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Microbiology Assignment
Definition:
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-
cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and prostates,
and prokaryotes. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also
studied. In short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small
to be seen with the naked eye.
Introduction:
Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system,
or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two
disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as
"Microbiology and Immunology".
Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitological,
bacteriology and other branches.
Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually.
We have probably only studied about one percent of all of the microbe species on Earth.
Although microbes were directly observed over three hundred years ago, the field of
microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older biological disciplines such
as zoology and botany.
Scope:
The field of microbiology can be generally divided into several sub disciplines:
Microbial physiology: The study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically.
Includes the study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.
Microbial genetics: The study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in
relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of molecular biology.
Medical microbiology: The study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in
human illness. Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is
related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.
Environmental microbiology: The study of the function and diversity of microbes in their
natural environments. Includes the study of microbial ecology, microbial-
mediated nutrient cycling, geomicrobiology, microbial diversity and bioremediation.
Characterisation of key bacterial habitats such as
the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater ecosystems, open oceans or
extreme environments (extremophiles).
Evolutionary microbiology: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the study of
bacterial systematics and taxonomy.
Food microbiology: The study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and food borne
illness. Using microorganisms to produce foods, for example by fermentation.
Microscopy:
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or
objects. There are three well-known branches of microscopy, optical, electron and scanning
probe microscopy.
Classification Of Microbes:
They are essential to the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystems of the planet.
Microbial activity is exploited for the benefit of humankind in many ways, such as the
production of medicines, food and enzymes, in the clean-up of sewage and other wastes and
in the exciting advances resulting from developments in molecular biology techniques.
Until the middle of the 19th century all living organisms were classified into two
groups, animals and plants. There were problems with this simplistic system, for example
fungi look like plants but they do not photosynthesise. Over the years, a number of
classification systems were put forward; the most well known is the Five Kingdom system
which groups all living things by cell type, level of organization and nutrition as follows:
1. Animals
2. Plants
3. Fungi
4. Protoctista (algae and protozoa)
5. Monera (bacteria)
The first four groups represent eukaryotes (cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles). The Monera includes all prokaryotes (cells lack a nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles).
In the light of recent advances in molecular biology, which allow the comparison of the
sequencing of ribosomal RNA of organisms, a new classification system is preferred by
scientists. It is based on three lines of descent from a common ancestor. Each group is
called a Domain:
Bacteria:
Bacteria consist of only one cell, but they're a very complex group of living
things. Some bacteria can live in temperatures above the boiling point and in cold below
the freezing point.
There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all of them are basically one of
three different shapes. Some are rod- or stick-shaped; others are shaped like little balls.
Others still are helical or spiral in shape. Some bacteria cells exist as individuals while
others cluster together to form pairs, chains, squares or other groupings.
Some bacteria can make their own food from sunlight, just like plants. Also
like plants, they give off oxygen. Other bacteria absorb food from the material they live on
or in. Some of these bacteria can live off iron or sulfur! The bacteria that live in your
stomach absorb nutrients from the digested food you've eaten.
Some bacteria move about their environment by means of long, whip-like structures called
flagella. They rotate their flagella like tiny outboard motors to propel themselves through
liquid environments. They may also reverse the direction in which their flagella rotate so
that they tumble about in one place. Other bacteria secrete a slime layer and ooze over
surfaces like slugs. Others stay almost in the same spot.
Bacteria live on or in just about every material and environment on Earth from soil to
water to air, and from your body to the Arctic ice to the Sahara deserts. Each square
centimeter of your skin averages about 100,000 bacteria. A single teaspoon of soil contains
more than a billion (1,000,000,000) bacteria.
Stucture of Bacterial Cell:
Viruses:
A virus is too small to be seen without a microscope. A virus is basically a tiny
bundle of genetic material carried in a shell called the viral coat. Some viruses have an
additional layer around this coat called an envelope. That's basically all there is to viruses.
There are thousands of different viruses that come in many shapes. Many are
multi-sided or polyhedral. If you've ever looked closely at a cut gem, like the diamond in an
engagement ring, you've seen an example of a polyhedral shape. Unlike the diamond in a
ring, however, a virus does not taper to a point, but is shaped the same all around. Other
viruses are shaped like spiky ovals or bricks with rounded corners. Some are like skinny
sticks while others look like pieces of looped string. Some are more complex and shaped
like little spaceship landing pods.
Viruses are found on or in just about every material and environment on Earth
from soil to water to air. They're basically found anywhere there are cells to infect. Viruses
can infect every living thing. However, viruses tend to be somewhat picky about what type
of cells they infect. Plant viruses are not equipped to infect animal cells, for example,
though a certain plant virus could infect a number of related plants. Sometimes, a virus
may infect one animal and do no harm, but cause a great deal of damage when it gets into a
different but closely related animal.
Viruses exist to reproduce only. To do that, they have to take over suitable host cells. Upon
landing on a suitable host cell, a virus gets its genes inside the cell either by tricking the
host cell to pull it inside, or by connecting its viral coat with the host cell wall or membrane
and releasing its genes inside, or by injecting their genes into the host cell's DNA.
The viral genes are then copied many times, using the process the host cell
would normally use to reproduce its own DNA. The new viral genes then come together
and assemble into whole new viruses. The new viruses are either released from the host cell
without destroying the cell or eventually build up to a large enough number that they burst
the host cell.
Stucture of a Virus:
Electron Microscopy:
Applications:
A phase contrast microscope does not require staining to view the slide. This type
of microscope made it possible to study the cell cycle.
As light travels through a medium other than vacuum, interaction with this medium causes
its amplitude and phase to change in a way which depends on properties of the medium.
Changes in amplitude give rise to familiar absorption of light which gives rise to colours
when it is wavelength dependent. The human eye measures only the energy of light arriving
on the retina, so changes in phase are not easily observed, yet often these changes in phase
carry a large amount of information.
The same holds in a typical microscope, i.e., although the phase variations introduced by
the sample are preserved by the instrument (at least in the limit of the perfect imaging
instrument) this information is lost in the process which measures the light.
In order to make phase variations observable, it is necessary to combine the light
passing through the sample with a reference so that the resulting interference reveals the
phase structure of the sample.
Bacterial Resistance:
Antibiotics are powerful bacteria-killing drugs that help our bodies regain the upper hand
when a bacterial infection develops. Today, there are hundreds of antibiotics in use, most
tailored to treat a specific kind of bacterial infection. (That’s why taking unused antibiotics
prescribed for one kind of bacterial infection won’t necessarily work against another.
Never “save” anti-biotics; always finish the full course of treatment as prescribed.)
Doctors have noticed that some bacteria are getting tougher to kill. The usual antibiotic
drugs don’t seem to work as well — or work at all. Such bacteria are said to be resistant.
Bacterial resistance makes an infection much harder to treat. Higher doses or stronger
drugs may be required. In extreme cases, bacterial resistance can be fatal.
xperts like the scientists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agree
that the overprescription and misuse of anti-biotic drugs are the main causes of bacterial
resistance. The CDC says that up to half of the roughly 100 million prescriptions for
antibiotics written each year are unnecessary.
5. Get vaccinated.
If you’re 65 or older or you have a chronic illness, you should get vaccinated for
pneumococcal pneumonia. It’s a major cause of death in older adults.
Bibliography
www.wikipedia.org/microbiology
www.wikipedia.org/microscopy
www.textbookof bacteriology.net
www.nclnet.org/microbes