin emissions is the
open burning of household trash.
30
C A S E
S T U D Y
Detroit, Michigan:
Henry Ford Hospital
Medical Waste Incinerator
In February 2000, residents of a predominately African-American
community in Detroit, Michigan succeeded in their efforts to shut
down Henry Ford Hospitals medical waste incinerator. Since it
began operating in 1980, the facility had been burning approximately 6 million pounds of waste annually. As of 1998, Henry Ford
was the only hospital (of 25 surveyed) still burning medical waste in
an on-site incinerator. Environmental justice was a primary concern:
the Henry Ford Hospital System owns two other hospitals located in
predominately white suburbs that send their waste to a commercial
autoclave facility in Toledo, Ohio rather than burn it. This inconsistency fueled local activists.
The Henry Ford Hospital incinerator was a major, chronic polluter.
For instance, the only emission controls in place were opacity limits,
which do not involve emissions testing, but use a visual estimate of
how opaque a cloud of smoke emitted from the stack is. And even
those limits had been violated on a number of occasions. Federal
pollution controls on emissions of mercury, dioxins and heavy metals
had not yet been implemented in Michigan, so the facility burned
medical and other waste largely without regulation. The impact on
public health was consequently severe. A five year long Michigan
Department of Community Health study found the rate of children
hospitalized for asthma in the zip codes immediately surrounding
the incinerator to be three times that of neighboring Wayne County.
Moreover, a report commissioned by the New York University
Research Program focusing on Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions
in Michigan from 1983 through 1994 found that in the four zip
codes surrounding the incinerator, the average hospital admissions
of children aged zero to four were four times the state average.
A coalition of more than a dozen organizations including Detroiters
Working for Environmental Justice, Virginia Park Citizens District
Council, a local Sierra Club chapter, and the Sugar Law Center for
Economic and Social Justice worked together for four years before
successfully closing the incinerator in the spring of 2000. Strategies
included civil disobedience, media attention and coalition building.
Yard signs helped draw attention to the fight, and a constant barrage of phone calls and postcards to hospital officials ensured residents concerns would not be ignored. Steady, targeted pressure on
executives within Henry Ford Hospital System was a major factor in
the eventual shutdown of the incinerator (Sources: Lott 2004,
Holden 1999, Bates-Rudd 2000).
C A S E
S T U D Y
Oakland, California:
IES Medical Waste Incinerator
C A S E
S T U D Y
5:
CHAPTER
C A S E
S T U D Y
Open burning was not initially idenPVC plastics waste is a major source of our dioxin pollutified by the USEPA as a source of
tion in Maine. It is the only plastic that forms significant
dioxin (USEPA 1998). Now the
amounts of dioxin when burned and has very low recycling
agency has identified open burning
rates. It is even preferable to avoid burning PVC in municias a major source of dioxins. The
pal incinerators to reduce air pollutant levels and toxic ash
USEPAs most recent Inventory of
disposal. Safe alternatives exist for virtually every use of
Sources of Dioxin estimated open
PVC plastic.
burning may account for as much as
628 grams TEQ dioxin, making it
Maines educational materials also give clear consumer guidance on
the second largest source of dioxin
safer alternatives to typical uses of PVC plastic. The Maine DEP established the link between open burning and PVC as follows: In addition
emissions in the U.S. (USEPA 2001).
to eliminating backyard trash burning, we need to reduce the toxic
The USEPA found a single housenature of our waste stream that goes to incineration because of the
hold burn barrel may release more
potential for serious health effects and contamination of our food
toxic chemicals into the air than a
supply (Sources: MDEP 2001, MDEP 2001a, MDEP 1997).
municipal waste incinerator burning
200 tons of household trash a day
that is equipped with state-of-the-art
tained simulated waste from a household that did not
air pollution control devices (Lemieux 1998).
recycle and the other contained waste remaining after
avid recycling. This study reported high emissions of
A key study used by the USEPA to estimate the
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including benzene,
amount of dioxins generated by open burning of housepolynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated
hold trash was published in 1998 by a New York
benzenes and dioxins and furans. Surprisingly, higher
researcher (Lemieux 1998). The author burned two
levels of dioxins and furans were found in the emissions
sets of simulated household garbage in separate metal
from the avid recycling household sample compared to
burn barrels in a controlled laboratory setting and
the non-recycler.
measured emissions from each barrel. One barrel con-
5:
A likely explanation for this difference may be the higher proportion of PVC plastic which is not recycled that
ends up in the trash of the avid recycling household
(4.5% versus 0.2%). According to the author of the
study, the higher proportion of PVC plastic in the avid
recyclers waste stream could potentially increase the
formation of chlorinated organic compounds. Other
factors such as time, temperature history, mixing patterns, oxygen availability, as well as the mixture of carbon with chlorine in the presence of metal catalysts are
also important factors in the formation of PCDDs
(dioxins) and PCDFs (furans) (Lemieux, 2000).
