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2014-2015
UNIT I
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND BASIC IC ENGINE CYCLES
Part A
1. What is meant by thermodynamic system? How do you classify it?
Thermodynamic system is defined as the any space or matter or group of matter where the energy transfer or
energy conversions are studied.
It may be classified into three types.
(a) Open system
(b) Closed system
(c) Isolated system
2. What is meant by closed system? Give an example.
When a system has only heat and work transfer, but there is no mass transfer, it is called as closed system.
Example: Piston and cylinder arrangement.
3. Define a open system, Give an example.
When a system has both mass and energy transfer it is called as open system.
Example: Air Compressor.
4. Differentiate closed and open system.
Closed System
Open System
1. There is no mass transfer. Only heat and
1. Mass transfer will take place, in addition to
work will transfer.
the heat and work transfer.
2. System boundary is fixed one
2. System boundary may or may not change.
3. Ex: Piston & cylinder arrangement, Thermal 3. Air compressor, boiler
power plant
5. Define an isolated system
Isolated system is not affected by surroundings. There is no heat, work and mass transfer take place. In this
system total energy remains constant.
Example: Entire Universe
6. What is meant by thermodynamic property?
Thermodynamic property is any characteristic of a substance which is used to identify the state of the system
and can be measured, when the system remains in an equilibrium state.
7. How do you classify the property?
Thermodynamic property can be classified into two types.
1. Intensive or Intrinsic and
2. Extensive and Extrinsic property.
8. Define Intensive and Extensive properties.
The properties which are independent on the mass of the system is called intensive properties.
e.g., Pressure, Temperature, Specific Volume etc.,
The properties which are dependent on the mass of the system is called extensive properties.
e.g., Total energy, Total volume, weight etc.
9. Differentiate Intensive and Extensive properties.
Intensive Properties
Extensive Properties
1. Independent on the mass of the system
Dependent on the mass of the system.
2. If we consider part of the system these
If we consider part of the system it will have a
properties remain same.
lesser value.
e.g. pressure, Temperature specific volume
e.g., Total energy, Total volume, weight etc.,
etc.,
3. Extensive property/mass is known as
-intensive property
10. What do you understand by equilibrium of a system?
When a system remains in equilibrium state, it should not undergo any charges to its own accord.
11. What is meant by thermodynamic equilibrium?
When a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, it should satisfy the following three conditions.
(a) Mechanical Equilibrium :- Pressure remains constant
(b) Thermal equilibrium :- Temperature remains constant
(c) Chemical equilibrium : There is no chemical reaction.
12. State the First law of thermodynamics (MU Apr95)
First of thermodynamics states that when system undergoes a cyclic process the net heat transfer is equal to
work transfer.
13. What is meant by open and closed cycle.
In a closed cycle, the same working substance will re circulate again and again.
In a open cycle, the same working substance will be exhausted to the surroundings after expansion.
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When a system is taken from state l to state m, in Fig., along path lqm, 168 kJ of heat flows into the
system, and the system does 64 kJ of work :
(i) How much will be the heat that flows into the system along path lnm if the work done is 21 kJ?
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(ii) When the system is returned from m to l along the curved path, the work done on the system is 42 kJ.
Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed or liberated?
(iii) If Ul = 0 and Un = 84 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ln and nm.
Qlqm = 168 kJ
Wlqm = 64 kJ
We have, Qlqm = (Um Ul) + Wlqm
168 = (Um Ul) + 64
Um Ul= 104 kJ. (Ans.)
(i) Qlnm = (Um Ul) + Wlnm
= 104 + 21
= 125 kJ. (Ans.)
(ii)
= 20 kJ. (Ans.)
A fluid system, contained in a piston and cylinder machine, passes through a complete cycle of four
processes. The sum of all heat transferred during a cycle is 340 kJ. The systems completes 200
cycles per min. Complete the following table showing the method for each item, and compute the
net rate of work output in kW.
Process
Q (kJ/min)
W (kJ/min)
E (kJ/min)
12
4340
23
42000
4200
73200
41
3.
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E (kJ/min)
4340
42000
73200
35540
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[1 Nm = 1 J]
= 564 kJ
(i) Applying the first law energy equation,
Q=U+W
45 = U + ( 564)
U = 519 kJ. (Ans.)
This shows that the internal energy is increased.
(ii) Change in enthalpy,
H = U + (pV)
= 519 103 + (p2V2 p1V1)
4.
The following equation gives the internal energy of a certain substance u = 3.64 pv + 90 where u is
kJ/kg, p is in kPa and v is in m3/kg.A system composed of 3.5 kg of this substance expands from an
initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.25 m3 to a final pressure 100 kPa in a process in which
pressure and volume are related by pv1.25 = constant. (i) If the expansion is quasi-static, find Q, U
and W for the process. (ii) In another process, the same system expands according to the same
pressure-volume relationship as in part (i), and from the same initial state to the same final state as
in part (i), but the heat transfer in this case is 32 kJ. Find the work transfer for this process.
