Fluent Software Training

TRN-99-003

Modeling Turbulent Flows

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What is Turbulence?
u

Unsteady, aperiodic motion in which all three velocity components

fluctuate mixing matter, momentum, and energy.
Decompose velocity into mean and fluctuating parts:
Ui(t) U i + ui(t)
ui(t)
U i (t)
Ui

Time
u

Similar fluctuations for pressure, temperature, and species

concentration values.
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Why Model Turbulence?

u

Direct numerical simulation of governing equations is only possible for

simple low-Re flows.
Instead, we solve Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations:
R (steady, incompressible flow
2U i
p
U i
+ ij w/o body forces)
+
=
U k
x j x j x j
xi
xk
where

Rij = uiu j

(Reynolds stresses)

Time-averaged statistics of turbulent velocity fluctuations are modeled

using functions containing empirical constants and information about
the mean flow.
Large Eddy Simulation numerically resolves large eddies and models
small eddies.
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Is the Flow Turbulent?

External Flows
where

Rex 510 5

along a surface

Re L

UL

L = x, D, Dh, etc.

ReD 20,000

around an obstacle

Other factors such as free-stream

turbulence, surface conditions, and
disturbances may cause earlier
transition to turbulent flow.

Internal Flows
ReDh 2,300

Natural Convection
Ra 108 1010

where

D4

gTL3
Ra

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How Complex is the Flow?

u

Extra strain rates

l
l
l
l
l
l

u
u
u
u

Streamline curvature
Lateral divergence
Acceleration or deceleration
Swirl
Recirculation (or separation)
Secondary flow

3D perturbations
Transpiration (blowing/suction)
Free-stream turbulence
Interacting shear layers

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Choices to be Made
Flow
Physics

Computational
Resources

Turbulence Model
&
Near-Wall Treatment

Accuracy
Required

Computational
Grid

Turnaround
Time
Constraints

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Turbulence Modeling Approaches

Zero-Equation Models

RANS-based
models

One-Equation Models
Spalart-Allmaras
Include
More
Physics

Two-Equation Models
Standard k-
RNG k-
Realizable k-

Reynolds-Stress Model

Available
in FLUENT 5

Increase
Computational
Cost
Per Iteration

Large-Eddy Simulation
Direct Numerical Simulation

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Reynolds Stress Terms in RANS-based Models

u

RANS equations require closure for Reynolds stresses.

Ui U j
2

R
=

u
u
=

+
Boussinesq Hypothesis: ij
i j
ij
t

3
(isotropic viscosity)
x j xi

Turbulent viscosity is indirectly solved for from single transport

equation of modified viscosity for One-Equation model.
For Two-Equation models, turbulent viscosity correlated with turbulent
kinetic energy (TKE) and the dissipation rate of TKE.
Turbulent Viscosity:

k2
t C

Transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate are
solved so that turbulent viscosity can be computed for RANS equations.
Turbulent
Kinetic Energy: k uiui / 2

ui ui u j
Dissipation Rate of

+
Turbulent Kinetic Energy:
x j x j xi
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One Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras

u

Turbulent viscosity is determined from:

~ / )3

t = ~ ~ 3
3
(
)

+
c
1

~ is determined from the modified viscosity transport equation:

2

~
~
~
~

D

~ ~ 1
~
cw1 f w 2

= cb1S +
+ cb 2
( + )
Dt
~ x j
x j
x j
d

Generation
u

Diffusion

Destruction

The additional variables are functions of the modified turbulent

viscosity and velocity gradients.
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One-Equation Model: Spalart-Allmaras

u

Designed specifically for aerospace applications involving wallbounded flows.

l
l

Boundary layers with adverse pressure gradients

turbomachinery

Can use coarse or fine mesh at wall

l

Designed to be used with fine mesh as a low-Re model, i.e., throughout

the viscous-affected region.
Sufficiently robust for relatively crude simulations on coarse meshes.

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Two Equation Model: Standard k- Model

Turbulent Kinetic Energy
U j U i U j
k

k

U
(
)
i
= t
+
+

t k
{
x
x
x
x
x
xi

i
i
43
1
424
3 144i 424j4
1i44
42444
3
Destruction
Convection

Generation

Diffusion

Dissipation Rate
2

U j U i U j
U i
= C1 t
+
+
( t )
C2

x j xi xi
xi
xi
k
k xi
4
1
424
3 14
3
42444
3 142
44442444
44
3 144
Convection

k , , C1 , C2

Diffusion

Generation

Destruction

are empirical constants

(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)

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Two Equation Model: Standard k- Model

u

Baseline model (Two-equation)

l
l

Semi-empirical
l

u
u

Most widely used model in industry

Strength and weaknesses well documented
k equation derived by subtracting the instantaneous mechanical energy
equation from its time-averaged value
equation formed from physical reasoning

Valid only for fully turbulent flows

Reasonable accuracy for wide range of turbulent flows
l
l

industrial flows
heat transfer

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Two Equation Model: Realizable k-

u

Distinctions from Standard k- model:

l

Alternative formulation for turbulent viscosity

k2
t C

C =

where

U *k
Ao + A s

(A0, A s, and U* are functions of velocity gradients)

Ensures positivity of normal stresses; u 2i 0

Ensures Schwarzs inequality; ( u i u j ) 2 u 2i u 2j

is now variable

New transport equation for dissipation rate, :