Illegal (18)
Legal (2)
Legal with Restrictions (29)
Regulated by Local Gvt. (1)
33
VI
NO PLACE LEFT
An average of 8,400 landfill fires are reported every year in the U.S., contributing further to PVC waste combustion and dioxin
pollution.
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
MAJOR FINDINGS
P V C :
35
CHAPTER
6:
36
Table 8
State
California
Texas
New York
Ohio
Illinois
Michigan
Florida
Georgia
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
North Carolina
Indiana
Washington
Virginia
Maryland
Remaining States*
Total
Number of
Landfills
Amount of PVC
Landfilled (tons)
161
175
26
44
51
52
100
60
49
60
41
35
21
67
20
805
328,260
176,896
116,088
100,509
98,896
96,241
76,817
69,177
60,844
56,166
54,842
52,986
49,128
48,636
42,722
610,553
1,767
2,038,761
Sources and Notes: Estimates derived from Kaufman (2004) for 2002. The amount of PVC landfilled by each state was calculated by (1) assuming that the percent PVC content of municipal solid
waste (0.62%) estimated by the USEPA (2003) is representative of the typical percentage of PVC in
the waste stream; (2) assuming that post-consumer recycling of PVC in MSW is zero; (3) multiplying
the average percent PVC in the waste (0.62%) by the total waste generated in that state according to
Table 4 in Kaufman (2004); and (4) multiplying this value (the total PVC disposed in the state) by the
percent of waste landfilled after recycling as shown in column 2 above. The percent of PVC landfilled after recycling was determined by dividing the total amount of waste landfilled in a state (provided in Table 4 of Kaufman 2004) by the total waste disposed of (after recycling).
* AL, AK, and MT did not report any data (see Appendix B).
There are significant dangers associated with the dumping of PVC in landfills. Although there appears to be
little degradation of the PVC polymer (ARGUS 2000,
Mersiowski 1999), the additives present in PVC products are not chemically bound to the PVC and they will
seep out into the environment over time (CEC 2000).
These additives include plasticizers, stabilizers, pigments, fillers and other chemicals that are added to
PVC depending on the final products intended purpose
(see Chapter 3). Many of these additives leach out in
the disposal phase (Mersiowski 1999). This is especially
true of flexible PVC products. In the case of the rigid
PVC products, stabilizers are generally thought to be
encapsulated in the matrix of the PVC polymer and
thus migration is expected to be less than what occurs
with the plasticizers (ARGUS 2000, AEA 2000,
Mersiowski 1999).
In landfills, PVC (as well as all waste) is subject to different reactive conditions such as moisture, changing
temperatures, the presence (or absence) of oxygen, and
the activity of microorganisms (CEC 2000). These factors will interact with the waste at different stages of
the aging process. Recent studies evaluating the behavior of PVC in landfills found that microorganisms
and/or corrosive liquids common to landfill environments act to accelerate the release of additives in PVC
products (Mersiowski 1999, Hjertberg 1995).
Estimates have been made of the amount of lead present in landfills that are attributable to lead additives in
discarded PVC products. These estimates range from
1 to 28% (CEC 2000). In 1998, an estimated 51,000
tons of lead were used as stabilizers in plastic in Europe
(CEC 2000) and an estimated 6 billion tons were used
worldwide in 2000 (Tukker 2001). Much of this lead
will end up in landfills and can be expected to be a significant source of lead being released into the environment (NCM 2003). The key question is how much of
the lead will be mobilized and released into the environment and when. Although the mobility of lead is
generally thought to be low, small amounts will slowly
leak out. Over time, this could lead to substantial
amounts of lead being released into the environment.
One study in Europe reported that an estimated 8 kilotons of lead from PVC entered the waste stream and
that 0.5 kilotons was released into the environment in
2000 (Tukker 2001). Given the longevity of PVC products, it can be expected that lead leaching from discarded PVC products in landfills will continue to be a
health and environmental threat for many years to
come.
6:
CHAPTER
(under contract to the USEPA) estimated that 136 million tons of building-related C&D debris was generated
in 1996 (FA 1998). This figure did not include road,
bridge and land clearing debris. C&D waste consists
mainly of wood products, asphalt, drywall and masonry
waste with lesser quantities of metals, plastics including
PVC, dirt, shingles, insulation, paper and cardboard
(ICF 1995). The percentage of PVC in C&D waste is
hard to estimate. One report specifically identified and
estimated the percent of vinyl siding and PVC pipes in
C&D waste to be 0.63% for the two materials combined (FA 1998). Other types of PVC plastic waste
were not considered.