(iii) Explain the difference in work transfer in parts (i) and (ii).
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= 0.906 m3
U= 3.64 (100 103 0.906 500 103 0.25) J
[1 Pa = 1 N/m2]
= 137.6 kJ
Q = U+ W
= 125.2 + 137.6
= 12.4 kJ
i.e., Q = 12.4 kJ. (Ans.)
(ii)
Here Q = 32 kJ
Since the end states are the same, U would remain the same as in (i)
W = Q U= 32 ( 125.2) = 157.2 kJ. (Ans.)
(iii)
5.
The work in (ii) is not equal to p dV since the process is not quasi-static.
0.2 m3 of air at 4 bar and 130C is contained in a system. A reversible adiabatic expansion takes
place till the pressure falls to 1.02 bar. The gas is then heated at constant pressure till enthalpy
increases by 72.5 kJ. Calculate :
(i) The work done ;
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(ii) The index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible polytropic
process giving the same work between the same initial and final states.
Take cp = 1 kJ/kg K, cv = 0.714 kJ/kg K.
Also
= 0.53 m3
= 272.7 K
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n = 1.062
Hence,
6.
A cylinder contains 0.45 m3 of a gas at 1 105 N/m2 and 80C. The gas is compressed to a volume of
0.13 m3, the final pressure being 5 105 N/m2. Determine :
(i) The mass of gas ;
(ii) The value of index n for compression ;
(iii) The increase in internal energy of the gas ;
(iv) The heat received or rejected by the gas during compression.
Take = 1.4, R = 294.2 J/kgC.
Initial volume of gas, V1 = 0.45 m3
Initial pressure of gas, p1 = 1 105 N/m2
Initial temperature, T1 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
Final volume after compression, V2 = 0.13 m3
The final pressure, p2 = 5 105 N/m2.
(i) To find mass m using the relation
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(3.46)n = 5
Taking log on both sides, we get
n loge 3.46 = loge 5
n = loge 5/loge 3.46 = 1.296. (Ans.)
(iii) In a polytropic process,
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= 544.5 K
Considering process 31, we have
p3V3 = p1V1
(ii) Change in internal energy during constant volume process, (U3 U2) :
Mass of gas,
(Since T 3 = T1)
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= 55 6 = 330 kJ/kg
= 12000 J or 12 kJ/kg
PE = (Z2 Z1) g = (55 0) 9.81 Nm or J
= 539.5 J or 0.54 kJ/kg
Substituting the value in steady flow equation,
330 = 12 + 0.54 105.77 + W or W
= 236.77 kJ/kg.
= 39.46 kJ/s
9.
At the inlet to a certain nozzle the enthalpy of fluid passing is 2800 kJ/kg, and the velocity is 50 m/s.
At the discharge end the enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible
heat loss from it.(i) Find the velocity at exit of the nozzle.(ii) If the inlet area is 900 cm2 and the
specific volume at inlet is 0.187 m3/kg, find the mass flow rate.(iii) If the specific volume at the
nozzle exit is 0.498 m3/kg, find the exit area of nozzle.
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=?
were Q = 0, W = 0, Z1 = Z2
= 201250 N-m
C22 = 402500
C2 = 634.4 m/s. (Ans.)
(ii) Mass flow rate
By continuity equation,
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= 2.5 kg/s.
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C4 = 473.4 m/s.
Hence, velocity at exit from the nozzle = 473.4 m/s. (Ans.)
12. A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor has air entering at 1 bar, 20C and
compression occurs following polytrophic process with index 1.2 upto the delivery pressure of 12
bar. The compressor runs at the speed of 240 rpm and has L/D ratio of 1.8. The compressor has
mechanical efficiency of 0.88. Determine the isothermal efficiency and cylinder dimensions. Also
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find out the rating of drive required to run the compressor which admits 1 m of air per minute.
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13. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure 1bar and temperature 30C
at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bar. 210
kJ of heat is added at constant volume. Determine : (i) Pressures, temperatures and volumes at
salient points in the cycle, (ii) Percentage clearance, (iii) Efficiency, (iv) Net work per cycle, (v)
Mean effective pressure and (vi) Ideal power developed by the engine if the number of working
cycles per minute is 210. Assume the cycle is reversible.
V2 = 0.081 m3
Temperature and pressure at point 3 can be determined using above equations.
Similarly, calculate temperature and pressure at point.
