Sedra BodePlot07ds

Microelectronic Circuits - 2003
Frequency Response
Ching-Yuan Yang
National Chung-Hsing University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Outline
z s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots
z The Amplifier Transfer Function
z Low-Frequency Response of the Common-Emitter Amplifiers
z High-Frequency Response of the Common-Emitter Amplifiers
z The Common-Base, Common-Gate, and Cascode Configurations
z Frequency Response of the Emitter and Source Followers
z The Common-Collector Common-Emitter Cascade
z Frequency Response of the Differential Amplifier
Microelectrics (III)
7-2
Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU
s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots
7-3
Transfer Function
vi
vo
T (s)
Input : vi (t ) = Vi sint
Output : vo (t ) = Vo sin(t + )
Linear System
Transfer function T (s ) =
v o (s ) am s m + am 1s m 1 + L + a 0
=
v i (s )
s n + bn 1s n 1 + L + b0
(m < n )
where the coefficients a and b are real numbers; n is called the order of the network.
z For a stable circuit the denominator coefficients should be such that the roots of
the denominator polynomial all have negative real parts.
z Time Domain T (t ) =
v 0 (t )
v i (t )
Frequency Domain T ( ) =
V0 ( )
Vi ( )
Vo (s )
Vi (s )
z Evaluating the frequency response of amplifiers:
R R
L sL jL
C 1/sC 1/jC
s j
Complex Frequency Domain T (s ) =
7-4
Poles and Zeros

An alternate form for expressing T(s) is
T (s ) = am
(s Z1 )(s Z 2 )L(s Z m )
(s P1 )(s P2 )L(s Pn )
where am is a multiplicative constant (the coefficient of sm in the numerator),

Z1, Z2, , Zm are the roots of the numerator polynomial,
P1, P2, , Pn are the roots of the denominator polynomial,
z Z1, Z2, , Zm are called the transfer-function zeros or transmission zeros,
and P1, P2, , Pn are the transfer-function poles or the natural modes of the
network.
z A transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros
together with the value of multiplicative constant.
z Magnitude and phase:
T ( j ) = T ( j ) ( )
Magnitude
phase
20log |T(j)| dB
7-5
First-Order Functions
z Low-pass transfer function
V0 (s ) =
1/(sC )
1
1
Vi (s ) =
Vi (s ) =
Vi (s )
R + 1/(sC )
1 + sRC
1 + s
T (s ) =
V0 (s )
1
=
Vi (s ) 1 + s
where
= RC
z High-pass transfer function
V0 (s ) =
R
s
sRC
Vi (s ) =
Vi (s ) =
Vi (s )
R + 1/(sC )
1 + sRC
1 + s
T (s ) =
V0 (s )
s
=
Vi (s ) 1 + s
where
= RC
z First-order transfer function of the general form

a s + a0
T (s ) = 1
s + 0
where 0 is the location of the real pole. (pole frequency)

7-6
Bode Plots
Transfer function
T (s ) = am
(s Z1 )(s Z 2 )L(s Z m )
(s P1 )(s P2 )L(s Pn )
T ( j ) = T ( j ) ( )
We can find
T ( j ) = am
( j Z1 )( j Z 2 )L( j Z m )
= am
( j P1 )( j P2 )L( j Pn )
Z12 + 2 Z 22 + 2 L Z m2 + 2
P12 + 2 P22 + 2 L Pn2 + 2
20 log T ( j ) = 20 log am + 20 log Z12 + 2 + 20 log Z 22 + 2 + L + 20 log Z n2 + 2

20 log P12 + 2 20 log P22 + 2 L 20 log Pn2 + 2

1
1
1
1
1
+ tan Z + L + tan Z tan P tan P L tan P
Z
1
1
m
n
2
2
( ) = tan1
Bode plot is a technique to obtain an approximate plot the magnitude and

phase of a transfer function given its poles and zero.
7-7
Bode plot for the typical magnitude term:

Bode plot for a zero:

20 log 1 +
a
(a ) << a ,
(b ) = a =
0dB
= 3dB
2

20 log 1 + = 3dB
a
(c ) >> a
2

20 log 1 + = 10 log = 20 log
a
a
a
Slope = 20dB/decade = 6dB/octave
The curve shown applies for the case of a zero. The low-frequency asymptote is a horizontal
straight-line at 0-dB level and the high-frequency asymptote is draw with 6dB/octave slope.
7-8
Bode plot for a pole:
The curve shown applies for the case of a pole. The low-frequency asymptote is a horizontal
straight-line at 0-dB level and the high-frequency asymptote is draw with 6dB/octave slope.
For a = 0, a pole or a zero at s = 0, the plot is simply a straight line of 6dB/octave

slop intersecting the 0-dB line at = 1.
7-9
Bode plot for the typical phase term: (a < 0 )

Bode plot for a zero:

tan-1 0
a
(a ) << a ,
(b ) = a =
= 3dB

tan-1 = 45o
a
(c ) >> a

tan-1 900
a
For the plot of the phase term tan1(/a), the asymptotic plot consists of three
straight lines: (a < 0 )
z The first is horizontal at = 0 and extends up to = 0.1|a|.
z The second line has a slope of 45o/decade and extends from = 0.1|a| to
= 10|a|.
z The third line has a zero slop and a level of = 90o.
7-10
Bode plot for a pole:
For the plot of the phase term tan1(/a), the asymptotic plot consists of three
straight lines: (a < 0 )
z The first is horizontal at = 0 and extends up to = 0.1|a|.
z The second line has a slope of 45o/decade and extends from = 0.1|a| to
= 10|a|.
z The third line has a zero slop and a level of = 90o.
7-11
7-12
Example: Bode plots

An amplifier has the
voltage transfer function:
10s
T (s ) =
(1 + s /102 )(1 + s /105 )
Zero:
one at s = 0 and one at s = .
Poles:
one at s = 102 rad/s and
one at s = 105 rad/s.
20 log T ( j ) = 20 log 10 + 20 log j
2

20 log 1 + 2 20 log 1 + 5
10
10

tan1 5
2
10
10
( ) = 90o tan1
Comparison:
The amplifier Transfer Function
7-13
Frequency bands
(a) Frequency response for a dc amplifier:
(b) Frequency response for a capacitively

coupled amplifier:
Three frequency bands [as shown in Fig.(b)]:

z Midband: The amplifier gain is almost constant over a wide frequency range.
In this frequency range all capacitances (coupling, bypass, and transistor internal
capacitances) have negligible effects and can be ignored in gain calculations.
z High-frequency: At the high-frequency the gain drops owing to the effect of the internal
capacitances of the devices.
z Low-frequency: At the low-frequency the coupling and bypass capacitances no longer
act as perfect short circuits and thus cause the gain drop.
Band width: BW = H L
and, since L << H , BW H
Gain-bandwidth product: GB AM H where AM is the magnitude of midband gain (V/V).
7-14
The Gain Function A(s)

z
The amplifier gain function in the general form: A(s) = AM FL(s) FH(s)
where FL(s) and FH(s) are functions that account for dependence of gain on frequency in
the low-frequency band and in the high-frequency band, respectively.
In the midband, for L << << H ,

FL(s) 1 and FH(s) 1
A(s) AM
In the low-frequency band, AL(s) AM FL(s)

In the high-frequency band, AH(s) AM FH(s)
z
How to determine the gain function?

The midband gain AM
n The coupling and bypass capacitors are acting as perfect short circuits.
o The internal capacitors of the transistor model are acting as perfect open circuits.
The low-frequency transfer function AL(s)
Including the coupling and bypass capacitors but the transistor-model capacitances
as open circuits.
The high-frequency transfer function AL(s)
Including the transistor-model capacitors but the coupling and bypass capacitors as
short circuits
7-15
The three-frequency bands that characterize the frequency response of

capacitively coupled amplifiers.
For dc amplifiers, the absence of coupling and bypass capacitors causes FL (s)
= 1 and fL = 0, thus the midband gain extends to zero frequency.
7-16
The Low-Frequency Response

The low-frequency response of the amplifier
FL (s ) =
(s + Z 1 )(s + Z 2 )L(s + ZnL )

(s + P 1 )(s + P 2 )L(s + PnL )
FL(s) 1
where P1, P2, , PnL ( > 0) are the frequencies of the nL low-frequency poles, and
Z1, Z2, , ZnL (are positive, negative, or zero) are nL zeros.
Determine the lower 3-dB frequency L :
n Assume one of the poles (P1) has much higher frequency than all other poles.
For frequencies close to the midband, FL (s )
s
s + P1
which is the transfer function of a 1st-order high-pass network.