D

=
Dt x j

Diffusion

c
S
c
c
c3 Gb
+

1
2
1

x
k
k +
j
Generation
D13

Destruction

Buoyancy
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Two Equation Model: Realizable k-

u
u

Shares the same turbulent kinetic energy equation as Standard k-

Superior performance for flows involving:
l
l
l
l

planar and round jets

boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients, separation
rotation, recirculation
strong streamline curvature

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Two Equation Model: RNG k-

Turbulent Kinetic Energy

k

k
2
k eff

= t S +
U i
{
xi
xi
xi {
1
424
3 Generation 1442443 Dissipation
Diffusion

Convection

where

1 Uj Ui
S 2SijSij , Sij
+
2 xi xj

Dissipation Rate
2

2
eff
C2 R
U i
= C1 t S +
{
xi 142
k

x
k

43 Additional term
i
42443
4 43
4 1i4
1
424
3
142
Convection

Generation

Diffusion

Destruction

related to mean strain

& turbulence quantities

k, ,C1 ,C2 are derived using RNG theory

(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)
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Two Equation Model: RNG k-

u

k- equations are derived from the application of a rigorous statistical

technique (Renormalization Group Method) to the instantaneous NavierStokes equations.
Similar in form to the standard k- equations but includes:
l
l
l
l

additional term in equation that improves analysis of rapidly strained flows

the effect of swirl on turbulence
analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl number
differential formula for effective viscosity

Improved predictions for:

l
l
l

high streamline curvature and strain rate

transitional flows
wall heat and mass transfer

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Reynolds Stress Model

ui u j
J ijk
Reynolds Stress
U k
= Pij + ij ij +
Transport Eqns.
xk
xk
U j

Pressure-Strain
Redistribution

ui u j

ij p
+
x

j xi

xk

+ u juk

Ui
xk

Generation

Pij uiuk

ui u j
2
xk xk

Dissipation

ij

Turbulent
Diffusion

J ijk = ui u j uk + p ( jk ui + ik u j )
Turbulent
transport

(computed)

(modeled)
(related to )
(modeled)

Pressure/velocity
fluctuations

(equations written for steady, incompressible flow w/o body forces)

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Reynolds Stress Model

u

RSM closes the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations by

solving additional transport equations for the Reynolds stresses.
l

l
l

u
u

Transport equations derived by Reynolds averaging the product of the

momentum equations with a fluctuating property
Closure also requires one equation for turbulent dissipation
Isotropic eddy viscosity assumption is avoided

Resulting equations contain terms that need to be modeled.

RSM has high potential for accurately predicting complex flows.
l

Accounts for streamline curvature, swirl, rotation and high strain rates
n
n

Cyclone flows, swirling combustor flows

Rotating flow passages, secondary flows

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Large Eddy Simulation

u

Large eddies:
l

Small eddies:
l
l

Mainly responsible for transport of momentum, energy, and other scalars,

directly affecting the mean fields.
Anisotropic, subjected to history effects, and flow-dependent, i.e., strongly
dependent on flow configuration, boundary conditions, and flow parameters.
Tend to be more isotropic and less flow-dependent
More likely to be easier to model than large eddies.

LES directly computes (resolves) large eddies and models only small
eddies (Subgrid-Scale Modeling).
Large computational effort
l
l

Number of grid points, N LES Re2u

Unsteady calculation

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Comparison of RANS Turbulence Models

Model
SpalartAllmaras

Strengths

Weaknesses

Economical (1-eq.); good track record

for mildly complex B.L. type of flows

Not very widely tested yet; lack of

submodels (e.g. combustion,
buoyancy)
Mediocre results for complex flows
involving severe pressure gradients,
strong streamline curvature, swirl
and rotation

STD k-

Robust, economical, reasonably

accurate; long accumulated
performance data

RNG k-

Good for moderately complex

behavior like jet impingement,
separating flows, swirling flows, and
secondary flows

Subjected to limitations due to

isotropic eddy viscosity
assumption

Realizable
k-

Offers largely the same benefits as

RNG; resolves round-jet anomaly

Subjected to limitations due to

isotropic eddy viscosity
assumption

Reynolds
Stress
Model

Physically most complete model

(history, transport, and anisotropy of
turbulent stresses are all accounted
for)

Requires more cpu effort (2-3x);

tightly coupled momentum and
turbulence equations

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Near-Wall Treatments
u

Most k- and RSM turbulence

models will not predict correct
near-wall behavior if integrated
down to the wall.
Special near-wall treatment is
required.
l
l
l

Standard wall functions

Nonequilibrium wall functions
Two-layer zonal model

Boundary layer structure

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Standard Wall Functions

Mean Velocity

U = 1 ln(Ey )

where U

UP C1/ 4k 1P/ 2
w /

C 1/ 4k 1P/ 2 yP

Temperature

Pr y

T = 1

Pr
ln
Ey
+
P
t

( y * < yT* )
( y * > yT* )

(Tw TP ) c pC 1/ 4k 1P/ 2
where T *
q&

D22

thermal sublayer thickness

and P is a function of the fluid

and turbulent Prandtl numbers.

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Nonequilibrium Wall Functions

u

Log-law is sensitized to pressure gradient for

better prediction of adverse pressure gradient
flows and separation.
Relaxed local equilibrium assumptions for
TKE in wall-neighboring cells.
Thermal law-of-wall unchanged

~ 1/ 4 1/ 2
1/ 4 1/ 2
U C k
y

C
k
1

= ln E

w /

y
y
y
y
~
dp
y

v
v
v
1
where U = U
ln +
+

1/ 2
1/ 2
2 dx k

yv k

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Two-Layer Zonal Model

u

Used for low-Re flows or

flows with complex near-wall
phenomena.
Zones distinguished by a walldistance-based turbulent
Reynolds number

Re y
u
u
u
u

Rey > 200

Rey < 200

ky

High-Re k- models are used in the turbulent core region.