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14 .An engine with 200 mm cylinder diameter and 300 mm stroke works on theoretical Diesel cycle. The
initial pressure and temperature of air used are 1 bar and 27C. The cut-off is 8% of the stroke. Determine:
(i) Pressures and temperatures at all salient points, (ii) Theoretical air standard efficiency, (iii) Mean
effective pressure and (iv) Power of the engine if the working cycles per minute are 380. Assume that
compression ratio is 15 and working fluid is air. Consider all conditions to be ideal.
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UNIT II
THERMODYNAMICS OF REFRIGERATORS AND PUMPS
PART- A
1. Define Quality of steam. What is the various quality of steam?
The Quality of steam is the ratio of mass of dry steam actually present to the mass of wet steam which
contains it. Various qualities of steam are (i) Wet steam (ii) Dry steam (iii) Superheated steam.
2. Define dryness fraction.
It is a measure of quality of steam. It is the ratio of mass of vapour to the total mass of the steam. It is
denoted by X.
3. Define heat engine, heat pump, and refrigerator.
Heat engine: A system which by operating in a cyclic manner produces net work from a supply of
heat. (Or) A heat engine is any continuously operating thermodynamic system across the boundaries of
which flow only heat and work.
Heat Pump: A device that transfers heat from a low temperature medium to a high temperature
medium is called a heat pump.
Refrigerators: A device that transfers heat from low temperatures to high temperature region is known
as refrigerator.
4. What is the difference between boiler mountings and accessories?
Boiler Mountings
The necessary devices installed or
mounted for the safety of boiler and its
control are called boiler mountings.
Boiler Accessories
The devices which are installed in the boiler
for their efficient operation and smooth
working are called boiler accessories.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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25. Explain the term critical point, critical temperature and critical pressure.
In the T-S diagram the region left of the waterline, the water exists as liquid. In right of the dry steam
line, the water exists as a super heated steam. In between water and dry steam line the water exists as a
wet steam. At a particular point, the water is directly converted into dry steam without formation of wet
steam. The point is called critical point. The critical temperature is the temperature above which a
substance cannot exist as a liquid; the critical temperature of water is 374.15 oC. The corresponding
pressure is called critical pressure.
26. Find the mass of 0.7 m3of wet steam at 1500C and 90% dry.
The specific volume of dry steam at 1500C, vg = 0.3928 m3/kg;
The mass of 0.7 m3of wet steam at 1500C and 90% dry is: 0.7 / (0.39280.9) = 1.98 kg.
27. Determine the enthalpy and sp. volume of steam at a pressure of 6 bar having a quality of 0.85.
h = hf + x hfg = 1213.35+.85 X 1571.0 = 2548.7 kJ/kg ; v = xvg = 0.85 X 0.03244=0.027574 m3/kg
28. What are the major components in a steam power plant?
30. What are the ways by which Rankine cycle efficiency may be improved?
(i) Operating the boiler at high pressure with reheat and (ii) regeneration
31. Write down the expression for efficiency of Rankine cycle without considering pump work.
32. What is reversed carnot heat engine? What are the limitations of carnot cycle?
1. No friction is considered for moving parts of the engine.
2. There should not be any heat loss
33. What is the difference between a heat pump and a refrigerator?
Heat pump is a device which operating in cyclic process, maintains the temperature of a hot body at a
temperature higher than the temperature of surroundings.
A refrigerator is a device which operating in a cyclic process, maintains the temperature of a cold body
at a temperature lower than the temperature of the surroundings.
34. Why a heat engine cannot have 100% efficiency?
For all the heat engines there will be a heat loss between system and surroundings. Therefore we cant
convert all the heat input into useful work.
35. What are the processes involved in Carnot cycle.
Carnot cycle consist of
i) Reversible isothermal compression
ii) Isentropic compression
iii) Reversible isothermal expansion
iv) Isentropic expansion
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35. Write the expression for COP of a heat pump and a refrigerator?
COP of heat pump
Heat Supplied
T2
COP HP =
------------------- =
-------Work input
T2-T1
COP of Refrigerator
Heat extracted
T1
COP Ref = --------------=
-------Work input
T2-T1
36. Why Carnot cycle cannot be realized in practical?
(i) In a Carnot cycle all the four processes are reversible but in actual practice there is no process is
reversible.
(ii) There are two processes to be carried out during compression and expansion. For isothermal
process the piston moves very slowly and for adiabatic process the piston moves as fast as possible.
This speed variation during the same stroke of the piston is not possible.
(iii) It is not possible to avoid friction moving parts completely.
Unit II Part B
1. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures 700C and
50C. The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates between reservoirs at
temperatures of 50C and 25C. The heat transfer to the engine is 2500 kJ and the net
work output of the combined engine refrigerator plant is 400 kJ. (i) Determine the heat
transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the reservoir at 50C. (ii) Reconsider
given that the efficiency of the heat engine and the C.O.P. of the refrigerator are each 45
per cent of their maximum possible values.