The low-frequency response is dominated by the pole at s = P1 and the lower 3-dB
frequency is approximately equal to P1. (L P1)
A rule of thumb:
The dominant-pole approximation can be made if the highest-frequency pole is
separated from the nearest pole or zero by at least two octaves (that is, a factor of
four).
7-17
o If a dominant low-frequency pole does not exist, an approximate formula can

be derived for L in terms of the poles and zeros.
Assume two poles and two zeros in the low-frequency band:
(s + Z 1 )(s + Z 2 )
( 2 + Z21 )( 2 + Z22 )
2
FL (s ) =
FL ( j ) = 2
(s + P 1 )(s + P 2 )
( + P21 )( 2 + P22 )
By definition, at = L , |FL |2 = , and thus
1 ( L2 + Z21 )( L2 + Z2 2 ) 1 + (1/ L2 )( Z21 + Z2 2 ) + (1/ L4 )( Z21 Z2 2 )

=
=
2 ( L2 + P21 )( L2 + P22 ) 1 + (1/ L2 )(P21 + P22 ) + (1/ L4 )(P21P22 )
Since L is usually greater than the frequencies of all the poles and zeros,
1/L4 0 and L P21 + P22 2 Z21 2 Z2 2
The formula for L is L P21 + P22 + L 2 Z21 2 Z2 2 L
7-18
(7.18)
Example
The low-frequency response of an
amplifier
s(s + 10)
FL (s ) =
(s + 100 )(s + 25)
n We find that a dominant-pole
situation almost exists and L
100 rad/s.
o A better estimate of L by Eq.
(7.18):
L = 1002 + 252 2 102

= 102 rad/s
p The exact value of can be

determined from the given
transfer function as 105 rad/s.
7-19
The High-Frequency Response

The low-frequency response of the amplifier
FH (s ) =
(1 + s / Z 1 )(1 + s / Z 2 )L(1 + s / ZnH )

(1 + s /P 1 )(1 + s /P 2 )L(1 + s /PnH )
s 0
FH(s) 1
where P1, P2, , PnH ( > 0) are the frequencies of the nH high-frequency
poles, and Z1, Z2, , ZnH (are positive, negative, or zero) are nH zeros.
Determine the upper 3-dB frequency H :
n If one of the high-frequency poles -- P1 -- is of much lower frequency than
any of the other poles, then the high-frequency response of the amplifier will
be dominated by this pole. H P1
FH (s )
1
1 + s / P 1
which is the transfer function of a 1st - order low - pass network.
o An approximate formula for H in terms of the high-frequency poles and

zeros:
1
H
(7.22)
1
1
2
2
+ 2 +L 2 2 L
2
P1
P 1
Z1
7-20
Z1
10
Example
The low-frequency response of an
amplifier
FH (s ) =
1 s /105
(1 + s /104 )(1 + s / 4 104 )
n We find that a dominant-pole

situation almost exists and H
104 rad/s.
o A better estimate of H by Eq.
(7.22):
1
H =
1
1
2
+
108 16 108 1010

= 9800 rad/s
p The exact value of can be
determined from the given transfer
function as 9537 rad/s.
7-21
Using Open-Circuit Time Constants for the Approximate

Determination of H
2
nH
1 + a1s + a 2s + L + anH s
1 + b1s + b2s 2 + L + bnH s nH
where the coefficients a and b are related to the zero and pole frequencies, respectively.
1
1
1
b1 =
+
+L+
The high-frequency response:
P1
FH (s ) =
P 2
PnH
b1 can be obtained by considering the various capacitances in the high-frequency

equivalent circuit one at a time while reducing all other capacitors to zero (open circuits).
Determine H :
n To obtain the contribution of Ci, we reduce all other capacitances to zero, reduce
the input signal source to zero, and determine Rio seen by Ci.
o Repeat n for all other capacitors in the circuit.
p Compute b1 : open-circuit time constants b1 =
nH
Ci Rio
i =1
(assume that there are nH capacitors in the high-frequency equivalent circuit.)