CHAPTER
6:
Landfills are also used to discard the residual ash generated when PVC products are incinerated. This ash
contains dioxins and many heavy metals that will eventually cause many of the same leaching problems and
threats to groundwater discussed earlier (USEPA
1994a, ERF 1990, Denison 1988). Clearly, landfills do
not solve the disposal dilemma. They merely present a
temporary, polluting alternative to burning PVC and
creating dioxins. As an interim strategy, land disposal
of PVC in a hazardous waste landfill may be preferable
to incineration, but it poses its own environmental and
public health threats and does not provide a long term
secure solution to PVC waste management. Avoiding
the generation of PVC-containing waste is the only
sure way to prevent the problems associated with either
landfill disposal or incineration of PVC waste.
6:
CHAPTER
39
VII
RECYCLING MENACE
The vinyl industry has inflated its PVC recycling rate by failing to account for all PVC
waste generated and by redefining PVC
waste incineration as recycling.
PVC increases the toxic impacts of the recycling process for other discarded products
such as nylon carpet, computers, automobiles and corrugated cardboard.
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
MAJOR FINDINGS
P V C :
PVC Undermines
Recycling Efforts
41
Table 9
CHAPTER
7:
Application
42
PVC Polymer
Plasticizer
Stabilizer
Filler
Others
98
85
90
95
1-2
3
3
4
6
8
1
5
42
42
65
35
53
75
60
23
15
32
25
40
10
30
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
33
41
40
5
5
5
0
2
1
8
3
Source: Prognos 1994, Prognos 1999, Totsch 1990 as cited in Plinke, 2000.
Plastic Bottles
PVC severely impacts the recyclability of other plastics
such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET or sometimes
PETE). Bottles made of PET and high density polyeth-
Table 10
PVC Use
PVC as Contaminant
PVC and PET bottles are commingled in all bottle recycling efforts
Backing of carpet
The PVC on wires and cables with low copper content are burned at secondary copper
smelters releasing dioxins and toxic additives
and by-products.
7:
Sources: 1 - Anderson 2004; 2 - SVTC 2004; 3 - CCC 2004; 4 - SCC 1988; and 5 - MDEP 2004a.
43
ylene (HDPE) make up 95% of all plastic bottles compared to only about 2.3% for PVC bottles (Anderson
2004). PET bottles (recycling code #1) are commonly
used to contain water, soda, vegetable oil and many
other products (Anderson 2004) and are highly recyclable. Lower quality recycled PET (which has greater tolerance for contaminants such as PVC) is often used to
make a polyester fabric known as fiberfill that is used
in coats, sleeping bags, pillows and carpeting. However,
higher quality recycled PET (containing very little
PVC) is increasingly being recycled directly back into
bottles. It also has an economic benefit as it is sold for
fiber at seven times the price of PET contaminated with
PVC (Anderson 2004).
When PVC is mixed together with PET or other highly
recyclable plastic, such as in the all-bottle recycling
programs favored by the plastics industry, the few PVC
bottles likely to be collected will be virtually indistinguishable from PET containers due to their similar
appearance and density. Sophisticated separation technology that uses optical systems is available to identify
and remove unwanted plastic bottles, such as PVC
(USEPA 1993). However, the effectiveness of these
systems is greatly reduced when the bottles are damaged or dirty. This makes accurate readings difficult to
achieve and as a practical matter separation of PVC
almost impossible (USEPA 1993, Anderson 2004).
If the PVC cannot be separated from the PET, it will
severely effect the processing of the PET bottles into
reusable plastic resin. This is because PET and PVC
behave very differently when they are processed for
recycling. PVC burns at a lower temperature than PET.
It burns at the temperature that simply melts PET
(Anderson 2004, EAF 1993). When this occurs, black
spots get into the PET resin contaminating the batch
and ruining or seriously downgrading the quality of recycled PET residue (Anderson 2004). According to one
plastics recycler, introducing one PVC bottle into the
recycling process can contaminate 100,000 PET bottles
(Anderson 2004, EAF 1993). In addition, when PVC is
melted, it generates hydrochloric acid, which will damage the processing equipment (OSWM 1993).
