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Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides: sweet, water soluble, reducing sugars
Disaccharides: sweet, water soluble, most are reducing (not sucrose)
Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
Polysaccharides: long chains of repeating subunits (monosaccharides) joined by condensation
reactions
Proteins
Polymers made up of
amino acids.
Triglycerides
Fatty acid chains can be saturated (no C=C) or
unsaturated (have C=C bonds). The more
unsaturated the fatty acid the lower the melting
point. Fats are insoluble ion water. A phospholipid
has a fatty acid replace with a phosphate group.
This means it has a hydrophilic region (phosphate
head) and hydrophobic regions fatty acid tail. It is
integral in the cell membrane.
Glycerol
Formation of a triglyceride
Globular Proteins
The vast majority of proteins are globular, i.e. they have
a compact, ball-shaped structure. This group includes
enzymes, membrane proteins, receptors and storage
proteins. The diagram below shows a typical globular
enzyme molecule. It has been drawn to highlight the
different secondary structures.
Globular Proteins
Have complex tertiary and sometimes quaternary
structures.
Folded into spherical (globular) shapes.
Usually soluble as hydrophobic side chains in centre of
structure.
Roles in metabolic reactions.
E.g. enzymes, haemoglobin in blood.
Fibrous (or Filamentous) Proteins Fibrous proteins
are long and thin, like ropes. They tend to have structural
roles, such as collagen (bone), keratin (hair), tubulin
(cytoskeleton) and actin (muscle). They are always
composed of many polypeptide chains. This diagram
shows part of a molecule of collagen, which is found in
bone and cartilage.
Fibrous Proteins
Little or no tertiary structure.
Long parallel polypeptide chains.
Cross linkages at intervals forming long fibres or
sheets.
Usually insoluble.
Explain how the small intestine is adapted to its function in the digestion and
absorption of the products of digestion.
Large surface area provided by villi and microvilli
Thin epithelium gives a short diffusion pathway
The dense capillary network for absorbing amino acids and sugars and the lacteal
for the absorption of digested fats; ensures a steep concentration gradient is
maintained
The many mitochondria in the epithelial cells supply ATP/ energy for active
transport
Carrier proteins (in membranes) provide a path for polar molecules to pass through
the membrane.
Enzymes built into the epithelial membrane make it more likely for enzyme
substrate complexes to form and ensure products for absorption are released close to
the carrier and channel proteins
Lactose intolerance
Cause: reduced lactase levels as we age
Symptoms: diarrhoea and gas and cramps
Explanation
Gas comes from bacteria breaking down the
sugar
Diarrhoea: sugar lowers the water potential of
the lumen compared to epithelial cells, water
moves into the lumen by osmosis
10
Active transport
Moves a molecule against the concentration gradient (low to high)
Requires a specific protein carrier
Energy/ATP is used to change the shape of the protein
Energy is released in respiration
Rate of movement of molecules in facilitated
diffusion is limited by the availability of
carrier/channel proteins in the membrane. As
concentration increase rate will eventually
level out as the channels or carriers are
working at their maximum rate/ fully
occupied.
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13
Smoking
decreases conc. of antioxidants in blood: this increases the damage done to artery walls;
raises the number of platelets in the blood and makes them more sticky :more blood clots are
likely to form;
causes constriction of coronary arteries: raises blood pressure and damage to the artery lining
carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin so less available to transport oxygen
blood pressure increased: due to increased heart rate
Fat
blood cholesterol level increases;
LDLs transport cholesterol in the blood;
LDLs deposit cholesterol in arteries
atheroma formed
blood pressure increased, turbulence makes clotting
more likely
Salt
Increased salt concentration in
blood
decreases water potential of the
blood
water moves into the blood
14
blood pressure increased
10
1000
1000
20m
20 m
C y to p la s m
A
C a p su le
C e ll w a ll
Cm
nm
R ib o s o m e s
mm
Resolution: how close 2 points can be to each other and still be distinguished as 2 separate points.
Electron microscopes have a higher resolution than (light microscopes, as they use electrons that have a
shorter wavelength than light
Shorter wavelengths (like electrons) allow better resolution than longer wavelengths (like
light).
