1.

INTRODUCTION

Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by psychologists

and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various
branches of learning theory are used in formal training programs to improve and
accelerate the learning process. Basically, we have a number of competing theories,
which makes different assumptions about what learning is, and how it is achieved.

The aim of this assignment is to be able to explain briefly on the concept of learning
environment and also the teaching learning and how it is important towards the
childrens development and their learning process. Apart from that, with the chosen
theories which are humanistic and behavioural , we will apply it in the classroom
whereby the teaching and learning process takes place.

2.0

HUMANISTIC APPROACH
In the contrary, the humanistic approach emphasizes more that the humans have a
natural desire to learn. From an education point of view, it is concerned with the
whole learning, which includes the cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of
learning. Learning should be seen as a whole experience.
2.1

PROPONENTS

Humanistic learning theory

consists of the theories of Abraham Maslow and Carl

Rogers.
2.1.1 Abraham Harold Maslow
Abraham Maslows view of human needs was more complex than Rogers. Whilst
Rogers believed that people needed unconditional positive regard, Maslow
acknowledged that people have a variety of needs that differ in immediacy and which
need satisfying at different times. He arranged these needs in a hierarchy.
According to Maslow, humans will fulfill their basic needs such as physiological and
safety needs before they fulfill their higher needs such as love, self-esteem and selfactualization.

Figure 1

Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham

Maslow
According to the hierarchy of needs, Maslow theorized that a specific series of needs
must be met before any pupil could learn. Below is a brief explanation of Maslows
hierarchy of needs:
1. Physiological needs ( health, food, sleep )
Pupils who are hungry cannot learn. So, a teacher should be alert of the pupils
needs before a learning process takes place.
2.

Safety needs (both physical and emotional)

A brain of a pupil who feels emotionally or physically threatened produces
chemicals that actually prevent him/her to learn.

3.

Belonging needs ( love, affection, being a part of a group)

Maslow feels that a teacher should show some affection and becoming a person
who a pupil can rely on will make learning a success.

4.

Self- esteem needs (self-esteem and esteem from others)

A pupil should be given an opportunity to achieve, to make choices and to
become successful with the teacher being a facilitator .

5.

Self-actualization needs (achieving individual potential)

When the four needs are accomplished, that certain pupil will develop ability and
strength as well as problem solving skills strengthen.
Based on the hierarchy of needs, we can conclude that naturally, each individual have the
desire to learn , each individual reacts based on the environment and is given the freedom to
make decision, each individual will try hard to learn which is important in self-actualization
and the teacher is very important as facilitator to make sure the students involve themselves
in the learning process actively. Therefore, a pupils secret brilliance will shine once his
hierarchy of needs is met.
2

2.1.2 Carl Ransom Rogers

Rogers believed that it was important for the individual to learn to understand himself and
make independent choices that are significant in understanding the problem.
In his book On Becoming a Person he stated that "Unless I had a need to demonstrate my
own cleverness and learning, I would do better to rely upon the client for the direction of
movement."
According to Rogers, a learning process should be pupils centered whereby it can
only exist under the right conditions which permit the pupils to grow through experience.
Education should facilitate a free and open learning climate where the pupils are not
threatened by fear of failure, and should be allowed to explore and discover for
themselves. The pupils should be treated as an equal who is free to decide which direction
they should go. The teacher should therefore be non - directive, and allow the student to set
the agenda.
Education should be for the growth of the individual. He noted that the learning process will
be more significant when the contents of the subject are relevant with the students interest.
So, the threatening subject will be easier to the students when the external threats are at the
minimum level. In other words, the learning process of individual will be faster when the
threats are at the low level. Rogers also believed that the success of a learning has less to
with the techniques used by the teacher as with the relationship that the teacher develops
with the pupils. If a teacher develops the right sort of relationship, then that gives the pupils
room to examine their own problems, sources of unhappiness and ways of seeing the world.
They can then decide what they want to change and take the steps to change it. According to
Rogers also, teachers must have three important qualities in order to ensure the success of
a learning. The three qualities can be seen in the table below.
QUALITY
Congruence

DESCRIPTIONS
Honesty and genuineness. A teacher must relate to the pupils
as one human being to another, not as a professional like a
teacher would.