Despite these difficulties, the vinyl industry partially
subsidized PVC bottle recycling in the mid-1990s
(Anderson 2004). This effort failed miserably. At best,
barely 2% of the bottles were recovered (Anderson
2004). Instead, truckloads of PVC plastic waste were
landfilled (Denison 1997) leading the Association of
Post-Consumer Plastic Recyclers (APR), a recycling
industry trade group, to declare that vinyl products are
unrecyclable contaminants in the recycling of PET
44
Electronics
An estimated 26% of the plastic used in electrical and
electronic equipment is made of PVC (MCTC 1996).
The cabling of computers and other electronics is currently a major application of PVC in electronics, although
it can be found in the housings of older computers that
may still enter the waste stream (SVTC 2004).
When these consumer products reach the end of their
useful life, components can be recovered and reused.
Recyclers strive to recover valuable metals, such as copper from the wiring of these electronics. This is done
by mechanical removal of the plastic sheathing, but it is
only economical when the copper content is high.
Most PVC cables from consumer electronics do not
contain enough copper and so are bundled and shipped
to a secondary copper smelter. Once there, the PVC
plastic is burned off from the copper, a known catalyst
of dioxin formation. Thus, recovery of copper wire
results in toxic emissions including dioxins and furans
to air and ash (SVTC 2004, USEPA 2001).
Smelting can present dangers similar to incineration. A
report on the recycling of computer parts raised concerns that the Noranda Smelter in Quebec, Canada,
where much of the North American electroscrap is
sent, is producing dioxins due to the residual presence
of PVC or other plastics in the scrap (SVTC 2004).
Noranda has denied that this facility presents a pollution hazard. Secondary copper smelters, such as the
one operated by Noranda, have been identified as one
of the highest sources of dioxin emissions in the U.S.
(USEPA 2001).
The main uses of PVC in automobiles include underbody coatings and sealants, wire harnesses, dash boards,
door panels, arm and head rests, upholstery, heating
and cooling ducts, floor mats, spray-on sound deadener,
seat belt latches, seat covers, mud flaps, and exterior
trim such as body side protection strips, weather strips
and window sealing profiles (APC 2004, VI 2004c,
CCC 2004). PVC is the second largest volume plastic
for automotive use in North America (APC 2004).
Carpets
The disposal of carpets in municipal and construction
and demolition waste adds PVC from carpet backing to
the solid waste stream. Two progressive companies controlling just ten percent of the market have achieved a
modest 22% recycling rate for PVC carpet backing. But
mechanical separation used by companies such as
Interface Fabrics leaves too much PVC contaminant in
with the nylon. PVC burns at the same temperature
that nylon begins to soften and destroys the separated
nylon fibers (Anderson 2004). Another company that
uses recycling (Collins & Aikman) must downcycle the
entire carpet to a lower value carpet backing, losing the
nylon fibers for reuse and requiring virgin materials for
new carpet facing (Anderson 2004).
Truly closed loop recycling for carpets, in which the facing and the backing fibers are recycled back into their
original uses, remains elusive (Anderson 2004). And
the modest success earned by recycling of PVC carpet
backing cant be readily translated to other uses of
PVC. The carpet makers enjoy a large volume, steady
supply of discards with a relatively standard formula of
PVC, unlike the variable PVC mixtures used in so
many other far-flung products that are difficult to collect and recycle for a high end use (Anderson 2004).
Scrap Wood
Pressures are increasing to burn more scrap wood for
fuel and power in so-called biomass boilers that are a
proven source of dioxin emissions (MDEP 2004). Yet it
is increasingly likely that PVC siding, window frames,
roofing foils and other vinyl building materials will
become mixed with scrap wood recovered from construction and demolition debris. When chipped and
burned, this PVC-contaminated wood scrap is likely to
add to the amount of dioxins formed.
7:
CHAPTER
Automobiles
45
In many cases, the alternatives are only marginally more costly than PVC, and in some
cases the costs of the alternative materials
are comparable to PVC when measured over
the useful life of the product.
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
MAJOR FINDINGS
P V C :
VIII
DONT BUY IT
47
CHAPTER
8:
Many Other
Plastic Resins are
Safer Than PVC
48
Most
Harmful
PVC
#3
PS
#6
PU, PC,
ABS, TPE
PETE
#1
PE #2, #4
Least
Harmful
EVA
PP #5
TPE
Metallocenes
Bio-based Polymers
A key to the plastics and some hazards associated with production, use and disposal
Level 1
Level 2
Effective alternatives are available now for most construction-related uses of PVC. Several databases, such
as those offered by the Healthy Building Network
(HBN 2004: http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/
alternatives.html) and Greenpeace (Greenpeace 2004:
http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/pvcdatabase), list
these alternatives. A large number of construction
projects, including the Sydney 2000 Olympic Stadium
and the new EPA headquarters in Washington, DC
have been constructed with little or no PVC
(Greenpeace 2001, Greenpeace 2004b).