G e n e tic m a te r ia l
Disadvantages
4 Electrons scattered (by molecules in air);
5 Vacuum established;
6 Cannot examine living cells;
7 Lots of preparation/procedures used in preparing specimens/
fixing/staining/sectioning;
8 May alter appearance/result in artefacts;
9 very thin specimens
10 black and white, images
Estimation of size
It is possible to estimate the size of a structure seen with a microscope by comparing the
image with a known linear scale. Two pieces of apparatus are commonly used:
a graticule (eyepiece micrometer)
a stage micrometer.
A stage micrometer is a slide with a fine scale of known dimension etched onto it. An
graticule is a fine scale that fits inside an eyepiece lens. This is shown in Fig 3.
Electron Microscopes
This uses a beam of electrons, rather than electromagnetic
radiation, to "illuminate" the specimen. This may seem
strange, but electrons behave like waves and can easily be
produced (using a hot wire), focused (using electromagnets)
and detected (using a phosphor screen or photographic film).
A beam of electrons has an effective wavelength of less than
1nm, so can be used to resolve small sub-cellular
ultrastructure. The development of the electron microscope in
the 1930s revolutionised biology, allowing organelles such as
mitochondria, ER and membranes to be seen in detail for the
first time.
There are two kinds of electron microscope.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) work much like a
light microscope, transmitting a beam of electrons through a
thin specimen and then focusing the electrons to form an
image on a screen or on film. This is the most common form
of electron microscope and has the best resolution (<1nm).
Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) scan a fine beam of
electron onto a specimen and collect the electrons scattered
by the surface. This has poorer resolution, but gives excellent
3-dimentional images of surfaces.
16
17
18
19
The golgi body is a stack of flattened membrane sacs that are referred to as
cisternae)
This is involved in the modification and packaging of materials from both the rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Addition of carbohydrates to form glycolipids
and glycoprotein (like mucus). It will also produce lysosomes (digestive enzymes)
F
E
A
B
Ingested through
Contaminated water
Food (shellfish, bottom dwellers where sewage leakage
has occurred) or preparation by infected person.
Affects body through a toxin it produces. Toxin only
affects the upper regions of the small intestine as this
is the only region with membrane receptors that
complement the toxin.
Mechanism of infection
Many of the organisms are destroyed by the stomach acid
but those that survive pass into the small intestine, and
using flagella in a corkscrew motion to get through the
mucus layer in upper region of the small intestine
(duodenum) and anchor itself.
Bacteria produce an exotoxin (protein secreted by
microbes), that binds to specific receptors on the cell
surface membrane (receptors located only in the upper
region of the small intestine).
Toxin causes chlorine ion channels to open and chlorine
ions flood the intestinal lumen (other ions enter like
sodium and potassium)
Excess ions in the lumen, lowers the water potential (more
negative) so water leaves the cells by osmosis. Ions enter
the cells to replace those lost and along with the loss of
water the cells water potential becomes more negative than
the blood so water leaves blood leading to dehydration.
[An endotoxin is not secreted, but is a component of the
bacteria released when they are lysed]
How the distribution of cell membranes in a prokaryotic cell differs from that in a cell from eukaryotic.
Absence of nuclear membrane, No membrane bounded organelles; Such as mitochondria/chloroplast/vacuole/lysosome; No
reticulum/Golgi; there are mesosomes in prokaryotes;
Difference between an
endotoxin and an exotoxin.
Endotoxins produced from the
breakdown of bacteria (cell
walls);
exotoxins secreted (from living
cells)
Endotoxins are
lipopolysaccharides;
Treating effects of cholera
exotoxins
are protein;
Oral rehydration
therapy (ORT)
replaces lost water and salts;
Mechanism
1. Contains glucose/starch/
sugar;
2. Sodium/salt;
3. makes use of Co-transport
protein
4. Sodium and glucose taken up
(from lumen by co-transport
protein);
5. Lowers water potential in
cells/ increases water
22 potential
gradient;
6. Watersystems/endoplasmic
taken up by osmosis
membrane
23
in
eukaryotic
cells will
sediment
before
24
70s in
Pulmonary Ventilation is the volume air ventilating the lungs each minute. It is
calculated as the product of the ventilation rate and the tidal volume.
0 .5
In s p ira tio n
E x p ira tio n
The ventilation rate can be calculated from the pressure graph by measuring the
time taken for one ventilation cycle and using the formula:
C h a n g e in
lu n g v o lu m e
/ dm 3
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
T im e / s
G raph 1
2 .5
3 .0
3 .5
The tidal volume is the normal volume of air breathed in each breath (also called
the breathing depth). It can be measured from the volume graph.