Empathy

The pupils must be able to feel what they themselves feel

because this is the only thing that will allow the pupils to feel
as if they are genuinely understood.

Respect

The teacher must show acceptance and unconditional

positive regard for the pupils.

Table 1 Qualities of a good teacher

Based on the three qualities mentioned above in the table, in my opinion, in order to have a
very successful learning process, a teacher should be self aware of their own feelings and to
communicate them in the learning context. By this, a sense of closeness with the pupils is
created. The teacher also should be sincere and engage direct personal context with the
pupils.
The next quality a teacher should adopt is empathic understanding . The teacher should
develop a personal knowledge of the pupil, so they can have an empathetic understanding of
the needs of and pressures upon their pupil. A good teacher will be one who knows what
makes their pupils tick.
Finally, respect means that the teacher should value the pupils innate desire for personal
growth and development. In this case the teacher has to uncover and nurture this desire.
The teacher should seek to be non-judgemental, and should attempt to create a learning
climate whereby the teacher/learning relationship is one where there is mutual acceptance,
respect and trust. The pupil will be encouraged to learn, not through the fear of failure, but by
the need to grow and develop.
2.2 PRINCIPLES
In general, there are five principles of humanistic
approach.
i) Students' learning should be self-directed.
The pupils must be given the freedom to choose what they want to
learn. The humanist believes that the students will be more motivated
when they interest in and want to know something. Every pupil in the
world has different interest. For example, there are pupils who are keen
of arts, linguistics and pupils who adore Science or Mathematics.
So, the pupils can choose on their own what they want to learn in their
life.
ii) Knowing how to learn is more important than acquir ing a lot of
knowledge .
The goal of education is to foster the pupil to learn and teaches them
how to learn. However, they must have self-motivation to
learn without external factor.
iii)

Self evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a students work

Self-assessment will be more meaningful to the pupils rather than
grade. The pupils usually will try hard to get better grades
4

iv)
v)

despite of their self-satisfaction. Because of that, the objective of a

test is not suitable for students as it only tests their memorization.
Feelings are as important as facts
A teacher should not separate both affective domain as well as
cognitive when teaching.
Pupils learn best in a non-threatening environment.
As a result, the pupils will feel safer to learn. When they feel safe,
learning process will be easier and meaningful to the pupils. So, the
school and the teacher must prepare a good environment to
enhance the pupils to learn. Indirectly, the learning process will be
more

PLUS
MINUS
INTERESTING
Focus
Lack of
Children
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paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical
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can
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Facilitate
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act to fulfil ones potential.
the teacher
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experienced teacher
It focuses on recognising
The human
learningcapabilities in areas
expressions of feeling
will be a problem ?
style
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humanistic theory.
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1.
Concept
of
learning:
relationship in group
achievers feel
Leads to
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centred
and the
is
extrovertedas
students
activities Learning is considered
to join
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2.

Needs:

discussion.
Affective and cognitive domain are observed through

effective.
2.3

KEY

CONCEPTS

3.

Goal
To develop a

self actual ,
autonomous pupil
which
means that
pupils alone will
know what their
target is

thelives.
process of learning.
in
2.4

PLUS MINUS INTERESTING IN HUMANISTIC

2.5 HUMANISTIC THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

The humanistic classroom respects each student

The humanistic classroom provides a holistic approach to learning by keeping the focus on
the child. The student is respected as an individual and is responsible for making decisions
about his learning. Humanistic lessons are not rigidly prescribed, but flow according to the
needs and inquiries of the student. This open approach helps provide emotional support for
the student in a humanistic classroom.
5

HOW IT IS APPLIED IN THE CLASSROOM?

1.

Student-Centred Learning
Student-centred learning takes place when the
teacher becomes a facilitator, taking the focus from
herself as the bearer of knowledge. The student
takes on an important role in this type of classroom.
Lessons originate and develop from the interests
of the student. The child is able to showcase his
creativity in this type of open classroom, which
increases self-esteem and a willingness to learn.

2.

Emotional Support
A humanistic classroom is inclusive of everyone.
This type of class seeks to support both individuality
and diversity by finding the similarities among
children. Lessons are developed not for the group,
but for the individual. Diversified lessons give each
child a chance to succeed and receive positive
reinforcement. Each child knows how it feels to
succeed, and stratification of students is eliminated.
Each child learns at an individual pace without labels
and stereotypes that can stigmatize.