Medical Products
The Sustainable Hospitals Project is an excellent
resource for healthy medical products, including PVCfree alternatives for gloves, bags and tubing. They operate a Website that includes extensive listings of products by category, by hazard or by manufacturer (SHP
2000: http://www.sustainablehospitals.org/
cgi-bin/DB_Index.cgi).
Building Materials
8:
Even more environmentally preferable are the biobased polymers, which are derived from natural renewable materials such as cornstarch or cellulose and which
can be composted into beneficial organic matter to
enrich soils rather than landfilled or incinerated. The
Interface Fabrics company, among others, is pilot testing textile fibers made from bio-based polymers. An
even higher standard would give preference to biobased plastics developed from sustainable agricultural
practices (e.g., without the use of pesticides and minimal fossil fuel inputs) that do not rely on genetically
modified organisms or displace food products from serving the marketplace. Genetically engineered products
should not be used in making bio-plastics.
CHAPTER
Office Supplies
The Lowell Center for Sustainable Production has identified alternatives to the use of PVC in office supplies
(SHP 2000: http://www.sustainablehospitals.org/cgibin/DB_Index.cgi). For example, instead of the common vinyl-coated three-ring binder, you can purchase
an equivalent binder made of polypropylene with recycled content.
Packaging
The Grassroots Recycling Network has identified specific brand products that are currently packaged in PVC
49
Table 11
PVC Product
Available Alternatives
Affordability
Automobile Components
Polyolefins1
Blinds
Wood3, Aluminum3
Varies
Bottles
Flooring (Hard)
Flooring (Resilient)
Gloves
Nitrile7
Polyurethane7,8, Silicon7,8
Polypropylene7,8, Polyethylene7,8
Prices vary but most hospitals are able to negotiate comparable rates through high volume purchasing.8 Prices will fall as market increases.8
Pipes
Decreased labor cost for installation reduces importance of price.6,9 Pipe selection rarely determined by
material cost differences in this industry6,9
Siding
Wallpaper
Natural Fiber6
More expensive5
Windows
Wood6, Aluminum6
Varies widely6
CHAPTER
8:
Sources and Notes: 1 - Greenpeace 2001; 2 - Singhofen 1997; 3 - Dickey 2002; 4 - GRRN -2004; 5 - CEC 2004; 6 - Ackerman 2003; 7 - Ruzickova
2004; 8- SHP 2000; 9 - Harvie 2002. Note: This table is not meant to be exhaustive, as there are endless uses of PVC. Rather, it is provided to offer a
few concrete examples of available and affordable alternatives to PVC. In choosing alternative materials for this table, an effort was made to exclude
those having significant environmental and/or health concerns of their own. This does not imply an endorsement by CHEJ or EHSC of any materials listed.
We do believe, however, that the materials listed offer an improvement over PVC. For any material, there are advantages and disadvantages and we
would encourage you to thoroughly research all purchasing decisions.
8:
Automobiles
PVC Alternatives
are Affordable
CHAPTER
sumer items, including toys. This site includes a toycompany report card that rates companies on a scale of
1 to 5, from being completely PVC-free to refusing to
change policies or provide information (Greenpeace
2003, Greenpeace 1997: http://archive.greenpeace.org/
comms/pvctoys; a more recent 2003 version can be
found at http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/
features/details?item_id=526899). It is worth visiting
each site as they both contain unique information.
Greenpeace also has issued a report on worldwide PVC
restrictions that includes a list of companies, by country, that have made a decision to phase out the use of
PVC in their products (Greenpeace 2001:
http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/reports/restrictions.pdf).
CHAPTER
8:
52
Factors Favoring
Phase-Out of PVC
According to the Tufts report, cost estimates such as
those made by Environment Canada, based on current
market prices, tend to overstate the economic benefits
of PVC. Four reasons were given for this conclusion.
The Tufts report examined the impact that phasing out PVC would
have on jobs. Using data provided by the Alliance for Responsible
Use of Chlorine Chemistry (ARCC), they estimated that there are
approximately 126,000 workers in PVC fabrication plants and
approximately 170,000 workers at chlorine-producing and chlorineusing chemical plants in the U.S. However, most of the chlorine
workers are in non-PVC related chlorine sectors such as paper mills,
pesticides, and solvents. The Tufts researchers estimated that only
about 9,000 of the 170,000 workers were employed in the production of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and PVC resin.