Ans)
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Since, W1 W2 = W = 400 kJ
W2 = W1 W
= 1670 400
= 1270 kJ
Q4 = 3.306 1270
= 4198.6 kJ
Q3 = Q4 + W2
= 4198.6 + 1270
= 5468.6 kJ
Q2 = Q1 W1
= 2500 1670
= 830 kJ.
Heat rejection to the 50C reservoir
= Q2 + Q3
= 830 + 5468.6
= 6298.6 kJ. (Ans.)
(ii) Efficiency of actual heat engine cycle,
= 0.45 max
= 0.45 0.668
= 0.3
W1 = Q1
= 0.3 2500
= 750 kJ
W2 = 750 400
= 350 kJ
C.O.P. of the actual refrigerator cycle,
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W = 2.2 kW
i.e., Work input required = 2.2 kW. (Ans.)
Q2 = Q1 + W = 24 + 2.2 = 26.2 kJ/s
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Q3 = Q4 + W
= 1.847 + 2.2
= 4.047 kJ/s
Substituting this value in eqn. (i), we get
If the purpose of the system is to supply the heat to the sink at 25C, then
3. A Rankine cycle operates between pressures of 80 bar and 0.1 bar. The maximum cycle
temperature is 600C. If the steam turbine and condensate pump efficiencies are 0.9
and 0.8 respectively, calculate the specific work and thermal efficiency. Relevant steam
table extract is given below.
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Ans)
At 80 bar, 600C :
h1 = 3642 kJ / kg ;
s1 = 7.0206 kJ / kg K.
Since s1 = s2,
7.0206 = sf2 + x2 sfg2
= 0.6488 + x2 7.5006
= 0.85
Now, h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
= 191.9 + 0.85 2392.3
= 2225.36 kJ/kg
Actual turbine work
= turbine (h1 h2 )
= 0.9 (3642 2225.36)= 1275 kJ/kg
Pump work = vf ( p2 )( p1 p2 )
= 10.09 kJ/kg
Specific work (Wnet ) = 1275 10.09
= 1264.91 kJ / kg. (Ans.)
where, Q1 = h1 hf4
But hf4 = hf3 + pump work
= 191.9 + 10.09
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= 202 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency, th =
= 0.368 or 36.8 %. (Ans.)
4. (i) Find the enthalpy and internal energy of unit mass of steam at temperature of 200C
when (a) Dry saturated (b) Steam delivered at 0.7MPa and (c) quality is 0.85.
(ii) Steam enters a steam turbine at a pressure of 10 bar and 300C with a velocity of 50m/s.
The steam leaves the turbine at 1.5 bar and with a velocity of 200m/s. Determine the work
done per kg of steam flow through the turbine. Assume that the process to be reversible and
neglect the change in potential energy.
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abundance.
Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major methods. Out of total power developed in India
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about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the range of pressure may vary from 10 kg/cm to super
critical pressures and the range of temperature may be from 250C to 650C.
Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment
A steam power plant must have following equipment:
(a) A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
(c) Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform
work.
(d) Piping system to convey steam and water.
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending upon
the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:
4.
5.
6.
7.
Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is heated by flue
gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after passing over boiler and super
heater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then through economizer, air pre-heater and finally they
are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
6. What is meant by fire tube boiler? Explain with neat sketch.
Ans) A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or more tubes
running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through the walls of the
tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam.
Types of fire-tube boiler
Cornish boiler
Lancashire boiler
Locomotive boiler
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7. What are the various boiler mountings? Explain any two with neat sketch.
1. Various boiler mountings
Mainly seven (7) mountings are required and essential to a Boiler.
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Fusible plug
Under normal working conditions, the fusible plug is completely covered with water.
Hence the temperature of the plug is not increased appreciably during combustion process.
When the water level falls below the safe limit the fusible plug is uncovered from water and
exposed to steam.
The furnace heat over heats the plug and it melts the fusible metal and copper plug falls
down.
Due to this water steam mixture rushes into the furnace and the fire is extinguished
8. What are the various boiler accessories? Explain any two with neat sketch.
Ans) Various boiler accessories
Economiser Air Preheater Super Heater Steam Separator Steam Trap Feed Pump
i) Economiser
The feed water is pumped to the bottom header and this water is carried to the top header number of
vertical tubes.
Hot flue gases are allowed to pass over the external surface of the tubes.
The feed water which flows upward in the tubes is heated by the flue gases.
This preheated water is supplied to the water.
Scrappers are moved slowly moved up and down to clean the surface of the tubes.
Economiser
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Air Preheater
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9. Steam at 480oC, 90 bar is supplied to a Rankine cycle. It is reheated to 12 bar and 480 oC.