3.

Open Seminars
Open seminars provide a chance for the student's
voice to be heard. Situating desks in a circle, with
the teacher joining the circle, gives everyone an
equal voice. There should be rules for the open
seminar, such as respect of opinions and giving
each person a chance to speak without interruption.
The seminar may focus on a question from a
student, a piece of literature, a current event or
anything the class is studying.

1.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning lets children work together to
find solutions to problems. Each child may have a
specific role within the group to make use of his
talents. The teacher supervises each group of about
three or four students to answer questions and
provide support. This type of learning allows the
student to learn how to foster peer relationships, an
important skill to carry throughout life.

2.

Discovery Education
In discovery education, the teacher introduces a
concept and gives the student freedom to discover
her own path to learning more about the concept.
This strategy supports the concept of multiple
intelligences and intellectual diversity. Abstract
learners may seek books and computers to research
the concept. The interpersonal personality may seek
out others to question for information on the topic.

3.0

Behavioural Theory

The term behaviourism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based
on the belief that behaviours can be measured, and changed. Behaviorism was established
with the publication of Watsons classic paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It
(1913) .
Behaviorism also known as behavioural psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the
idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through
interaction with environment. Behaviourist believes that our responses to environmental
stimuli shapes our behaviours.
According to behaviourism, behaviour can be studied in a systematic and observable manner
with no consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought suggests that only
observable behaviours should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions
and moods are too subjective.
8

There are two major types of conditioning :

1.

Classical Conditioning is a technique used in

behavioural training in which a naturally occurring
stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a
previously neutral stimulus is paired with the
naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the
previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the
response without the presence of the naturally
occurring stimulus. The two elements are then now
as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned
response.

2.

Operant Conditioning .( sometimes referred to as

instrumental conditioning ) is a method of learning
that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behaviour and a
consequence for that behaviour .
3.1 PROPONENTS
3.1.1 Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Skinners views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner believed that
we do have much a thing as a mind but that it is simply more productive to study
observable behaviour rather than internal mental events
Skinner believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the causes of
an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
BF Skinner : Operant Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndikes law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of EffectReinforcement behaviour which is reinforced tend to be repeated

(strengthened);

behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished(weakened).

Skinner(1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals
which he placed in a Skinner Box which was similar to Thorndikes puzzle box. His

study of behaviour in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory

conditions.

Figure 2
Skinner hypothesised that within behaviour the being manipulated or operated on the
environment. He maintained or shaped by its consequences, rather than just being shaped
by the stimulus (Pavlov).
He found that a rat could be made to operate liver. Every time a rat pressed a liver it received
a reward( a pellete of food). Thus the pellet of food was the reinforcement. Having learnt to
press the lever, as with Pavlovs dogs, Skinners rats could also be made to extinguish that
behaviour, by not rewarding the pressing of the bar with food.
Skinner suggested that all behaviour is simply a matter of operant or classical conditioning.
Human beings learn to behave according to the sophisticated or subtle schedule of
reinforcement they encounter.
He suggested that one can be made to behave by positive reinforcement - this is rewarding
behaviour(e.g. a carrot), or by negative reinforcement this is the removal of an unpleasant
stimulus (e.g. an electric cattle prong). Skinner does acknowledge that behaviour can also be
stopped (e.g. by a stick).
Within the schedule of reinforcement, Skinner found that partial reinforcement (intermittently
rewarding behaviour) was more effective than constant reinforcement. He also found that one
stimulus could spread to other stimuli (e.g. a pigeon could be inducted to peck at a particular
colour dot, and then generalise to peck to pecked at all coloured dots. Similarly Skinner found
that the rats or pigeons could be made to discriminate between similar stimuli.

10

3.1.2

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

His discoveries in the field of physiology by studying the mechanisms underlying the
digestive system in mammals paved the way for an objective science of behaviour .
1) Classical Conditioning
The most famous and well-known experiment of
Pavlov is that he conditioned dogs to initiate a
salivary response to sound of a bell. He began by
measuring the amount of salivation in response to
only food. As the experiments continued, he rang a
bell as he presented the food. Again, he noted a
salivary response. Finally, by only ringing the bell,
Pavlov observed the same response as having
presented food to the dogs salivation.