Only k equation is solved in the viscosity-affected region.
is computed from the correlation for length scale.
Zoning is dynamic and solution adaptive.
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Comparison of Near Wall Treatments

Strengths
Standard wall
Functions

Weaknesses

Robust, economical,
reasonably accurate

Nonequilibrium Accounts for p effects,

allows nonequilibrium:
wall functions

Empirically based on simple

high-Re flows; poor for low-Re
effects, massive transpiration,
p, strong body forces, highly
3D flows
Poor for low- Re effects, massive
transpiration, severe p, strong
body forces, highly 3D flows

-separation
-reattachment
-impingement
Two-layer zonal Does not rely on law-of-the- Requires finer mesh resolution
wall, good for complex
and therefore larger cpu and
model
flows, especially applicable memory resources
to low-Re flows

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Computational Grid Guidelines

Wall Function
Approach

Two-Layer Zonal
Model Approach

First grid point in log-law region

50 y + 500
l

At least ten points in the BL.

Better to use stretched quad/hex

cells for economy.
D26

First grid point at y+ 1.

At least ten grid points within

buffer & sublayers.

Better to use stretched quad/hex

cells for economy.
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Estimating Placement of First Grid Point

u

Estimate the skin friction coefficient based on correlations either

approximate or empirical:
l

Flat Plate-

c f / 2 0.0359 ReL

Pipe Flow-

c f / 2 0.039 Re D

0.2

0.2

u w / = U e c f / 2

Compute the friction velocity:

Back out required distance from wall:

l

Wall functions
y1 = 50/u

Two-layer model
y1 = / u

Use post-processing to confirm near-wall mesh resolution

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Setting Boundary Conditions

u

Characterize turbulence at inlets & outlets (potential backflow)

l
l

k- models require k and

Reynolds stress model requires Rij and

Several options allow input using more familiar parameters

l

Turbulence intensity and length scale

n
n
n

Turbulence intensity and hydraulic diameter

n

Ideally suited for duct and pipe flows

Turbulence intensity and turbulent viscosity ratio

n

length scale is related to size of large eddies that contain most of energy.
For boundary layer flows:
l 0.499
For flows downstream of grids /perforated plates: l opening size

For external flows:

1<

/
t

< 10

Input of k and explicitly allowed (non-uniform profiles possible).

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GUI for Turbulence Models

Define Models Viscous...
Inviscid, Laminar, or Turbulent

Turbulence Model options

Near Wall Treatments

Additional Turbulence options

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Example: Channel Flow with Conjugate Heat

Transfer
adiabatic wall
cold air
V = 50 fpm
T = 0 F

1 ft
insulation

1 ft

constant temperature wall T = 100 F

10 ft

Predict the temperature at point P in the solid insulation

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Turbulence Modeling Approach

u
u

Check if turbulent ReD = 5,980

h
Developing turbulent flow at relatively low Reynolds number and
BLs on walls will give pressure gradient use RNG k- with
nonequilibrium wall functions.
Develop strategy for the grid
l
l

l
l

Simple geometry quadrilateral cells

Expect large gradients in normal direction to horizontal walls fine
mesh near walls with first cell in log-law region.
Vary streamwise grid spacing so that BL growth is captured.
Use solution-based grid adaption to further resolve temperature
gradients.

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Prediction of Momentum & Thermal

Boundary Layers
Velocity
contours
BLs on upper & lower surfaces accelerate the core flow

Temperature
contours

Important that thermal BL was accurately resolved as well

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Example: Flow Around a Cylinder

wall
2 ft
air
V = 4 fps

1 ft
2 ft
wall
5 ft

14.5 ft

Compute drag coefficient of the cylinder

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Turbulence Modeling Approach

u

Check if turbulent ReD = 24,600

Flow over an object, unsteady vortex shedding is expected,

difficult to predict separation on downstream side, and close
proximity of side walls may influence flow around cylinder
use RNG k- with 2-layer zonal model.

Develop strategy for the grid

l
l

Simple geometry & BLs quadrilateral cells.

Large gradients near surface of cylinder & 2-layer model
fine mesh near surface & first cell at y+ = 1.

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Grid for Flow Over a Cylinder

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Prediction of Turbulent Vortex Shedding

Contours of effective viscosity eff = + t

CD = 0.53

Strouhal Number = 0.297

D
where St
U
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Summary: Turbulence Modeling Guidelines

u

Successful turbulence modeling requires engineering judgement of:

l
l
l

Flow physics
Computer resources available
Project requirements
n
n

u
u

Accuracy
Turnaround time

Turbulence models & near-wall treatments that are available

Begin with standard k- and change to RNG or Realizable k- if

needed.
Use RSM for highly swirling flows.
Use wall functions unless low-Re flow and/or complex near-wall
physics are present.