Both the ventilation rate and the tidal volume can be varied by the body. When the
body exercises the pulmonary ventilation can increase so that
Oxygen can diffuse from the air to the blood faster
Carbon dioxide can diffuse from the blood to the air faster
These changes allow aerobic respiration in muscle cells to continue for longer.
26
Asthma is caused by physical factors called allergens in the environment. These allergens include pollen, dust mites
faeces and fur.
These allergens trigger an inflammatory response by the immune system.
White blood cells called mast cells release histamines, which cause the smooth circular muscles of the bronchioles to
contract, narrowing the airways (bronchoconstriction).
The epithelial cells also secrete more mucus, which further blocks the airways.
The constricted bronchioles stimulate wheezing and coughing as the lungs try to loosen the mucus. The constrictions
reduce the tidal volume, so alveolar air is only replaced slowly. The oxygen concentration gradient across the alveolar
epithelium is reduced, so the rate of diffusion in the alveoli is reduced by Ficks law. Less oxygen diffuses into the blood,
so less oxygen is available for cellular respiration throughout the body.
Symptoms of Asthma
Difficulty breathing due to constriction of airways and
mucus build up.
Wheezing due to narrow pathway and sir flowing through
it
Tight feeling in the chest due to constriction of smooth
muscle
Heavy
coughing
obstructions
Describe the transmission
and
courseto
ofremove
infection
of
pulmonary tuberculosis.
1 (Bacteria transmitted in) droplets / aerosol;
2 (Bacteria) engulfed / ingested by phagocytes / macrophages;
3 (Bacteria) encased in named structure e.g. wall / tubercle /
People with emphysema may feel weak and tired. Explain why.
granuloma / nodule;
Alveoli break down: Less surface area for gas exchange
4 (Bacteria) are dormant / not active / not replicating;
Walls thicken (scar tissue): increases diffusion distance
5 If immunosuppressed, bacteria activate / replicate / released;
Loss of elastin (elastic tissue) due to elastase from white blood cells involved:
6 Bacteria destroy alveoli / capillary / epithelial cells;
Alveoli cannot recoil so it is more difficult to expel air Reduced diffusion gradient
7 (Leads to) fibrosis / scar tissue / cavities /calcification;
Less oxygen enters blood and then tissues;
8 (Damage) leads to less diffusion /less surface area / increases
Less respiration / less energy released / less ATP produced;
diffusion distance;
9 (Activation / damage allows bacteria) to enter blood / spreads (to
You can recognise the difference between healthy lung tissue and that with
Chronic
bronchitis
other organs);
emphysema because, with emphysema
Tar from smoking leads to the enlarging of goblet cells and excess
There are a smaller number of alveoli, larger air spaces per alveolus, there are
mucus production. The tar will also destroy or reduce effectiveness of
thicker walls.
the cilia so mucus removal is less effective. This results in heavy
coughing to try and shift the obstruction, heavy coughing can result
Risk increased with.
in damage to the epithelial cells, this can cause scar tissue
Infection e.g. (chronic) bronchitis; heredity;
development and also induce an inflammatory response where even
Industrial pollution - must contain reference to inhalation of particles (dust)
more mucus is produced furthering the obstruction.
Smoking
The trapped mucus increases the susceptibility to chest infections
(mucus traps microbes in the air) which again can result in tissue
damage (microbial activity) and result in immune responses such as
inflammation and mucus production and also the attraction of
phagocytic cells.
Pulmonary fibrosis: when scars form on the epithelia that are damaged,
increasing the diffusion pathway, loss of elasticity in lung tissue, which 27
reduces the
concentration gradient, narrowing of vessels, reducing air flow and concentration
gradient. Results in shortness of breath, dry cough, tiredness (insufficient oxygen
for respiration)
1) This graph
shows there is
no pattern
between
income and
incidence of
lung cancer
2) This graph
shows a
correlation
between
smoking and
cancer. But it
does not prove
causation as
other factors
can influence
results, age,
diet, and
genetics
3) To show causality
controlled
experiments are
needed. Here
arsenic (component
of cigarette smoke)
inhibits DNA ligase
which repairs
damaged DNA. Thus
in cells this could
lead to cancer, now
we have a
mechanism to
explain graph 2, and
we have evidence
for a causal
relationship
4) There is a
between smoking
correlation between
and cancer.
alcohol and cancer.
