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Carbohydrate

s
Starches and
sugars

Fiber
complex
substances that
give structure
and firmness
to plants.
Fiber cannot be
digested.

Proteins

Fruits,
vegetables,
grains, beans,
and nuts.
Meats and fish
in a small
amount
Fruits,
vegetables,

major
component of
meats, poultry,
fish, eggs,
milk, and milk
products.
nuts, beans,
and grain in
smaller
amounts in

Changes caused by heat


Caramelization: browning of sugars.
e.g. The browning of sauted vegetables and the golden color of bread
crust are forms of caramelization.
Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell.
e.g. major principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production of
breads and pastries.
Softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is, in part, the breaking
down of fiber.

Coagulation. Proteins consist of long chains of components called amino


acids.
These chains normally form tight coils. As proteins are heated, the coils
gradually unwind. At this point, the protein is said to be denatured. For
the cook, the important fact about denaturing is that, when the protein
coils unwind, they become attracted to each other and form bonds. This
bonding is called coagulation. Coagulated proteins form a solid network
of these bonds and become firm. As the temperature increases, the
proteins shrink, become firmer, and lose more moisture. Exposure of
proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most
proteins complete coagulation or are cooked at 71C to 85C (160F
to185F)
Maillard reaction: Many protein foods, such as meats, contain small
quantities of carbohydrates. When heated to about 154C (310 F), the
amino acids in the protein chains react with carbohydrate molecules and
undergo a complex chemical reaction.
The result is that they turn brown and develop richer flavors. This
reaction is called the. It is what happens when meat browns. Because of
the high
temperature required for this reaction, the Maillard reaction takes place
only on the dry surface. Because of its water content, the interior of the
meat cannot get this hot.

Game changer
Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour or
starch will be thinner if it contains acid.

Sugar makes fiber


firmer. Fruit cooked
with sugar keeps its
shape better than fruit
cooked without sugar.

Acids, such as lemon


juice,vinegar,and
tomato products,do
two things to
proteins:
They speed
coagulation.
They help dissolve
some connective
tissues.

Baking soda Or Sodium


Bicarbonate (and
other alkalis) makes
fiber softer.
Vegetables cooked
with baking soda will
become mushy and
lose vitamins*
Papain
Papaya and kiwi fruit

Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats
with a great deal of connective tissue are tough,but some connective
tissues are dissolved when cooked slowly with moisture. Cooking tough
meats properly, therefore, makes them more tender

Fats

meats, poultry,
fish, eggs,
milk products,
nuts, whole
grains, and,
to a lesser
extent,
vegetables and
fruits. Fats are
also important
as cooking
mediums,
as for frying

Many flavor compounds dissolve in fat, so fats are important carriers of


flavor. When fats melt and are lost from food,some flavors,as well as
some vitamins, are lost with them.
For the functions of fats in baked goods,see page 899.
Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food.
Pigments and flavor components are important to a foods appearance and
taste and may determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So
it is important to preserve all these elements.

Minerals,
Vitamins,
Pigments,
And Flavor
Components

Water

Fats can be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are
called oils.
When solid fats are heated, they melt, or change from solid to liquid.The
melting point of solid fats varies.
When fats are heated, they begin to break down.When hot enough, they
deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke.The temperature at which this
happens is called the smoke point, and it varies by type of fat.A stable fat
one with a high smoke pointis an important consideration in deep-fat
frying.

Nearly all
foods
contain
water.
Dried

Some of these components are soluble in water, and others are soluble in
fats. All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away, from
foods during cooking.
Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking,
and by other elements present during cooking.
It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as
possible, a foods nutrients, taste, and appearance. This is addressed
whenever cooking techniques are explained in the remainder of this book.
Water exists in three states, solid (ice), liquid, and gas (water vapor or
steam). At sea level, pure liquid water becomes solid, or freezes, at 32F
(0C) and turns to steam at 212F (100C).When water molecules turn to
steam and energetically escape into the atmosphere,water is said to be
boiling.