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Solver Settings

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Outline
u

Using the Solver

l
l

Setting Solver Parameters

Convergence
n
n
n
n

Accuracy
n
n

Definition
Monitoring
Stability
Accelerating Convergence
Grid Independence
Adaption

Appendix: Background
l
l
l
l

Finite Volume Method

Explicit vs. Implicit
Segregated vs. Coupled
Transient Solutions
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Solution Procedure Overview

u

Solution Parameters
l
l

u
u

Choosing the Solver

Discretization Schemes

Initialize the solution

Initialization
Convergence
l
l

Enable the solution monitors of interest

Monitoring Convergence
Stability
n

Set the solution parameters

Calculate a solution

Setting Under-relaxation
Setting Courant number

Accelerating Convergence

Check for convergence

No

Yes

Accuracy
l
l

Grid Independence
Adaption

Modify solution
parameters or grid

Check for accuracy

No

Yes
Stop

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Choosing a Solver
u
u

Choices are Coupled-Implicit, Coupled-Explicit, or Segregated (implicit)

The Coupled solvers are recommended if a strong inter-dependence exists
between density, energy, momentum, and/or species.
l
l

e.g., high speed compressible flow or finite-rate reaction modeled flows.

In general, the Coupled-Implicit solver is recommended over the coupled-explicit
solver.
n
n

The Coupled-Explicit solver should only be used for unsteady flows when the
characteristic time scale of problem is on same order as that of the acoustics.
n

Time required: Implicit solver runs roughly twice as fast.

Memory required: Implicit solver requires roughly twice as much memory as coupledexplicit or segregated-implicit solvers! (Performance varies.)

e.g., tracking transient shock wave

The Segregated (implicit) solver is preferred in all other cases.

l
l

Lower memory requirements than coupled-implicit solver.

Segregated approach provides flexibility in solution procedure.
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Discretization (Interpolation Methods)

u

Field variables (stored at cell centers) must be interpolated to the faces of

the control volumes in the FVM:
( )t + t ( )t
V + f f V f Af =
t
faces

( )
f

, f

Af + S V

faces

FLUENT offers a number of interpolation schemes:

l First-Order Upwind Scheme
n

Power Law Scheme

n

more accurate than first-order for flows when Recell< 5 (typ. low Re flows).

Second-Order Upwind Scheme

n

easiest to converge, only first order accurate.

uses larger stencil for 2nd order accuracy, essential with tri/tet mesh or
when flow is not aligned with grid; slower convergence

Quadratic Upwind Interpolation (QUICK)

n

applies to quad/hex mesh, useful for rotating/swirling flows, 3rd order

accurate on uniform mesh.
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Interpolation Methods for Pressure

u

Additional interpolation options are available for calculating face pressure when
using the segregated solver.
FLUENT interpolation schemes for Face Pressure:
l

Standard
n default scheme; reduced accuracy for flows exhibiting large surface-normal pressure
gradients near boundaries.
Linear
n useful only when other options result in convergence difficulties or unphysical
behavior.
Second-Order
n use for compressible flows or when PRESTO! cannot be applied.
Body Force Weighted
n use when body forces are large, e.g., high Ra natural convection or highly swirling
flows.
PRESTO!
n applies to quad/hex cells; use on highly swirling flows, flows involving porous
media, or strongly curved domains.
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Pressure-Velocity Coupling
u

Pressure-Velocity Coupling refers to the way mass continuity is

accounted for when using the segregated solver.
Three methods available:
l

SIMPLE
n

SIMPLEC
n

default scheme, robust

Allows faster convergence for simple problems (e.g., laminar flows with
no physical models employed).

PISO
n

useful for unsteady flow problems or for meshes containing cells with
higher than average skew.

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Initialization
u

Iterative procedure requires that all solution variables be initialized

before calculating a solution.
Solve Initialize Initialize...
l
l

Realistic guesses improves solution stability and accelerates convergence.

In some cases, correct initial guess is required:
n

Example: high temperature region to initiate chemical reaction.

Patch values for individual

variables in certain regions.
Solve Initialize Patch...
l

Free jet flows

(patch high velocity for jet)
Combustion problems
(patch high temperature
for ignition)
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Convergence Preliminaries: Residuals

u

Transport equation for can be presented in simple form: a p p + anb nb = bp

nb

l
l

Coefficients ap, anb typically depend upon the solution.

Coefficients updated each iteration.

At the start of each iteration, the above equality will not hold.
l

The imbalance is called the residual, Rp, where: R p = a p p + anb nb bp

nb

l
l

Rp should become negligible as iterations increase.

The residuals that you monitor are summed over all cells: R = | R p |
n
n

By default, the monitored residuals are scaled.

You can also normalize the residuals.

cells

Residuals monitored for the coupled solver are based on the rms value of
the time rate of change of the conserved variable.
l

Only for coupled equations; additional scalar equations use segregated

definition.
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Convergence
u

At convergence:
l

l
l

All discrete conservation equations (momentum, energy, etc.) are

obeyed in all cells to a specified tolerance.
Solution no longer changes with more iterations.
Overall mass, momentum, energy, and scalar balances are obtained.

Monitoring convergence with residuals:

l

Generally, a decrease in residuals by 3 orders of magnitude indicates at

least qualitative convergence.
n

l
l

Major flow features established.

Scaled energy residual must decrease to 10-6 for segregated solver.

Scaled species residual may need to decrease to 10-5 to achieve species
balance.

Monitoring quantitative convergence:

l
l

Monitor other variables for changes.

Ensure that property conservation is satisfied.
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Convergence Monitors: Residuals

u

Residual plots show when the residual values have reached the
specified tolerance.
Solve Monitors Residual...

All equations converged.

10-3
10-6

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Convergence Monitors: Forces/Surfaces

u

In addition to residuals, you can also monitor:

l

Lift, drag, or moment

Solve Monitors Force...
Variables or functions (e.g., surface integrals)
at a boundary or any defined surface:
Solve Monitors Surface...