Lab studies have not
found a causal link
between the two, so
alcohol is not a risk
factor. The correlation
is indirect, where
heavy drinkers, tend
to be heavy
28 smokers
Antibodies
B lymphocytes make antibodies/immunoglobulins. They
are proteins that bind to specific antigens forming an
antigen-antibody complex
They are 4 polypeptide chains consisting of 2 heavy and 2
light chains, held by disulphide bridges. The constant
region is the same in all immunoglobulins (same amino
acid sequence), but the variable regions vary greatly due
to different amino acid sequences, it is this region that
binds to the antigen.
protein molecules are suited to carry out the role of
antibodies because
A Large variety of different molecules is possible
a variety of shapes can be created;
As the Tertiary shape will vary as the primary sequence
varies;
29
31
What is vaccination?
Injection of antigens/toxins/dead weakened pathogens
(Antigen from) attenuated microorganism/non-virulent
microorganisms/dead
microorganisms/isolated from microorganism;
Stimulates the formation of memory cells;
If enough people are vaccinated in a population (typically 85-95%), then even the few
that are not, or cannot be, vaccinated are protected by herd immunity, since there
and
are not enough hosts for the pathogen to survive and reproduce.
34
35
36
Starch/Glycogen vs Cellulose
Starch/Glycogen
1. (1,4 and) 1,6 bonds/contains
1,6 bonds /branching
2. All glucoses/ monomers same
way up
3. Helix/coiled/compact
4. Alpha glucose
5. No (micro/macro) fibrils/fibres
Celluose
1. 1,4 bonds / no 1,6 bonds /
unbranched / straight;
2. Alternate glucoses/monomers
upside down;
3. Straight;
4. Beta glucose;
5. Micro/macro fibrils/fibres;
38
Haemoglobin (Hb): Hb is a molecule that transports oxygen. It has a quaternary structure (association of 4 polypeptides there are two
types of polypeptide chains, 2 alpha and 2 beta chains). Each polypeptide chain is associated with a haem prosthetic group that contains
a ferrous group(Fe++) and each can bind one oxygen molecule. So one Hb molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules forming
oxyhaemoglobin
Hb + 4O2 HbO8 (deoxyhaemoglobin is a different colour to oxyhaemoglobin and so the % saturation can be measured with a
colorimeter). Oxygen drives the process to the right, and H+ drives it to the left.
The oxygen dissociation curve: shows the change in the affinity of Hb for oxygen at different PPO 2.
Affinity = the tendency for Hb to bind oxygen, this changes with pH, temperature (similar effect to
pH, associated with respiration which raises temp) and PPO2.
Effect of PPO2
At high PPO2 the percentage saturation is very, around 95% and at low PPO2 the percentage
saturation is low.
So Hb coming from the lungs where PPO2 is high is heavily saturated with oxygen. As it reaches the
tissues where respiration is occurring at PPO2 is low it is only about 50% saturated.
Thus Hb coming from the lungs is carrying a lot of oxygen, and as it reaches the tissues it releases
this oxygen, which is then used for respiration
The effect of pH
Hb is even better at releasing O2 in areas where it is
required than the neutral pH graph suggests.
The graph shows the effect of low pH in reducing the
affinity of Hb for oxygen. A more acidic environment
reduces the % saturation at all PPO2. More oxygen is
unloaded at the same PPO2.this is exactly what is
needed because, where a lot of CO2 is being produced,
a lot of respiration is occurring and thus the demand
for oxygen is higher.
The shift in the curve is called the Bohr Effect. So in
fact, in normal respiring tissues the saturation is not
50% but 20-25%.
The S-shaped curve is explained by the behaviour of Hb. It shows cooperative bonding, its affinity
for oxygen changes as the amount of oxygen bound changes. The addition of the first oxygen is
difficult, but once bound, it changes the shape of the Hb molecules making it easier for the 2 nd and
3rd to bind, it is harder for the fourth.
This behaviour is reflected in the curve. The curve is quite shallow up to around 2kPa, where only
one oxygen molecule sis bound, then the curve rises steeply as the 2nd and 3rd oxygen bind, here
Describe
howinHb
normally
oxygenin
in% saturation.
small changes
PPO
causes loads
large changes
2
the lungs and unloads oxygen in tissues.