The minimum pressure is 0.07 bar. Find the work output and cycle efficiency using steam
tables with and without considering pump work.
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10. What are the various types of boilers? Explain any one type of high pressure boiler
with neat sketch.
Ans) A boiler is basically a closed vessel in to which water is heated until water is converted in top
steam at required pressure.
1. Classification of Boilers.
A. According to relative position of water and hot gases.
B. According to geometric orientation of boiler.
C. According to location of furnace.
D. According to method of water circulation.
E. According to working pressure.
F. According to mobility of boiler.
Benson Boiler
(a)
Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not required for Benson as
the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker as all the parts are
welded at site and workshop job of tube expansion is altogether avoided.
(b)
The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and majority of the
parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
(c)
The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The space problem
does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
(d)
The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using small diameter
and close pitched tubes.
(e)
The super heater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation system,
therefore no special starting arrangement for super heater is required.
(f)
The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
(g)
The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and
pressure at partial loads and overloads. The desired temperature can also be
maintained constant at any pressure.
(h)
Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation in the natural
circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This feature of insensitiveness to load
fluctuations makes it more suitable for grid power station as it has better adaptive capacity to
meet sudden load fluctuations.
(i)
The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation boilers of same
capacity.
(j)
Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small diameter and has
very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
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11. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressures 28 bar and 0.06 bar, the initial
condition of steam being dry saturated. Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and
specific steam consumption.
From steam tables,
At 28 bar :
h1 = 2802 kJ/kg,
s1 = 6.2104 kJ/kg K
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= 2.79 kJ/kg
[Since, hf4 = hf3 + 2.79 = 151.5 + 2.79 = 154.29 kJ/kg]
Net work, Wnet = Wturbine Wpump
= 891.73 2.79
= 888.94 kJ/kg
Cycle efficiency
= 0.997. (Ans.)
= 4.049 kg/kWh.
12. What is meant by water tube boiler? Explain with neat sketch.
Ans) The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria. According to of water and hot gases:
(a)
Water tube
(b)
Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion flow over
these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are
surrounded, by water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more
likely to explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change
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in steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of
water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to
explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in steam demand.
Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due to smaller size of
drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space. The efficiency of
water-tube boilers is more.
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proportional to the difference in their velocities du and area A of the plate and inversely proportional to
the distance between them.
12. What is cohesion and adhesion in fluids?
Cohesion is due to the force of attraction between the molecules of the same liquid.
Adhesion is due to the force of attraction between the molecules of two different liquids or between the
molecules of the liquid and molecules of the solid boundary surface.
13. State momentum of momentum equation?
It states that the resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment of
momentum
14. What is momentum equation?
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle It states that, the net
force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction.
15. Why is it necessary in winter to use lighter oil for automobiles than in summer? To what
property does the term lighter refer?
The term lighter refers to the property called viscosity. In winter, if heavy oil is used for automobiles, the
oil becomes more viscous, and doesnt serve lubrication purpose. So lighter oil is used.
16. If the pressure on the fluid is increased from 75 bar to 140 bar, the volume of liquid decreases by
0.15%. Find the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid.
dp
4.33 x 109 N/m2
dV
17. At a certain point in flowing caster oil, the shear stress is 2 N/m2 and velocity gradient is 0.25/sec.
The mass density of the oil is 800kg/m3. Find the kinematic viscosity of oil in stokes.
du
dy
2
8Ns / m2
0.25
This
law
indicates that the pressure intensity at any point in a static liquid is equal in all directions.
19. Does viscosity vary with pressure and temperature?
The value of of liquid or gas is practically independent of pressure for the range generally countered
in practice but it varies widely with temperature. The temperature has predominant effect on the viscosity
of the liquids. With the increase in temperature, the viscosity decreases rapidly.
20. Discuss about Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids
Newtonian fluids. These fluids follow Newtons viscosity equation. For such fluids does not change
with rate of deformation.
Non Newtonian fluids: There fluids which do not follow the linear relationship between the shear stress and the rate of
deformation
21. State Bernoullis Theorem as applicable to fluid flow..
Bernoullis Theorem states that an ideal incompressible fluid when flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy is constant along the stream line.
22. What are the three major assumptions made in the Bernoullis Theorem.
The liquid is ideal and incompressible
The flow is steady and continuous
All the frictional losses are negligible
23. Mention the applications of Bernoullis Equation
Venturimeter
Orifice meter
Pitot Tube
24. What is Venturimeter?
Venturimeter is a device used to measure the rate of flow through pipes.
25. Write the expression for discharge through a venturimeter.
Q= C d
a1a2
a12 a22
* 2 gh
PART B
1. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = (3/4) * y - y2, where u is velocity in m/s and at a
depth y in m above the plate. Fin
d the shear stress at a distance of 0.3 m from the top of
plate. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid is taken as 0.95 Ns/m2.