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Checking for Property Conservation

u

In addition to monitoring residual and variable histories, you should

also check for overall heat and mass balances.
l

Net imbalance should be less than 0.1% of net flux through domain.
Report Fluxes...

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Decreasing the Convergence Tolerance

u

If your monitors indicate that the solution is converged, but the

solution is still changing or has a large mass/heat imbalance:
l

Reduce Convergence Criterion

or disable Check Convergence.
Then calculate until solution
converges to the new tolerance.

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Convergence Difficulties
u

Numerical instabilities can arise with an ill-posed problem, poor

quality mesh, and/or inappropriate solver settings.
l
l
l

Exhibited as increasing (diverging) or stuck residuals.

Diverging residuals imply increasing imbalance in conservation equations.
Unconverged results can be misleading!

Troubleshooting:
l
l

l
l

Ensure problem is well posed.

Compute an initial solution with
a first-order discretization scheme.
Decrease under-relaxation for
equations having convergence
trouble (segregated).
Reduce Courant number (coupled).
Re-mesh or refine grid with high
aspect ratio or highly skewed cells.
E15

Continuity equation convergence

trouble affects convergence of
all equations.

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Modifying Under-relaxation Factors

u

p = p,old + p

Under-relaxation factor, , is
included to stabilize the iterative
process for the segregated solver.
Use default under-relaxation factors
to start a calculation.
Solve Controls Solution...

Decreasing under-relaxation for

momentum often aids convergence.
l

Default settings are aggressive but

suitable for wide range of problems.
Appropriate settings best learned
from experience.

For coupled solvers, under-relaxation factors for equations outside coupled

set are modified as in segregated solver.
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Modifying the Courant Number

u

Courant number defines a time

step size for steady-state problems.
l

A transient term is included in the

coupled solver even for steady state
problems.

For coupled-explicit solver:

l

Stability constraints impose a

maximum limit on Courant number.
n

Cannot be greater than 2.

s Default value is 1.
Reduce Courant number when
having difficulty converging.

t =

For coupled-implicit solver:

l

(CFL)x
u

Courant number is not limited by stability constraints.

n

Default is set to 5.
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Accelerating Convergence
u

Convergence can be accelerated by:

l

Supplying good initial conditions

n

Increasing under-relaxation factors or Courant number

n
n

Starting from a previous solution.

Excessively high values can lead to instabilities.
Recommend saving case and data files before continuing iterations.

Controlling multigrid solver settings.

n

Default settings define robust Multigrid solver and typically do not need
to be changed.

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Starting from a Previous Solution

u

Previous solution can be used as an initial condition when changes are

made to problem definition.
l

Once initialized, additional iterations uses current data set as starting point.

Actual Problem

Initial Condition

flow with heat transfer

isothermal solution

natural convection

lower Ra solution

combustion

cold flow solution

turbulent flow

Euler solution

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Multigrid
u

The Multigrid solver accelerates convergence by using solution on

coarse mesh as starting point for solution on finer mesh.
l

Influence of boundaries and far-away points are more easily transmitted to

interior of coarse mesh than on fine mesh.
fine (original) mesh
Coarse mesh defined from original mesh.
n

Multiple coarse mesh levels can be created.

s AMG- coarse mesh emulated algebraically.
s FAS- cell coalescing defines new grid.
a coupled-explicit solver option
Final solution is for original mesh.

solution
transfer

Multigrid operates automatically in the background.

Accelerates convergence for problems with:

l
l
l

Large number of cells

Large cell aspect ratios, e.g., x/y > 20
Large differences in thermal conductivity
E20

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Accuracy
u

A converged solution is not necessarily an accurate one.

l
l

Solve using 2nd order discretization.

Ensure that solution is grid-independent.
n

Use adaption to modify grid.

If flow features do not seem reasonable:

l
l

Reconsider physical models and boundary conditions.

Examine grid and re-mesh.

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Mesh Quality and Solution Accuracy

u

Numerical errors are associated with calculation of cell gradients and

cell face interpolations.
These errors can be contained:
l
l
l

Use higher order discretization schemes.

Attempt to align grid with flow.
Refine the mesh.
n

Sufficient mesh density is necessary to resolve salient features of flow.

s Interpolation errors decrease with decreasing cell size.
Minimize variations in cell size.
s Truncation error is minimized in a uniform mesh.
s Fluent provides capability to adapt mesh based on cell size variation.
Minimize cell skewness and aspect ratio.
s In general, avoid aspect ratios higher than 5:1.
s Optimal quad/hex cells have bounded angles of 90 degrees
s Optimal tri/tet cells are equilateral.
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Determining Grid Independence

u

When solution no longer changes with further grid refinement, you

have a grid-independent solution.
Procedure:
l

Obtain new grid:

n

Adapt
s

file reread-grid and File Interpolate...

s

l
l
l

Save original mesh before adapting.

If you know where large gradients are expected, concentrate the
original grid in that region, e.g., boundary layer.
Adapt grid.
Data from original grid is automatically interpolated to finer grid.
Import new mesh and initialize with old solution.

Continue calculation to convergence.

Compare results obtained w/different grids.
Repeat adaption/calculation procedure if necessary.
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Unsteady Flow Problems

u

Transient solutions are possible with both segregated and coupled solvers.
l
l

Solver iterates to convergence at each time level, then advances automatically.