Hb has a high affinity and loads O2 in high PPO2
Oxygen diffuses into the cell
Attaches to the iron containing haem group
Becomes saturated with O2
Oxyhaemoglobin forms
Hb unloads oxygen in low PPO2
This arises in actively respiring tissues which use
O2
39
Carbon Dioxide shifts dissociation curve to right
Further reduces Hb affinity for O2
So more O2 unloaded and used in respiration
Different Haemoglobins
Different animals possess different types of haemoglobin with different oxygen transporting properties. These properties are related to the
animals way of life, so they are an adaptation that helps the animal survive in its environment.
Homologous
chromosomes: two
chromosomes of the
same size and shape,
one originating from
each parent. They
contain the same
genes, but may have
different alleles.
A lot of the DNA in eukaryotes does not code for polypeptides. The
rest, called non-coding DNA, does not form genes. There are two
kinds of non-coding DNA:
Non-coding regions of DNA within a gene are called introns (for
interruption sequences), while the coding parts of DNA are called
exons (for expressed sequences). No one knows what these
introns are for, but they need to be removed before proteins are
made.
Non-coding DNA was original termed junk DNA, but in fact it probably
serves many different functions. Some may be structural, helping to coil
the DNA molecule into chromosomes; some may have a control
function, regulating when genes are expressed; some is involved in
DNA replication; and some contains unused copies of genes.
43
This replication mechanism is sometimes called semi-conservative replication, because each new DNA molecule contains one new strand and one old strand.
Alternative theories suggested that a "photocopy" of the original DNA could be made, leaving the original DNA conserved (conservative replication), or the
old DNA molecule could be dispersed randomly in the two copies (dispersive replication).
The evidence for the semi-conservative method came from an elegant experiment performed in 1958 by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl
44
If replication was
conservative then the
results for generation 1
would have given one
band in the original
position and another
band higher up made
form only the lighter
isotope.
The results show the
new DNA is
intermediate to the
control and the
original, so a hybrid is
indicated, however it
could be dispersive
The second generation
disproves dispersive
replication as we
would get a single
wide band as each
band would be a mix
of both isotopes. We
get two distinct bands
as shown
As generations
increase the proportion
of N14 increases
45
Variation is the differences that exist between species and within species. It
can be a result of
Genetic factors:
Independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis I and chromatids in
meiosis II.
Crossing over of genetic information during meiosis I.
Random fertilisation
Environmental factors: exercise, light, oxygen, nutrients, pH depending on
whether it is plant or animals.
Combination of both genes and environment
Mutations causes changes in the DNA
Characteristics that are susceptible to environment are usually controlled by a
number of gene, polygenic, height and mass. These form a continuum
Characteristics that are not influenced by environment are usually controlled
by a single gene and give rise to discrete variation, like Blood group.
Meiosis halves the chromosomes number so that in fertilisation the diploid number will be
restored. This is essential so the chromosome number remains constant generation to generation.
Meiosis introduces variation within a species and this is key to the survival of the organisms
The basics of the process
DNA replication (during interphase) and 2 cell divisions that result in 4 unique haploid daughter cells
Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair up (bivalents),
Crossing over can occur: equivalent portions of chromatids are exchanged giving new combination of
alleles. The point of cross over is called the chiasma. There can be numerous chiasma in one bivalent
Independent assortment occurs, where the arrangement of the bivalents in metaphase is random.
The chromosomes are separated to the poles of the cell by contraction of spindle fibres
Meiosis II: the sister chromatids are separated.
47
chromatids
separate/centromeres
A malignant tumour grows quickly and
spreads
throughout
the surrounding tissue,
1. Growth
/ increase
in cell
a tumour can develop
divide;affecting its normal function and so causing
harm (e.g. lung cancer reduces elasticity
number;
If tumour suppressor genes produce proteins that
of alveoli).
These tumours
to treat
damaging
the whole
Telophase
Chromosomes
uncoil are more difficult
2. Replace
cellswithout
/ repair tissue
/
48
inhibit cell division
tissue.
organs
/body;
Followed by cytokinesis (cell division)
A mutation here results in proteins that do not
3. Genetically identical cells;
function
4. Asexual
/cloning;
A metastasis is a tumour that has spread
to thereproduction
bloodstream
or lymphatic system
and so can spread to other parts of the body, causing secondary tumours there.