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (food)

2. Conditioned Stimulus (bell)

Unconditioned Response. (salivation)

Unconditioned Response (salivation)

+
Unconditioned Stimulus (food)
3. Conditioned Stimulus (bell)

Conditioned Response (salivation)

Pavlovs discovery was that environmental events that previously had no relation to a
given reflex (such as a bell sound) could, through experience, trigger a reflex
(salivation). This kind of learnt response is called conditioned reflex, and the process
whereby dogs or humans learn to connect a stimulus to a reflex is called conditioning.

3.2. PRINCIPLES
1)
i)

Principle of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers : reinforcing immediately following a behaviour increase the future
frequency of that behaviour.
11

 Positive reinforcers-positive, so think of addition (+) adding a reinforcer to

reinforce desired results, so behaviour is likely to re-occur.
Negative reinforcers-negative, so think of subtraction (-) . Taking away an
unfavourable stimuli to produce desired behaviour( like in Skinner box, the
loud annoying sound was removed when desired behaviour occurred) .
ii)

Punishment : a consequences immediately following a behaviour reduces the

future frequency of that behaviour.
Positive Punishments-an unfavourable stimuli is used to punish when
undesired behaviour occurs to prevent the likelihood of behaviour reoccurring.
( likeSkinner, producing a shock for undesired behaviour) .
Negative Punishment-taking away a favourable stimuli to punish for undesired
behaviour. ( taking away a childs favourite toy for bad behaviour ).

2)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

a)

Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning a
response is first established and gradually
strengthened. For example, imagine that
you are conditioning a dog to salivate in
response to the sound of a bell. You
repeatedly pair the presentation of food with

the sound of the bell. You can

say the
response has acquired as soon as the dog
begins to salivate in response to the bell
tone. Once the response has been acquired,
you can gradually reinforce the salivation to make sure the behaviour is well
learnt
b)

Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or
disappear
In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer
paired
with an unconditioning stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the
unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus) had been paired with a sound of a whistle (the
12

conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned

response of hunger. However, if the conditioned stimulus (the smell of food)
were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle, eventually the
conditioned response (hunger) would disappear .
c)

Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance
of the conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response. If
the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus are no longer associated, extinction
will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
recovery.
d) Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the
conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been
conditioned.
For example, if a child has been conditioned to
fear stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear
for the objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.
e) Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate
between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that have not been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a
bell tone were the conditioned stimulus,
discrimination would involve being able to
tell the difference between the bell tone and
other similar sounds.
3.3

KEY CONCEPT

Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviours and discounts mental activities. Behaviour theorists define
learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour.
13

Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process.

There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural
pattern.
1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most
popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even
see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that certain
stimulus will produce a specific response.
2. Behavioural or Operant Conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced.
Basically, operant conditioning is feedback system : If a reward or reinforcement
follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in
the future.
For eg. Leading behaviourist B.F Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach
pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini alley.

3.4 PLUS MINUS INTERESTING IN BEHAVIOURAL

14

3.5

BEHAVIOURAL

THEORY IN THE
CLASSROOM
PLUS

MINUS

INTERESTING

Learn
new skills in new

Learners
are usually

Can the
learners improve their

situations by

passive

self- esteem ?

imitating others

Do not
promote creative

Can
learners express their

Simple
steps are

thinking

feelings openly ?

observing and

performance are

Does not
prepare students

attempted.

for problem

Focus
clearly upon
achieving the
goals

an important role in both

mainstream

solving
Behavior
is not internalized

The
learners adapt to
the poor

learners
adapt to the

special

Developed
psychologists

by
John

B.

Watson and B. F. Skinner,

core

belief

of

Can
learners achieve the

behaviourism

is

that

goals independently?

our environment and can

behaviour is influenced by
be

modified

through

The student
may or may not feel

conditioning

respect towards the

importantly, as almost all

teacher

behaviour is learned, it can

Can the
students behave
without the influence

and

reinforcement.

be

Shapes
behavior quickly

and

education since the 1960s.

the

mastered before
complex levels of

Behaviourism has played

modified

More

to

make

teaching and learning a

more

positive

and

successful experience.

of other students.

environment

environment

HOW IT IS APPLIED IN

easily.