Solution Initialization provides initial condition, must be realistic.

For segregated solver:

l

Time step size, t, is input in Iterate panel.

n

Number of time steps, N, is also required.

n

t should be small enough to resolve

time dependent features and to ensure
convergence within 20 iterations.
May need to start solution with small t.
N*t = total simulated time.

Use TUI command it # to iterate without advancing time step.

For Coupled Solver, Courant number defines in practice:

l
l

global time step size for coupled explicit solver.

pseudo-time step size for coupled implicit solver.
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Summary
u

Solution procedure for the segregated and coupled solvers is the same:
l
l
l

u
u

Calculate until you get a converged solution.

Obtain second-order solution (recommended).
Refine grid and recalculate until grid-independent solution is obtained.

All solvers provide tools for judging and improving convergence and
ensuring stability.
All solvers provide tools for checking and improving accuracy.
Solution accuracy will depend on the appropriateness of the physical
models that you choose and the boundary conditions that you specify.

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Appendix
u

Background
l
l
l
l

Finite Volume Method

Explicit vs. Implicit
Segregated vs. Coupled
Transient Solutions

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Background: Finite Volume Method - 1

u

FLUENT solvers are based on the finite volume method.

l Domain is discretized into a finite set of control volumes or cells.

General transport equation for mass, momentum, energy, etc. is

applied to each cell and discretized. For cell p,

dV + V dA = dA + S dV

t V
A
A

unsteady

convection

Eqn.
continuity
x-mom.
y-mom.
energy
u

diffusion

generation

1
u
v
h

control
volume

Fluid region of pipe flow

discretized into finite set of
control volumes (mesh).

All equations are solved to render flow field.

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Background: Finite Volume Method - 2

Each transport equation is discretized into algebraic form. For cell p,

( p )t + t ( p )t
t

V +

f f V f Af =

faces

f ( ), f Af + S V

faces

face f
cell p

adjacent cells, nb
u

Discretized equations require information at cell centers and faces.

l
l
l

Field data (material properties, velocities, etc.) are stored at cell centers.
Face values can be expressed in terms of local and adjacent cell values.
Discretization accuracy depends upon stencil size.

The discretized equation can be expressed simply as:

a p p + anb nb = bp
nb

Equation is written out for every control volume in domain resulting in an

equation set.
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Background: Linearization
u

Equation sets are solved iteratively.

l

Coefficients ap and anb are typically functions

a p p + anb nb = bp
of solution variables (nonlinear and coupled).
nb
Coefficients are written to use values of solution variables from previous
iteration.
n
n

Linearization: removing coefficients dependencies on .

De-coupling: removing coefficients dependencies on other solution
variables.

Coefficients are updated with each iteration.

n

For a given iteration, coefficients are constant.

s p can either be solved explicitly or implicitly.

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Background: Explicit vs. Implicit

u

Assumptions are made about the knowledge of nb:

l

Explicit linearization - unknown value in each cell computed from relations

that include only existing values (nb assumed known from previous
iteration).
n

p solved explicitly using Runge-Kutta scheme.

Implicit linearization - p and nb are assumed unknown and are solved

using linear equation techniques.
n

Equations that are implicitly linearized tend to have less restrictive stability
requirements.
The equation set is solved simultaneously using a second iterative loop (e.g.,
point Gauss-Seidel).

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Background: Coupled vs. Segregated

u

Segregated Solver
l

If the only unknowns in a given equation are assumed to be for a single

variable, then the equation set can be solved without regard for the
solution of other variables.
n

coefficients ap and anb are scalars.

Coupled Solver
l

a p p + anb nb = bp
nb

If more than one variable is unknown in each equation, and each

variable is defined by its own transport equation, then the equation set is
coupled together.
n
n

coefficients ap and anb are Neq x Neq matrices

is a vector of the dependent variables, {p, u, v, w, T, Y}T

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Background: Segregated Solver

u

In the segregated solver, each equation is

solved separately.
The continuity equation takes the form
of a pressure correction equation as part
of SIMPLE algorithm.
Under-relaxation factors are included in
the discretized equations.
l

Included to improve stability of iterative

process.
Under-relaxation factor, , in effect,
limits change in variable from one
iteration to next:

Update properties.
Solve momentum equations (u, v, w velocity).
Solve pressure-correction (continuity) equation.
Update pressure, face mass flow rate.
Solve energy, species, turbulence, and other
scalar equations.
Converged?
No

Yes
Stop

p = p,old + p
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Background: Coupled Solver

u

Continuity, momentum, energy, and

species are solved simultaneously in the
coupled solver.
Equations are modified to resolve
compressible and incompressible flow.
Transient term is always included.
l

Steady-state solution is formed as time

increases and transients tend to zero.

For steady-state problem, time step is

defined by Courant number.
l

Stability issues limit maximum time step

size for explicit solver but not for
implicit solver.
(CFL)x
t =
where
u
E33

Update properties.
Solve continuity, momentum, energy,
and species equations simultaneously.
Solve turbulence and other scalar equations.
Converged?
No

Yes
Stop

CFL = Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy-number
u = appropriate velocity scale
x = grid spacing
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Background: Segregated/Transient
u

Transient solutions are possible with both segregated and coupled solvers.
l

1st- and 2nd-order time implicit discretizations (Euler) available for coupled
and segregated solvers.
n

Procedure: Iterate to convergence at each time level, then advance in time.

2nd order time-explicit discretization also available for coupled-explicit solver.