A tumour develops
49
Agricultural practices (intensive farming) why things are done and the consequences
of these processes
Agriculture
Selective breeding: done to select for certain favourable
characteristics reduces genetic diversity.
Destruction of hedgerows: Makes large farms with large fields are
cheaper and more efficient to run by easing the moving machinery
and harvesting. Hedgerows provide habitats for at least 30 species
of trees and shrubs, 65 species of nesting birds, 1500 species of
insects and 600 species of wildflowers. These in turn provide food
for small mammals. Hedgerows also act as wildlife corridors,
allowing animals to move safely between woodlands.
Monoculture: increases the productivity by growing the best crops,
which can be sowed and harvested quickly using dedicated
machinery. This increases yield and reduces labour costs. It reduces
genetic diversity and renders all crops in a region susceptible to
disease. Reduces animal species diversity, because there are few
niches.
Fertilisers: maintain soil fertility, but they can pollute surrounding
groundwater causing eutrophication and killing aquatic animals.
Pesticides: are sprayed on crops to prevent attack by insects and
other invertebrate animals, but many pesticides have a broad
spectrum, killing a wide range of animals and so reducing diversity.
Herbicides: kill competing plants (weeds) that might reduce crop
yield.
As the diagram shows, forests have a deeper and more extensive root system, so binding
the soil together.
50
Without this root system, soils can be eroded, leading to desertification (fertile land
becomes desert). Forests also have a high productivity: i.e. there is a lot of plant material
produced per square meter of land, and a lot of photosynthesis takes place. So deforestation
reduces the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and so increases
the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Genetic diversity:
Caused by
1) Environment: factors affecting plants and animals need to be considered. Characteristics controlled by many genes (polygenic) are most susceptible to
environmental influence). Characteristics controlled by single genes are not influenced by the environment.
2) The genes we inherit: we inherit our genes from parents in the sperm and egg during sexual reproduction. These gametes are formed by meiosis; this
can cause variation by.crossing over and independent assortment. Sexual reproduction involves the random fusion of gametes. Mutations can also
result in variation
The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals colonise a new
habitat and start a new, isolated population. Since the few individuals will only
have a small range of alleles between them, the founder effect is an example
of a genetic bottleneck, and is sometimes called a colonisation bottleneck.
These modern populations will have low genetic diversity, reflecting the small
range of alleles in the small founding population. In extreme cases a founding
population can be as small as a single pregnant female animal or a single
plant seed.
Advantages of selective breeding:
Used to produce high yielding domestic plants and animals
Reliable and cheap source of food is established as higher yields can be obtained
The standard of living has been raised
Selective breeding
Selective breeding, or artificial selection, means the
controlled breeding of animals or plants by humans
so that only individuals with certain characteristics
are allowed to reproduce. Since these characteristics
are (at least partly) genetically controlled, this
means selecting certain alleles and rejecting others,
so the genetic diversity of these animals and plants
is reduced.
Gas exchange occurs by Diffusion via stomata and air spaces. The
spongy mesophyll has large air spaces to facilitate faster diffusion, the
cell walls are thin to give a short diffusion pathway, there is a large
surface area to volume ratio, and the palisade cells are cylindrical in shape
so that even when close packed air spaces remain for gas diffusion.
53
55
Artery
Thickest wall, enabling it to carry blood at high
pressure / withstand pressure surges;
most elastic tissue, which smooth out
flow/maintains pressure; it can distend when
ventricles contract and can recoil
most muscle which maintains pressure;
muscle in wall to control blood flow, contracts,
vasoconstriction occurs altering blood flow to
organs. The proportion of muscle increases in
the arterioles and elastics tissue declines
56
B lo o d v e s s e l
P r o p e r ty
M e a n d ia m e te r
of vessel
M ean
th ic k n e s s o f
w a ll
A rtery
C a p illa r y
V e in
4 .0 m m
8 .0 m
5 .0 m m
1 .0 m m
0 .5 m
0 .5 m m
R e la t iv e t h ic k n e s s ( s h o w n b y le n g th o f b a r )
T is s u e s
p r e s e n t in
w a ll
E n d o th e liu m
E la s tic tis s u e
M u s c le
E la s tic
fib re s
P e rm e a b ility
M u s c le
fib re s
A o r ta
S m a ll
a rte rie s
A rte rio le s
C a p illa rie s
V e n u le s
V e in s
57
Describe and explain how water moves via the apoplastic and symplastic
pathways from the soil to the xylem in a root.