(du/dy)=(3/4)-2y
=0.1425 N/mm2
2. Inside a 60 mm diameter cylinder a piston of 59 mm diameter rotates concentrically. Both the
cylinder and piston are 80 mm long. If the space between the cylinder and piston is filled with oil of
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viscosity of 0.3 N.s/m2 and a torque of 1.5 Nm is applied, find: the r.p.m. of the piston, and the power
required.
U=(DN/60) A=dl
=/(du/dy)
Shear force F = x A,
T=Fxd/2
3. A cylinder 100mm diameter rotates in an annular sleeve 102mm internal diameter at 100 rpm. The
cylinder is 300mm long. If the dynamic viscosity of the lubricant between the two cylinders is
0.1poise, (assuming velocity profile linear between the cylinders) find the torque needed to drive the
cylinder against visco resistance.
U=(DN/60)
=/(du/dy)
Shear force F = x A,
T=Fxd/2
4. A shaft of diameter 30cm rotates concentrically inside a sleeve having diameter 31cm and length
30cm. Find the viscosity of the fluid that fills the gap between the cylinders, if a torque of 9.81Nm is
required to maintain the speed at 60 rpm.
U=(DN/60) A=dl
=/(du/dy)
Shear force F = x A,
T=Fxd/2
5.
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6. A plate 0.0254 mm distant from a fixed plate, moving at 61 cm/s requires a force of 0.2 kg(f)/m 2 to
maintain this speed. Find the dynamic viscosity of fluid between the plates.
du=u-0
=/(du/dy)
7. A shaft 300 mm in diameter revolves in a guide bearing 600 mm long at 500 rpm. If the oil film
between the shaft and the bearing is 0.13mm and viscosity of oil is 0.32373 poise, what is the power
absorbed?
oil
water
Kinematic Viscosity
Specfic gravity S=
u
u
t1
t2
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u
u
A
t2
t1
Now F=
Find F1 & F2
9. A cubical block of 20cm edge weighing 20 kg(f) is allowed to slide down a plane inclined at 20 to
the horizontal on which there is a thin film of viscosity 0.22 x 10-3 kg(f) s/m2. What terminal velocity the
block will obtain, if the film thickness is 0.025 mm?
F=wcos ,
F y
, U=(DN/60),
A u
Kinematic Viscosity
10. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (1)
water and (2) mercury the temperature of the liquid is 20C and the values of surface tension of water and
mercury at 20C in contact with air are 0.0735 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The contact angle for
water = 0 and for mercury = 130. Take specific weight of water at 20C as equal to 9790 N/m3 and
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
, (i) h= 7.51 mm, (ii) h=-2.46 mm.
, d= 100 mm,
11.
12. Derive the continuity equation of differential form. Discuss whether the equation is valid for a steady
or unsteady flow, viscous or inviscid flow, compressible or incompressible flow.
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13. A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87 changes in diameter from 200 mm diameter at position
1 to 500 mm diameter at position 2 which is 4 meters at a higher level. If the pressures at 1 and 2 are
100 kN/m2 and 60 kN/m2 respectively and the discharge is 0.2 m3/s, determine: (a) Loss of head, (b)
Direction of flow.
At point A
v12 p1
z1
Total Energy E1
2g w
At point B
v22 p2
z2
Total Energy E2
2g w
Loss of head h f E1 E 2
If E1 E 2 direction A to B,
If E1 E 2 direction B to A,
14. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameter 300 mm and 100 mm respectively is used to
measure the flow of water. The pressure intensity at inlet is 130 kN/m2 while the vacuum pressure head at
throat is 350 mm of mercury. Assuming that 3% head lost between the inlet and throat. Find the value of
coefficient of discharge for the venturimeter and also determine the rate of flow.
Differential head,
; Q=
15. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter. The pressure
difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the orifice meter gives a
reading of 50 cm of mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil of sp.gr 0.9 and C d = 0.6.
= 137414.25 cm3/s
UNIT IV
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kL2
Re
VL
We
LV 2
14. What are the factors to the determined when viscous fluid flows through the circular pipe ?
Velocity distribution across the section; Ratio of maximum velocity to the average velocity; Shear
stress distribution; Drop of pressure for a given length .
Using Buckinghams theorem, show that the drag FD of a supersonic aircraft is given by:
FD L2 V 2 (Re, M) . Where,
Re VL = Reynolds number, M V c = Mach number,
= fluid density,
c = sonic velocity =
2
Eu
L2V 2
pL2
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It is impossible to predict the exact behavior of the prototype by model testing alone. The two models
of same prototype behavior will be different. Scale ratios will not be same. So discrepancy between model
and prototype will always occur. It is known as scale effect.