8:
2) Mass Production
Reduces Costs.
CHAPTER
53
cost effective technologies to comply with the regulation. Other studies have confirmed this pattern of overestimating compliance costs (Ackerman 2003b).
CHAPTER
8:
54
IX
TAKE ACTION
Federal and state waste management priorities should be changed to make incineration
of PVC waste the least preferable disposal
option.
T h r e e s
I n
C o m e s
N e w s
B a d
RECOMMENDATIONS
P V C :
55
CHAPTER
9:
56
2nd Priority
REUSE
3rd Priority
RECYCLING
4th Priority
COMPOSTING
Of biodegradable waste
5th Priority
INCINERATION
Lowest Priority
Source: MRSA 2004a
LAND DISPOSAL
Table 15
9:
CHAPTER
EXTENDED PRODUCER
RESPONSIBILITY
3rd Priority
4th Priority
LAND DISPOSAL
Last Option
INCINERATION
CHAPTER
9:
Personal Steps
58
C A S E
S T U D Y
Organizing To Win
Around Issues on PVC
Every day, people facing threats to their health and environment speak out about PVC problems. They look for
proof that a landfill leaks, or seek to undertake a health
study to link emissions from an incinerator to cancer, or
find evidence that a polluting company has a bad environmental record. However, simply speaking the truth
Community action has also repeatedly changed national waste policy from the grassroots up. Join with your
friends and neighbors to make a difference. Join a local
group or start a new one to take action against dioxin
sources such as incinerators, backyard burning, landfills,
biomass plants or building fires where PVC use and disposal release toxic chemicals into the environment. For
referrals and how-to tips, contact the Center for
Health, Environment and Justice (www.chej.org).
9:
Organizers launched the campaign at an Eco-Conference held annually on college campuses, distributed flyers and postcards, and posted an action alert allowing Website visitors to fax a letter or send a
postcard directly to Intimate Brands. The company initially responded by sending defensive letters to the individuals that wrote to
them. However, as more letters continued to come in, they took the
demand more seriously. In February 2002, they met with representatives from CHEJ and Greenpeace and presented a plan to phase
out the use of PVC bottles in both their Victorias Secret and Bath &
Body Works line. PVC bottle production would stop by 2003 and
by 2005 all PVC bottles would be out of circulation. The effectiveness of this campaign is a testimony to the positive changes that
can be made when people come together and pressure companies
to put safety first (Source: Lester 2003).
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
9:
60
9:
CHAPTER
61
5. Set Goals
CHAPTER
9:
Policy Action
While personal steps are critically important, community action is a must. But neither are enough. The personal should also be political. Unless the system that
unduly relies on hazardous materials like PVC is
changed, then green consumerism and green behavior
will remain a minor movement of the privileged few.
Unless many community-based organizations join forces,
large-scale systemic change will be slow in coming.
Table 16
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
9:
CHAPTER
1.
63
C A S E
S T U D Y
CHAPTER
9:
PVC Identified as
Household Hazardous Waste
In its Plan for the Statewide Collection of Household Hazardous
Waste, the State of Maine identified PVC as a problem waste that
should be separately collected and, if not recycled, then diverted
away from incineration to landfill disposal. Although household
hazardous waste remains exempt from regulation, collection programs are being expanded in Maine and elsewhere to encourage
residents to turn in old hazardous products for safe management
rather than tossing them in the trash. In addition to spent paint
thinner, old pesticides, mercury products and other toxic household
waste, the Plan targets PVC, latex paint and old propane tanks as
problem wastes requiring special collection and management.
Efforts are underway to establish a reliable means of funding the
operational costs of household hazardous waste collection so that
this plan can be fully implemented in Maine (Source: MDEP 2001b).
C A S E
64
S T U D Y
Accomplish Within
Five Years
6. Establish Our Right-To-Know
About PVC. Require product
manufacturers that sell products
containing PVC to notify the state
of the amount of PVC and the specific chemical name of additives
used in individual products, identified by brand name, model and
type of PVC use. This information
should be made available on-line in
a searchable database on PVC
products that allows consumers and
business people to identify PVC
and its ingredients in consumer
products and materials. This provides people with the knowledge
they need to ask questions and
make decisions about safer PVCfree alternatives.
7. Label All PVC Products with
Warnings. A meaningful education and PVC diversion program
will run head long into the current
limits on identifying PVC in the
2.
3.
4.
5.
9:
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
9:
Health Care Purchasing: Four top group purchasing organizations that buy supplies for more than 70% of U.S. health care
facilities, such as Premier, Inc., established initiatives to reduce
the purchasing of medical products containing PVC, mercury
and the chemical plasticizer diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)
(HCWH 2002a).