For segregated solver:

l

Time step size, t, is input in Iterate panel.

n

Number of time steps, N, is also required.

n

t should be small enough to resolve

time dependent features.
N*t equals total simulated time.

Generally, use t small enough to ensure

convergence within 20 iterations.
Note: Use TUI command it # to iterate
further without advancing time step.
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Background: Coupled/Transient
l

If implicit scheme is selected, two transient terms are included in discretization.

n

Physical-time transient
s Physical-time derivative term is discretized implicitly (1st or 2nd order).
s Time step size, t, defined as with segregated solver.
Pseudo-time transient
s At each physical-time level, a pseudo-time transient is driven to zero through a
series of inner iterations (dual time stepping).
s Pseudo-time derivative term is discretized:
explicitly in coupled-explicit solver.
implicitly in coupled-implicit solver.
s Courant number defines pseudo-time step size, .

For explicit time stepping, physical-time derivative is

discretized explicitly.
n
n

Option only available with coupled-explicit solver

Physical-time step size is defined by Courant number.
s Same time step size is used throughout domain (global time stepping).
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Heat Transfer and Thermal Boundary

Conditions

Headlamp modeled with

Discrete Ordinates
Radiation Model

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Outline
u
u
u
u
u
u
u

Introduction
Thermal Boundary Conditions
Fluid Properties
Conjugate Heat Transfer
Natural Convection
Radiation
Periodic Heat Transfer

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Introduction
u

Energy transport equation is solved, subject to a wide range of thermal

boundary conditions.
l
l

Energy source due to chemical reaction is included for reacting flows.

Energy source due to species diffusion included for multiple species flows.
n
n

Energy source due to viscous heating:

n

Always included in coupled solver.

Can be disabled in segregated solver.
Describes thermal energy created by viscous shear in the flow.
s Important when shear stress in fluid is large (e.g., lubrication) and/or in
high-velocity, compressible flows.
Often negligible
s not included by default for segregated solver
s always included for coupled solver.

In solid regions, simple conduction equation solved.

n

Convective term can also be included for moving solids.

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User Inputs for Heat Transfer

1. Activate calculation of heat transfer.
l

Select the Enable Energy option in the Energy panel.

Define Models Energy...
Enabling a temperature dependent density model, reacting flow model, or a
radiation model will toggle Enable Energy on without visiting this panel.

2. Enable appropriate options:

l

Viscous Heating in Viscous Model panel

Diffusion Energy Source option in the Species Model panel

3. Define thermal boundary conditions.

Define Boundary Conditions...

4. Define material properties for heat transfer.

Define Materials...
l

Heat capacity and thermal conductivity must be defined.

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Solution Process for Heat Transfer

u

Many simple heat transfer problems can be successfully solved using

default solution parameters.
However, you may accelerate convergence and/or improve the stability
of the solution process by changing the options below:
l

Under-relaxation of energy equation.

Solve Controls Solution...
Disabling species diffusion term.
Define Models Species...
Compute isothermal flow first, then add calculation of energy equation.
Solve Controls Solution...

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Theoretical Basis of Wall Heat Transfer

u

For laminar flows, fluid side heat transfer is approximated as:

q = k

T
n

k
wall

T
n

n = local coordinate normal to wall

u

For turbulent flows:

l

Law of the wall is extended to treat wall heat flux.

n

The wall-function approach implicitly accounts for viscous sublayer.

The near-wall treatment is extended to account for viscous dissipation

which occurs in the boundary layer of high-speed flows.

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Thermal Boundary Conditions at Flow Inlets

and Exits
u

At flow inlets, must supply

fluid temperature.
At flow exits, fluid
temperature extrapolated
from upstream value.
At pressure outlets, where
flow reversal may occur,
backflow temperature is
required.

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Thermal Conditions for Fluids and Solids

u

Can specify an energy source

using Source Terms option.

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Thermal Boundary Conditions at Walls

u

Use any of following thermal

conditions at walls:
l
l
l
l
l

Specified heat flux

Specified temperature
Convective heat transfer
External radiation
Combined external radiation
and external convective heat
transfer

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Fluid Properties
u

Fluid properties such as heat capacity, conductivity, and viscosity can

be defined as:
l
l
l
l
l

u
u

Constant
Temperature-dependent
Composition-dependent
Computed by kinetic theory
Computed by user-defined functions

Density can be computed by ideal gas law.

Alternately, density can be treated as:
l
l
l
l

Constant (with optional Boussinesq modeling)

Temperature-dependent
Composition-dependent
User Defined Function
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Conjugate Heat Transfer

u

Ability to compute conduction of heat through solids, coupled with

convective heat transfer in fluid.
Coupled Boundary Condition:
l

available to wall zone that

separates two cell zones.

Grid

Velocity vectors

Temperature contours
Example: Cooling flow over fuel rods

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Natural Convection - Introduction

u

Natural convection occurs

when heat is added to fluid
and fluid density varies
with temperature.
Flow is induced by force of
gravity acting on density
variation.
When gravity term is
included, pressure gradient
and body force term is written
as:
p
p '

+ g
+ ( o ) g
x
x
where

p ' = p o gx

This format avoids potential roundoff error

when gravitational body force term is included.
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Natural Convection - Boussinesq Model

u

Makes simplifying assumption that density is uniform.

l

Except for body force term in momentum equation, which is replaced by:

( 0 ) g = 0 ( T T0 ) g
l

Provides faster convergence for many natural-convection flows than

by using fluid density as function of temperature.
l
l
l

Valid when density variations are small (i.e., small variations in T).