21. Distinguish between Rayleighs method and Buckinghams theorem
S.No Rayleighs method
Buckinghams theorem
1
The expression is determined for a variable It is easy for the number of independent
depending upon maximum three or four
variables being more than three or four
variables only.
2
This method is difficult for more than or
In this method, n variables can be used
four variables.
without any difficulties.
22. What are the points to be remembered while deriving expressions using dimensional analysis?
(i) First, the variables controlling the phenomenon should be identified and expressed in terms of
primary dimensions (ii) Any mathematical equation should be dimensionally homogeneous.(iii) In
typical cases a suitable mathematical model is constructed to simplify the problem with suitable
assumptions
23. What are the similarities between model and prototype?
(i) Geometric Similarity (ii) Kinematic Similarity (iii) Dynamic Similarity
24. State the Fourier law of dimensional homogeneity.
The law of Fourier principle of dimensional homogeneity states an equation which expresses a
physical phenomenon of fluid flow should be algebraically correct and dimensionally homogeneous.
25. State the Euler model law and give its significance.
Only pressure is more predominant force in addition to the inertia force. According to this law, the
Euler number is same for both prototype and model. The Euler number itself is significant criterion in
the following phenomena: (i) Where the gravity and surface tension forces are fully absent and the
turbulence is fully developed with negligible viscous force. (ii) It is applied in cavitations
phenomena.
PART B
1. The pressure difference P in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to turbulent flow depends on the
velocity V, viscosity , density and roughness K. By using dimensional analysis, obtain an expression
for the pressure difference P .
Solution:
Variables
Dimensions
LT-1
ML-3
ML-1T-2
ML-1T-1
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2. The resisting force (R) of a supersonic flight can be considered as dependent upon the length of the air
craft '', velocity 'v', air viscosity '', air density '' and bulk modulus of air is 'k'. Express the functional
relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution:
3.
Variables
Dimensions
MLT-2
LT-1
ML-1T-1
ML-3
ML-1T-2
Consider force F acting on the propeller of an aircraft, which depends upon the variable U, , , D
and N. Derive the nondimensional functional form F U2D2 f ((UD / ),(N D / U)).
Solution:
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Dimensions
ML-3
LT-1
ML2T-2
T-1
ML-1T-1
4. The discharge Q of a centrifugal pump depends upon the mass density of fluid (), the speed of the
pump (N), the diameter of the impeller (D), the manometric head (Hm) and the viscosity of fluid (). Show
gH
that Q ND 3 2 2 ,
.
2
N D ND
Solution:
Dimension of variable involved in given problem
Variables
Dimensions
T-1
ML-3
L3T-1
LT-2
ML-1T-1
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5. An object of diameter 900 mm is to move in air at 60 m/s. Its drag is to be estimated from tests on a
half scale model in water. The drag on the model is 1140 N. Estimate the speed of the model and drag on
the full scale object. Given, air = 1.2 kg/m3, air = 1.86 105 Ns/m2, water = 1.01103 Ns/m2, water
= 1000 kg/m3
Given:
Solution:
Speed of the model:
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6. It is desired to obtain the dynamic similarity between a 30 cm diameter pipe carrying linseed oil at 0.5
m3/s and a 5 m diameter pipe carrying water. What should be the rate of flow of water in lps? If the
pressure loss in the model is 196 N/m2, what is the pressure loss in the prototype pipe? Kinematic
viscosities of linseed oil and water are 0.457 and 0.0113 stokes respectively. Specific gravity of linseed oil
= 0.82.
Given :
Dm = 30 cm
Qm = 0.5 m3/s
Dp = 5 m
Model fluid linseed oil
Prototype fluid water
Pressure loss in model Pm =196 N/m2
Kinematic viscosity of oil,m =0.457 strokes =0.457 x10-4 m2/s
Kinematic viscosity of oil,p = 0.0113 strokes =0.0113 x10-4 m2/s
Specific gravity for model,Sm =0.82
Specific gravity for prototype, S p = 1.12
Solution:
Discharge of model Qm =Am x Vm
0.5 =
By dynamic similarity,
Discharge of prototype, Qp = Ap x Vp
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7. A model of a hydro electric power station tail race is proposed to built by selecting vertical scale 1 in
50 and horizontal scale 1 in 100. If the design pipe has flow rate of 600 m3/s and the allowable discharge
of 800 m3/s. Calculate the corresponding flow rates for the model testing.
Given:
(Lr) v =50
(Lr) H =100
QP =600 m3/s
Qmax =800 m3/s
Solution:
Discharge scale ratio, Qr = (Lr) H x [(Lr) v] 3/2
=100 x 503/2
= 35355.34
We know that, discharge scale ratio,
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8. Model of an air duct operating with water produces a pressure drop of 10 kN/m2 over 10 m length. If
the scale ratio is 1/50. Density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and density of air is 1.2 kg/m2. Viscosity of water is
0.001 Ns/m2 and viscosity of air is 0.00002 Ns/m2. Estimate corresponding drop in a 20 m long air duct.
Given:
Solution:
9.