C A S E
S T U D Y
66
Conclusion
9:
CHAPTER
67
T h r e e s
Boots
Aprons
T-shirts with PVC prints (shiny)
Raincoats
Rain pants
Skirts
Lingerie
Shoes
Bags
Luggage
Bibs
Backpacks (PVC coating for
waterproofing)
Watchbands
Diaper covers
I n
Apparel:
C o m e s
While this list may help get you started, not all containers and products are
labeled. If you suspect that a product or its packaging is made of PVC, we
suggest you contact the product manufacturer and ask them directly about
the materials used in the product or its packaging. One way to be sure if
the packaging of a product is made from PVC is to look for the number 3
or for the letter V inside the universal recycling symbol. This means that
the product is made of PVC. Soft flexible plastic products that are made
with PVC often have a distinct odor. What you smell is the plasticizer that
was added to the PVC material to make it soft and flexible.
N e w s
Thousands of consumer products and packaging are made from PVC. The
following is a general list of some common products that are typically made
of PVC This list is meant to be a starting point for identifying what common products are packaged in or made from PVC. In creating this list, we
recognize that companies are always changing their products, including the
materials they use to package them. In some cases, you may find that a
product listed is no longer made from PVC. If this happens, you may want
to contact the company and congratulate them for being environmentally
conscientious.
B a d
P V C :
APPENDIX A
69
Household Items:
Outdoor Items:
Pond liners
Tarps
Greenhouses
Childrens swimming pools
Inflatable furniture
Outdoor furniture
Garden hoses
Balls
Kitchen Items:
Drinking straws
Tablecloths
Beverage containers
Plastic utensils
Dishwasher, refrigerator and
freezer racks
Dish drying racks (covers metal
to prevent rusting)
Appliance casings
Food wrap
Food containers
Automotive:
Upholstery
Dashboards
Door panels
Underbody coating
Car seats for children
Traffic cones
Wire coating
Auto-related product containers
Building Materials:
Pipes
Siding
Tiles
Wall coverings
Window frames
Door frames
Door gaskets
Gutters
Fencing
Plastic lumber
References to Appendix A
Abacas Studies (2004) Self Adhesive Polyester (PVC)
Labels and Stickers. Christchurch Business Centre
United Kingdom. Available at
http://www.abalabels.co.uk/polyester_labels_stickers.htm.
Bivings Woodell (1999) Vinyl: Everyday Uses at
www.vinylfacts.com/everyday/.
eBay (2004) Search for PVC at www.ebay.com.
Harmon (2001) M. This Vinyl House. Greenpeace USA,
Washington, DC, May.
Shutters
Flooring
Wire/cable insulation
Molding
Cavity closure insulation
Medical Supplies:
Colostomy bags
Catheters
Blood bags
Bed liners
Tubing
Gloves
Mattress covers
Office Supplies:
Computer keyboards
Computer monitor housing
Cellular phones
Floppy disks
Binders
Clipboards
Paper clips
Tape
Mouse pads
Miscellaneous:
Credit cards
Slide holders
Landfill liners and leachate pipes
www.pirg.org/masspirg/enviro/sw/pvc/index.htm.
North Carolina Department of Environmental and
Natural Resources (1998) Plastic: PVC (#3)
Commodity Profile. NC DENR Division of Pollution
Prevention and Environmental Assistance.
Thornton (2000) J. Pandoras Poison: Chlorine, Health,
and a New Environmental Strategy. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press.