Constant density assumptions reduces non-linearity.

Use when density variations are small.
Cannot be used with species calculations or reacting flows.

Natural convection problems inside closed domains:

l

For steady-state solver, Boussinesq model must be used.

n

Constant density, o, allows mass in volume to be defined.

For unsteady solver, Boussinesq model or Ideal gas law can be used.
n

Initial conditions define mass in volume.

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User Inputs for Natural Convection

1. Set gravitational acceleration.
Define Operating Conditions...

2. Define density model.

l

If using Boussinesq model:

n

n
n

Select boussinesq as the Density method

and assign constant value, o.
Define Materials...
Set Thermal Expansion Coefficient, .
Set Operating Temperature, To.

If using temperature dependent model,

(e.g., ideal gas or polynomial):
n
n

Specify Operating Density or,

Allow Fluent to calculate o from a cell
average (default, every iteration).

3. Set boundary conditions.

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Radiation
u

Radiation intensity transport equations (RTE) are solved.

l

Local absorption by fluid and at boundaries links energy equation with RTE.

Radiation intensity is directionally and spatially dependent.

l

Intensity along any direction can be reduced by:

n
n

Intensity along any direction can be augmented by:

n
n

Local absorption
Out-scattering (scattering away from the direction)
Local emission
In-scattering (scattering into the direction)

Four radiation models are provided in FLUENT:

l
l
l
l

Discrete Ordinates Model (DOM)

Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM)
P-1 Radiation Model
Rosseland Model (limited applicability)
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Discrete Ordinates Model

u

The radiative transfer equation is solved for a discrete number of finite

solid angles:
4
I s i

2 T
+ (a + s )I (r , s ) = an
+ s
4
xi

absorption
u

I ( r , s ' ) ( s s ' )d '

0

scattering

Advantages:
l
l
l
l

emission

Conservative method leads to heat balance for coarse discretization.

Accuracy can be increased by using a finer discretization.
Accounts for scattering, semi-transparent media, specular surfaces.
Banded-gray option for wavelength-dependent transmission.

Limitations:
l

Solving a problem with a large number of ordinates is CPU-intensive.

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Discrete Transfer Radiation Model (DTRM)

u

Main assumption: radiation leaving surface element in a specific range of

solid angles can be approximated by a single ray.
Uses ray-tracing technique to integrate radiant intensity along each ray:

dI
T 4
= I +
ds

Advantages:
l
l
l

Relatively simple model.

Can increase accuracy by increasing number of rays.
Applies to wide range of optical thicknesses.

Limitations:
l
l
l

Assumes all surfaces are diffuse.

Effect of scattering not included.
Solving a problem with a large number of rays is CPU-intensive.
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P-1 Model
u

Main assumption: radiation intensity can be decomposed into series of

spherical harmonics.
l
l

Advantages:
l
l
l

Only first term in this (rapidly converging) series used in P-1 model.
Effects of particles, droplets, and soot can be included.
Radiative transfer equation easy to solve with little CPU demand.
Includes effect of scattering.
Works reasonably well for combustion applications where optical
thickness is large.
Easily applied to complicated geometries with curvilinear coordinates.

Limitations:
l
l

Assumes all surfaces are diffuse.

May result in loss of accuracy, depending on complexity of geometry, if
optical thickness is small.
Tends to overpredict radiative fluxes from localized heat sources or sinks.
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Choosing a Radiation Model

u

For certain problems, one radiation model may be more

appropriate in general.
Define Models Radiation...
l

l
l

l
l

Computational effort: P-1 gives reasonable accuracy with

less effort.
Accuracy: DTRM and DOM more accurate.
Optical thickness: DTRM/DOM for optically thin media
(optical thickness << 1); P-1 better for optically thick media.
Scattering: P-1 and DOM account for scattering.
Particulate effects: P-1 and DOM account for radiation exchange between gas
and particulates.
Localized heat sources: DTRM/DOM with sufficiently large number of rays/
ordinates is more appropriate.

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Periodic Heat Transfer (1)

u
u

Also known as streamwise-periodic or fully-developed flow.

Used when flow and heat transfer patterns are repeated, e.g.,
l
l

Compact heat exchangers

Flow across tube banks

Geometry and boundary conditions repeat in streamwise direction.

inflow

outflow

Outflow at one periodic boundary

is inflow at the other
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Periodic Heat Transfer (2)

u
u

Temperature (and pressure) vary in streamwise direction.

Scaled temperature (and periodic pressure) is same at periodic
boundaries.
For fixed wall temperature problems, scaled temperature defined as:

T Twall
=
Tb Twall
Tb = suitably defined bulk temperature
u

Can also model flows with specified wall heat flux.

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Periodic Heat Transfer (3)

u

Periodic heat transfer is subject to the following constraints:

l
l
l
l
l

Either constant temperature or fixed flux bounds.

Conducting regions cannot straddle periodic plane.
Properties cannot be functions of temperature.
Radiative heat transfer cannot be modeled.
Viscous heating only available with heat flux wall boundaries.

Contours of Scaled Temperature

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Summary
u
u

Heat transfer modeling is available in all Fluent solvers.

After activating heat transfer, you must provide:
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l

Thermal conditions at walls and flow boundaries

Fluid properties for energy equation

Available heat transfer modeling options include:

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Species diffusion heat source

Combustion heat source
Conjugate heat transfer
Natural convection
Radiation
Periodic heat transfer

F23

Fluent Inc. 2/20/01