Define and Explain Reynolds Number, Froudes Number, Eulers Number and Mach number.
Reynolds Number:
It is the ratio of Inertia force to the viscous force
Re
VL
Froudes Number:
Only Gravitational force is more predominant force. The law states The Froudes number is same for
both model and prototype.
Euler number
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the pressure of a flowing fluid.
Eu
L2V 2
pL2
Mach number:
It is the square root of Inertia force to the elastic force
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kL2
UNIT V PUMPS AND TURBINES
PART A
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18. Write down the mathematical expression for the specific speed of turbine.
Ns =
Where, Ns = Specific Speed (in r.p.m); P = Shaft Power (Watts); H = Net head on the
= 159.4 r.p.m
The calculated specific speed is lies between the 80 and 400, the turbine is a Francis turbine.
20. List down and define the various efficiencies of turbines.
Hydraulic Efficiency
=
Mechanical efficiency
Overall efficiency
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3. A centrifugal pump is to discharge 0.118m3/s at a speed of 1450 rpm against a head of 25m. The
impeller diameter is 250mm. Its width at outlet is 50mm and the manometric efficiency is 75%.
Find the vane angle at outer periphery of the impeller.
Tangential Velocity
Q D2 B2 V f 2
Discharge
mano
Manometric Efficiency
Vane Angle
tan 1
gH m
Vw2 u 2
V f2
u 2 Vw2
Here N
V f2
u 2 Vw2
, u2
D2 N
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D22 D12
5. A double acting reciprocating pump running at 60 rpm is discharging 1.5 m3 of water per
minute. The pump has a stroke length of 400 mm. The diameter of the piston is 250 mm. The
delivery and suction heads are 20m and 5m respectively. Find the power required to drive the
pump and the slip of the pump.
2ALN
60
2 g ALN hs hd
Power Required P= P
60000
Theoretical Discharge Qth
6. A single acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 350 mm and runs at 45
rpm. The suction head is 8 m and the delivery head is 20 m. Determine the theoretical discharge
of water and power required. If slip is 10%, what is the actual flow rate?
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ALN
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Cd
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Qact
Qth
Qtheo Qact
100
Qtheo
8. Explain the working principle of a Axial flow reaction turbines, how they are classified and
differentiate them.
Axial flow reaction turbine: This is a reaction turbine in which the water flows parallel to the axis
of rotation. The shaft of the turbine may be either vertical or horizontal. The lower end of the shaft
is made larger to form the boss or the hub. A number of vanes are fixed to the boss. When the
vanes are composite with the boss the turbine is called propeller turbine. When the vanes are
adjustable the turbine is called a Kaplan turbine.
9. Explain in detail about the working principle of Francis turbine with suitable sketch.
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10. Distinguish between the inward and outward flow reaction turbines with respect to at least five
aspects.
11. A Pelton wheel, working under a head of 500 m develops 13 MW when running at a speed of 430
rpm. If the efficiency of the wheel is 85%, determine the rate of flow through the turbine, the
diameter of the wheel and the diameter of the nozzle. Take speed ratio as 0.46 and coefficient of
velocity for the nozzle as 0.98.
12. A Pelton wheel works under a gross head of 510 m. One third of gross head is lost in friction in
the penstock. The rate of flow through the nozzle is 2.2 m3/sec. The angel of deflection of jet is
165. Find the (i) power given by water to the runner (ii) hydraulic efficiency of Pelton wheel.
Take CV = 1.0 and speed ratio = 0.45
13. A reaction turbine works at 450 r.p.m. under a head of 120 m. Its diameter at inlet is 1.2 m and
the flow area is 0.4 m2. The angles made by absolute and relative velocities at inlet are 20 and
60 respectively with the tangential velocity. Determine: (i)the volume rate of flow, (ii) the power
developed, and (iii) the hydraulic efficiency.
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15. A hub diameter of a Kaplan turbine, working under a head of 12m, is 0.35 times the
diameter of the runner. The turbine is running at 100rpm. If the vane angle of the runner at
outlet is 15deg. And flow ratio 0.6, find (i) diameter of the runner, (ii) diameter of the boss, and
(iii) Discharge through the runner. Take the velocity of whirl at outlet as zero.
16. A Kaplan turbine develops 24647.6kW power at an average head of 39m. Assuming the
speed ratio of 2, flow ratio of 0.6, diameter of the boss equal to 0.35 times the diameter of the
runner and an overall efficiency of 90%, calculate the diameter, speed and specific speed of the
turbine.
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