Apoplastic Via cell walls
As far as endodermis / Casparian strip / layer of wax;
Caused by transpiration pull;
Cohesion / hydrogen-bonding between water molecules;
Symplastic Through cell surface membrane/ vacuoles membrane;
High to low;
Diffusion / osmosis;
Cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata / via strands of cytoplasm;
Secretion / active transport of ions into xylem by endodermis;
OR
Active uptake of ions from soil at epidemis;
Lowers / s in xylem / increases osmosis into xylem;
The diameter of a tree is less during the day, when the tree is transpiring, than it is at night.
Evaporation from leaves during daytime; tension/negative pressure (on water) in xylem creates
inward pull (on walls of xylem vessel);
xylem vessels become narrower; due to adhesion of water molecules (to walls of xylem vessels);
If air enters the xylem the transpiration stream can cease as cohesion is disrupted between the water molecules.
59
If the xylem breaks air is sucked into the vessel suggesting a negative pressure inside
The argument against is that rot pressure would force the xylem wider and thus increase the diameter of the tree
Water evaporates from the leaves but some is also used by the
plant. Describe the ways in which this water could be used by the
plant.
Water is used in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis;
electrons from water enable ATP production / H+ are used to
reduce NADP / produces O2 ;
(water can be used in) hydrolysis reactions within the plant;
to create turgor;
as a solvent for transport;
as a medium for chemical reactions;
component of cells / cytoplasm;
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Explain how xerophytic adaptations reduce the rate of diffusion of water from
the leaf, make reference to Ficks law.
Reduced number of stomata; reduced surface area;
Thick waxy cuticle; increases diffusion distance;
Leaves reduced to spines; reduced surface area ;
(epidermal) hairs; reduce diffusion gradient;
Sunken stomata; reduced concentration gradient;
curled leaves; reduce concentration ; difference
Statement of Ficks law:
Rate of diffusion SA exchange surface conc difference
Thickness of exchange surface;
Low surface area, low concentration difference and high thickness/equivalent reduce
loss / candidate clearly relates features to equation to show how rate is reduced;
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3) Immunological comparison.
The same proteins form different species are
compared. The process relies upon the specificity
of antibodies for antigens
Serum albumin from A is injected into B.
B produces antibodies specific c to all the antigen
sites on the albumin from species A.
Serum is extracted from B; containing antibodies
specific to the antigens on the albumin from A.
Serum from species B is mixed with serum from
the blood of a third species C.
The antibodies respond to their corresponding
antigens on the albumin in the serum of species
C.
The response is the formation of a precipitate.
The greater the number of similar antigens, the
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more precipitate is formed and the more
the species are related. The fewer the number of
similar antigens, the less precipitate is formed
and the more distantly the species are related.
Classification/Taxonomy
Kingdom (5 possibilities: animal, protoctist, plant, fungi, prokaryote)
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
*king, Philip, Came, Over, From, Germany, Swimming*
Binomial naming system= Genus and species
What is meant by a hierarchy?
Large groups split into smaller groups (which do not
overlap);
How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy? 3 max
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
example, e.g. reptiles and birds separated after mammals /
reptiles
and birds more closely related than mammals;
(hierarchical) based on shared characteristics (seen today);
Explain the principles which biologists use to classify
organisms into groups. (3)
large groups are divided into smaller groups; (not just hierarchical)
members of a group have features in common; based on
anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of cell biology or
homologous structures, reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny. Process
starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class,
phylum. As the groups get larger there is a more distant common ancestry.
Explain the principles biologists use to classify organisms into groups
compared to older models.
Consider phylogeny
Look at evolutionary lineage/history
Find the point of divergence from a common ancestor
Consider, genetic, biochemical, embryology, homology of anatomy
Organisms are arranged in a hierarchy where large taxa (groups) are
subdivided into smaller taxa
(K, P, C, O, F, G,S)
As groups get smaller the similarities between the species increase
Each species is given a binomial name using the genus and species
Older models of classification used observable features to group organisms
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Antibiotics are antimicrobial agents produced naturally by other microbes (usually fungi or bacteria).