When water carries


dissolved compounds, such
as salt or sugar, its freezing
point is lowered and its
boiling point is raised

foods may
contain as
little as a
fraction of
1
percent
water, but
fresh
meats,
fish,
vegetables
, and fruits
consist
mostly of
water

Water can also turn from liquid to gas at lower temperatures.When water
turns to gas at any temperature, the process is called evaporation.
Evaporation happens more slowly the lower the temperature is.
Evaporation is responsible for the drying of foods. The drying of food
surfaces as they are cooked enables them to be browned.
Many minerals and other compounds dissolve in water, so water can be a
carrier of flavor and of nutritional value.

* Cheat Sheet: In a Pinch Baking Soda is often used to soften beans and lentils quickly. But soak the beans amd lentils whenever possible. Baking soda destroys the nutritional
value

Blanching

Test the pH of your water. If in doubt, boil a few peppers and watch them for color change. If you like the way they look, youre
good. If not, try adding a tiny pinch of baking soda (I calculate something like a tenth of a gram/L) and work up from there. Aim for
a pH of about 7.5, which is all you need to preserve green color.
Limit blanching time. I found I preferred a cook time of just 2 to 3 minutes. Immediately evacuate to an ice bath or rinse under
cool water until cool to the touch.
Hold off dressing vegetables with acids for as long as possible, especially if they will be served heated.

Why would I want to blanch something?


There are numerous good reasons!

Blanching destroys the enzymes that turn green veggies brown and mushy over time or with cooking. This makes it perfect for
preparing ingredients for recipes that rely on the bright green color, such as this risotto verde.

It cooks vegetables just enough while still leaving them crisp and fresh-tasting. Blanched peas make this minty pea salad
perfect for spring, while blanched carrots are delicious in a lemon dressing.

Blanching removes bitter flavors in some vegetables, such as broccoli rabe.

Blanching is a simple way to soften the skin of tomatoes for peeling; this method also works on soft fruits like peaches and
plums.

If youre a vegetable gardener, youll want to blanch most kinds of vegetables before you freeze the surplus for the winter. Not
only does blanching preserve the color and texture of your vegetables, but it will also preserve nutrient content.

Blanching is an easy way to remove peels from nuts such as peanuts and almonds.

To prepare vegetables for stir-frying, blanching is the perfect way to jump-start the cooking process, especially for dense
vegetables like broccoli or cauliflower (which usually take a while to stir-fry and often get soggy). Scallop and snap pea stir fry
sounds delicious when you know the peas will be perfectly crisp!

Blanched vegetables are a nice change of pace in salads, like Salad Nicoise (pictured below), or in a vegetable and dip platter.

n order to stop the enzyme action that breaks vegetables down, the food must reach 180 degrees Fahrenheit.
Blanching will take up to a minute longer at high altitudes, since water boils at a lower temperature.
The time spent in boiling water and time spent in ice water should be roughly equal. If youre not able to prepare a cold immersion
for your vegetables, putting them in a colander under cold running water will do.

Adding salt or baking soda to your boiling water will help make green vegetables even greener! Steer clear of lemon juice or other
acids, though; these will react with the chlorophyll and turn your greens brown.
You need to use a lot of water. Use at least a gallon of water for each pound of food to be blanched. If you overload the water with
vegetables, it will lower the waters temperature and slow the cooking process, defeating the purpose.
To blanch or not to blanch? This chart will help you decide whether to blanch your vegetables before freezing them for later, and
gives you approximate blanching time for several different foods

Blanching time is in boiling water.


Unless otherwise noted, chilling time in ice water should be the same as blanching time.

Vegetable

Preparation

Blanching Time/ Chilling Time

Asparagus

Wash and sort stalks according to size, discarding blemished


stalks. Break off ends. Stalks may be left whole or cut into 11/2" to 2" long pieces.

average diameter stalks - 3 minutes


thicker stalks - 4 minutes.