THE CLASSROOM?

1.

Use a teacher-led approach.

Behaviourists advocate the use of direct or teacherled instruction in the classroom, such as lectures and
15

presentations. Behaviourists believe that learning is a

change in behaviour that occurs as a response to a
particular stimulus. This response then leads to a
consequence and when this consequence is positive
and pleasant, the behaviour change is then
reinforced. Therefore, for this process to occur, the
teacher must be in control of the environment and
able to offer immediate reinforcement.
2. Use drills and memorization techniques. As part of
both the teacher-led and shaping processes, drill techniques and rote memorization
should be used to help students learn specific facts, such as capital cities or a list of
American presidents. The teacher can then give students immediate feedback and
positive reinforcement on their learning progress.
3. Use behaviour modification techniques. Developed by B. F. Skinner, this operates
on the principle that an undesirable behaviour, such as being disruptive in class, can
be replaced with a desirable behaviour by reinforcement. This involves ignoring the
negative behaviour in favor of focusing and highlighting on the positive.
4. Students naturally look for times when you are not paying close attention to them to
do other things, often not behaving. Try your best to pay attention to all the students
all of the time. Let them know if something else is going to have your attention and
that you expect them to behave their best. Create a seating arrangement that allows
you to maintain eye contact with all your students, and walk around often around
their seats so they know you physically are aware of what they are doing. In your
lessons, do not have down time between activities. Always keep a back-up plan for
unexpected times in your classroom.
5. Another behavioural approach to classroom is to find out why your students act the
way they do. Students misbehave for various reasons, including getting attention or
avoiding their assignments. If you have bored students, you can expect behavioural
problems. If your students have deep personal problems at home, they may have
behavioural issues. Anticipate possible problems by starting class addressing any
issues you notice. Work on positive reinforcements of correct behaviour and
16

minimize opportunities for misbehaving. Be aware that drawing attention to an

undesirable behaviour can sometimes motivate students to repeat it. Stress to your
class that negative behaviour robs every class member of valuable learning
opportunities and wastes everyone's valuable time.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Humanism is seen as the "third force" of therapy views. It is a theoretical alternative to the
psychoanalytic and behavioural approaches. However, humanism does incorporate aspects
of psychoanalytic and behavioural views. Behaviourists believe that all human behaviour is
controlled by external environmental factors. Whereas psychoanalysts believe that human
behaviour is controlled and directed by unconscious internal forces. Thus, the Humanistic
approach (this will send you to the Humanistic Approach tutorial) perceives behaviour as
holistic.
Consequently, humanists share a respect for the person's subjective experience as well as a
trust in the capacity of the client to make both positive and constructive conscious choices.
There is an emphasis on the vocabulary of freedom, choices, values, personal responsibility,
autonomy, purpose, and meaning. In short, the Humanistic view believes that each individual
has within him or herself a nature and a potential that he or she can actualize. The underlying
vision of the humanist is captured by the illustration of how an acorn, if provided with the
appropriate nurturing conditions, will automatically grow in positive ways, as the potential in it
automatically pushes toward actualization.
Rogers' person-centred approach (PCA) falls under this larger humanistic view. The PCA is
both an experiential and relationship-oriented perspective. Rogers approach focuses on
experience and emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the search for selfactualization .
Skinner's operant conditioning centres on the idea that learning can be encouraged when
responses are reinforced. He based his assumption on the fact that the human is an
irresponsible "animal", capable of being controlled by the environment. The scriptures argue
that the human is responsible and capable of making choices independent of the
environment. While Skinner is right by ascertaining that certain stimuli can cause behaviour
to change. Adventist educators must however be sensitive to the limitations of Skinner, such
as the invalidity of using animal experiments to generalize on how humans will behave in
similar circumstances. The questions that arise from Skinner's operant theory include:
17

Can behaviours be explained in behaviouristic terms alone?

If behaviour can be controlled through contingency reinforcement, who will control the

controllers?
Who decides what behaviours are appropriate?

Furthermore, behaviourism lends itself to manipulating the behaviour of others, encouraging

over dependence on extrinsic rewards, and securing external behaviour change without
internal commitment and thus de-emphasizing human freedom and dignity. Skinner's total
determinism, narrow empiricism, and naturalistically based value system is opposed to
biblical revelation.

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19