Many chemicals kill microbes. But a therapeutically useful antimicrobial agent must be selectively toxic i.e. it must kill pathogenic microbes already
growing in human tissue, without also killing the host human cells. Antibiotics do this by inhibiting enzymes that are unique to prokaryotic cells, such those
involved in synthesising the bacterial cell wall or 70S ribosomes. For example:
Penicillin (and related antibiotics ampicillin, amoxicillin and methicillin) inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of peptidoglycan for bacterial cell wall.
This weakens the cell wall, killing bacterial cells by osmotic lysis.
Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin inhibit enzymes in ribosomes. This stops protein synthesis so prevents cell division.
Antibiotics can be
Bacteriocidal: kills the microbes
Bacteriostatic: Inhibits the growth of
microbial population allows time for
immune response
Broad
spectrum:
antibiotics
effective against a range of microbial
species
Narrow Spectrum: antibiotics that
are effective against a few species of
Desired
characteristics
of
antibiotics
Cheap to make
Easy to administer
Minimal/no side effects
Effective
against
targeted
pathogenic organism
Persists long enough and in suitable
concentrations within the host to be
effective
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Development of resistance
Natural mutation (change in the genetic code) results in resistance (ability to
produce an enzyme like penicillinase, change in the targeted receptor protein that
uptakes the antibiotic into the bacterial cell so it no longer complements the shape of the
carrier protein)
This bacteria has an advantage over others
Use of the antibiotic selects for the resistant strain of the bacteria
Resistant strain survives and reproduces passing on the allele to next generation
(vertical transmission)
Genes for resistance are usually found on the plasmid and this can be exchanged
between bacteria (conjugation) of the same species of different species (horizontal
transmission)
Preventing resistance
Use a lower dose of the Antibiotic to prevent selection for the resistant forms
Use less antibiotics (particularly for trivial ailments) reduces selection for the resistant
form
Vary the type of antibiotics used reduces selection for resistance
Use a high dose of the antibiotic for a short time killing all
Complete the course prevents re-emergence of dormant forms
Do not use other peoples antibiotics or antibiotics from other illnesses
Do not use them in animal feeds
Bacteria have a trick that no other organisms can do: they can transfer genes between each other
by conjugation. This is the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells via a cytoplasmic bridge or
pilus. From time to time two bacterial cells can join together (conjugate), and DNA passes from
one (the donor) to the other (the recipient). The transferred DNA can be one or more plasmids,
or can be all or part of the whole bacterial chromosome (in which case the donor cell dies).
Conjugation is sometimes referred to as bacterial sex or mating, but it is quite distinct from
sexual reproduction, because the gene exchange is not equal, it can take place between different
species, and bacteria do not use conjugation for reproduction. It is better thought of as an
alternative to sex, where these asexual organisms gain some of the advantages of genetic
exchange.
Conjugation means a resistance gene can spread from the bacterium in which it arose to other,
perhaps more dangerous, species. It is also the cause of multiple resistance. It is highly unlikely
that a single strain will mutate twice to develop resistance to antibiotics, but it is 65
perfectly likely
that it could receive genes for
resistance to different antibiotics by horizontal gene transfer. This has led to strains of bacteria
that are resistant to many (or even all) antibiotics.
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We can compare members of different species to show interspecific variation, or we can look at members of
the same species to look at intraspecific variation. Variation arises due.
1) Genetic differences: independent assortment in meiosis, crossing over in meiosis, mutations, random
fusion of gametes
2) Environmental influence
We onlt measure a smaple of the population, and it must be chosen carefully.
Randomly: avoid bias
It must be large to be representative and minimise anomalies
If the numbers are large enough and the results can be plotted as a graph (the characteristic is measured
quantitatively) the data usually follows a normal distribution curve and are described as continuous (usually
characteristics that are polygenic: controlled by more than one gene). This curve is described by
1) The mean:
2) The standard deviation
Characteristics controlled by a single gene (and that are not influenced by environmental factors)
do not show intermediate values and are described as discontinuous/discrete
Standard deviation gives an indication of the value range
either side of the mean. It shows the variability in the data.
2 sets of data could have the same mean or range
suggesting the populations are similar, but the variation
around this mean could differ considerably, and so
standard deviation would show this.
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