APPENDIX B
Arizona
Amount of PVC
Incinerated (tons)2
Amount of PVC
Landfilled (tons)2
6,012,359
37,277
37,277
23,797
545
23,252
54,429,851
337,465
9,205
328,260
Colorado
5,051,132
31,317
31,317
Connecticut
4,734,132
29,352
16,257
13,095
1,069,042
6,628
6,628
Florida
19,706,584
122,181
45,364
76,817
Georgia
11,214,006
69,527
350
69,177
Hawaii
1,706,018
10,577
3,454
7,123
Delaware
Idaho
1,090,000
6,758
6,758
Illinois
15,951,037
98,896
98,896
Indiana
9,542,378
59,163
6,177
52,986
Iowa
3,416,268
21,181
366
20,815
Kansas
4,698,338
29,130
29,130
Kentucky
5,465,608
33,887
16
33,871
Louisiana
4,952,900
30,708
30,708
Maine
1,327,164
8,228
5,448
2,780
Maryland
8,904,464
55,208
12,486
42,722
Massachusetts
8,307,387
51,506
28,145
23,361
Michigan
16,916,076
104,880
8,639
96,241
Minnesota
5,043,752
31,271
14,432
16,839
Mississippi
2,918,407
18,094
18,094
Missouri
7,256,744
44,992
207
44,785
Montana
Nebraska
2,395,100
14,849
14,849
T h r e e s
3,838,217
California
I n
Arkansas
C o m e s
Alaska
Total MSW
Generated
(tons)
N e w s
Alabama
B a d
State
P V C :
71
Total MSW
Generated
(tons)
Nevada
3,365,570
New Hampshire
1,214,777
New Jersey
New Mexico
APPENDIX B:
State
72
New York
North Carolina
Amount of PVC
Incinerated (tons)2
Amount of PVC
Landfilled (tons)2
20,867
20,867
7,532
1,675
5,857
10,606,326
65,759
9,593
56,166
2,095,052
12,989
12,989
24,775,000
153,605
37,517
116,088
8,981,349
55,684
842
54,842
638,804
3,961
3,961
16,211,198
100,509
100,509
Oklahoma
4,489,028
27,823
27,832
Oregon
4,074,945
25,265
2,434
22,831
Pennsylvania
12,675,854
78,590
17,746
60,844
Rhode Island
1,248,745
7,742
7,742
South Carolina
5,973,059
37,033
2,004
35,029
518,493
3,215
3,215
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota
7,365,920
45,669
1,266
44,403
Texas
28,531,660
176,896
176,896
Utah
2,471,404
15,323
782
14,541
611,617
3,792
498
3,294
Tennessee
Vermont
10,877,723
67,442
18,806
48,636
Washington
8,666,755
53,734
4,606
49,128
West Virginia
1,754,523
10,878
10,878
Wisconsin
5,592,862
34,676
1,545
33,131
Wyoming
693,783
3,301
3,301
369,381,411
2,289,166
250,405
2,038,761
Virginia
Totals
Sources and Notes: Estimates derived from Kaufman (2004) for 2002. (1) The amount of PVC generated in each state is derived by multiplying the total
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generated in that state by the percent of PVC (0.62%) estimated from USEPA (2003). We assumed the percent of PVC estimated from the USEPA data was representative of the PVC content in a typical municipal solid waste stream and that none of the PVC was recycled. (2)
The amount of PVC incinerated (or landfilled) in each state was calculated by multiplying the total PVC disposed of in the state by the percent of waste
incinerated (or landfilled) after recycling. The percent of PVC incinerated (or landfilled) after recycling was determined by dividing the total amount of
waste incinerated (or landfilled) in a state (provided in Table 4 of Kaufman 2004) by the total waste disposed of (after recycling).
* These states did not participate in the survey conducted by Biocycle magazine (Kaufman 2004).
I n
T h r e e s
Ackerman (2003a) F. and R. Massey. The Economics of Phasing Out PVC. The studies discussed by Ackerman:
A Strategy for Virtual Elimination of Persistent Toxic Substances, International Joint Commission (IJC), Windsor, Ontario,
1993; Economic Instruments for the Virtual Elimination of Persistent Toxic Substances in the Great Lakes Basin, Report to IJC,
Hickling Corporation, 1994; Assessment of the Economic Benefits of Chlor-Alkali Chemicals to the United States and Canadian
Economy, Charles River Associates, Boston, MA 1993; and A Technical and Economic Comparison of Options to Products
Derived from the Chlor-Alkali Industry, Environment Canada, 1997; are all cited in Ackerman 2003.
C o m e s
Ackerman (2003) F. and R. Massey. The Economics of Phasing Out PVC, Global Development and Environment
Institute, Tufts University, Somerville, MA, December. Available at
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N e w s
Abbott Laboratories (2003) Making a Difference Around the World. Global Citizenship Report 2000-2001. Available at:
http://www.abbott.com/citizenship/pdf/2000-01_gc_report.pdf.
B a d
Abacas Studies (2004) Self Adhesive Polyester (PVC) Labels and Stickers. Christchurch Business Centre United
Kingdom. Available at http://www.abalabels.co.uk/polyester_labels_stickers.htm.
P V C :
REFERENCES
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in Occupational and Safety and Health, US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ENV-635, Washington, DC,
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Ackerman (2003c) F. and R. Massey. The Economics of Phasing Out PVC. The references used by Ackerman to provide statistics on VCM and PVC facilities in US: Chemical Economics Handbook: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Resins,
CEH Marketing Research Report, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA, September, 2003 and Chemical Economics
Handbook Vinyl Chloride Monomer, SRI Consulting, Menlo Park, CA, December, 2000.
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