Green Beans

Snap off tips. Rinse, then cut or break into desired sizes or
freeze smaller beans whole.

3-1/2 minutes.

Lima Beans

Wash, shell and sort beans according to size.

small and medium beans - 3 minutes


large beans - 4 minutes

Italian Snap Beans

Wash, snap off ends and slice into 1" to 1-1/2" pieces.

3-1/2 minutes.

Beets

For young, tender beetsRemove tops and cook until tender. Chill,then remove skins.
Leave small beets whole. For medium to large beets, slice or
cut into pieces. Pack into freezer boxes or bags.

not applicable

Broccoli

Remove leaves and tough ends. Cut through stalks lengthwise,


leaving stems with 1" to 1-1/2" diameter heads, or cut into
pieces. Soak in salt water (2 tablespoons salt to 1 quart water)
to remove any insects and larvae. Rinse with tap water and
drain.

pieces - 4 minutes
stems - 5 minutes.

Brussels Sprouts

Wash and trim any tough outer leaves. Soak in salt water (2
tablespoons salt to 1 quart water) to remove any insects and
larvae. Rinse with tap water and drain.

medium sprouts - 4 minutes


large sprouts - 5 minutes.

Carrots

Remove tops, peel, and wash. Cut into 1/4" thick slices.

3-1/2 minutes.

Cauliflower

Remove leaves, trim and wash. Split into individual 1" to 1-1/2"
pieces. Soak in salt water (2 tablespoons salt to 1 quart water)
to remove any insects and larvae. Rinse with tap water and
drain.

4 minutes.

Corn-on-the-Cob

Husk, remove silk and trim off ends. Blanch in a large stockpot
with 10 - 12 quarts of boiling water.

24 small ears, under 1-1/4" diameter - 8


minutes
14 medium ears, 1-1/4" to 1-1/2"
diameter - 8 minutes
10 large ears, over 1-1/2" diameter - 11
minutes
Chilling time in ice water should be twice
as long as blanching time

Corn - Cut from cob

Husk, remove silk and trim off ends. Use a corn cob cutter or a
curved grapefruit knife to remove kernels from cob.

4-1/2 minutes

Kohlrabi

Remove tops, wash, peel and cut into 1/2" cubes.

2-1/2 minutes.

Mushrooms

Wash and remove stems. Freeze smaller mushrooms whole


Cut medium and large mushrooms into 1/4" slices.
To prevent browning, add 1 tablespoon lemon juice or 1/2
teaspoon ascorbic acid per quart of blanching water.

small whole mushrooms - 4 minutes


sliced mushrooms - 3 minutes.

Onions

Chopped onions can be packed and frozen without blanching


To freeze larger pieces of onions or small whole onions - Peel
onions, wash, and cut into quarter sections (except very small
whole onions).

1-1/2 minutes

Green Peas, shelled

Wash and shell peas.

1-1/2 to 2 minutes

Sugar Peas or Edible Pod Peas

Wash; Remove stems and blossom ends; Leave whole.

2-1/2 to 3 minutes

Peppers

Chopped bell peppers can be packed and frozen without


blanching.
For pepper halves or slices...Wash, remove stem and seeds.
Cut in halves or slices

halves - 3 minutes
slices - 2 minutes.

Pumpkin

Cut; scoop out seeds; peel; and cut into pieces. Bake or steam
until tender. Cool, then strain in a ricer, food mill or process in a
food processor until smooth. Pack into containers and freeze.

not applicable

Spinach

Sort; remove any blemished leaves and tough stems; Wash.

1-1/2 to 2 minutes

Zucchini

Select 5" to 7" long, tender zucchini. Wash, peel and cut into
1/4" to 1/2" slices.

1/4" slices - 3 minutes


1/2" slices - 4 minutes

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