q If the zeros are not dominant and if one of the pole P1 id dominant, then
1
1
b1
and upper 3-dB frequency is H P 1 =
P1
Ci Rio
i
The above method is used to determine H (in complex circuits) normally yields remarkably
good results even if a dominant pole does not exist.
7-22
11
Example: High-frequency equivalent circuit of a common-source FET amplifier -The amp. is fed with a signal generator having a resistance R. Resistance Rin is due to the
biasing N.W. Resistance RL is the parallel equivalent of the load resistance RL, the drain
bias resistance RD, and the FET output resistance r0. Caps Cgs and Cgd are the FET
internal cap. For R = 100k, Rin = 420k, Cgs = Cgd = 1PF, gm = 4 mA/V, and RL =
3.33k, find the midband voltage gain, AM = V0/Vi, and the upper 3-dB frequency, fH.
High-frequency equivalent:
7-23
Find the midband voltage gain:

The equivalent at midband frequencies:
AM
Vo
Rin
(gm RL ')
=
Vi
Rin + R
420
4 3.33
420 + 100
= 10.8 V/V
=
Determine H by the method of open-circuit time constants:
n Determine Rgs seen by Cgs by setting Cgd = 0 and short-circuiting the signal generator Vi :
Rgs = Rin || R = 420k || 100k = 80.8k

The open-circuit time constant of Cgs is
gs CgsRgs = 11012 80.8103 = 80.8 ns
7-24
12
o Determine Rgd seen by Cgd by setting Cgs = 0 and short-circuiting Vi :
V gs
Vgs
Node G:
Ix =
Node D:
I x = gmVgs +
R gd
Rin
Vgs = I x R ' where R ' = Rin R
R
Vgs + V x
R 'L
Vx
= R '+R 'L + gm R 'L R ' = 1.16 M

Ix
gd C gd R gd = 1 10 12 1.16 106 = 1160 ns

p Determine H :
gs + gd
Thus,
fH =
1
= 860 krad/s
(80.8 + 1160) 10 9
H
= 128.3 kHz
2
7-25
z Discuss
The method of open-circuit time constants tells the designer which of
the various capacitance is significant in determining the amplifier
frequency response.
The relative contribution of the various capacitances to the effective

time constant b1 is immediately obvious.
In above example, we see that Cgd is the dominant capacitance in
determining fH.
How effectively to increase fH :

n Use an FET with smaller Cgd.
o Reduce Rgd by using a smaller R or RL .
If R is fixed, the bandwidth is increased by reducing the load resistance.

Unfortunately, this also decreases the midband gain.
Trade-off between gain and bandwidth
7-26
13
Using Short-Circuit Time Constants for the Approximate

Determination of L
n
n 1
s L + d1s L + L
s n L + e1s n L 1 + L
where the coefficients d and e are related to the zero and pole frequencies, respectively.
e1 = P1 + P1 + + PnL
The high-frequency response:
FL (s ) =
e1 can be obtained by considering the various capacitances in the low-frequency

equivalent circuit one at a time while setting all other capacitors to (short circuits).
Determine L :
n To obtain the contribution of Ci, we replace all other capacitors with short circuits,
reduce the input signal source to zero, and determine Ris seen by Ci.
o Repeat n for all other capacitors in the circuit.
nL
1
p Compute e1 : short-circuit time constants e1 =
i =1 C i Ris
(assume that there are nL capacitors in the low-frequency equivalent circuit.)
q If the zeros are not dominant and if one of the pole P1 id dominant, then
nL
1
e1 P1 and the 3-dB frequency is L P 1 =
i C i Ris
The above method is used to determine L (in complex circuits) even if a dominant pole does
not exist.
7-27
Summary of the Formulas for Determining the 3-dB Frequency of Amplifiers
7-28
14
7-29
Low-Frequency Response Of The Common-Source

And Common-Emitter Amplifiers
7-30
15
Analysis of the Common-Source Amplifier

z The classical capacitively coupled common-source amplifier
CC1, CC2 : Coupling Cap.

CS : Bypass Cap.
7-31
z Find the voltage gain at low frequencies
Vg (s ) = Vi (s )
Vg (s )
Vi (s )
Rin
Rin + R + 1/sCC1
where Rin = RG1 RG 2
Rin
s
Rin + R s + 1/sCC1(Rin + R )
which is a high-pass function, indicating that CC1 introduces a zero at zero

1
frequency and a real pole with a frequency P 1 =
.
CC1(Rin + R )
7-32
16
z Find the drain current Id(s)
I d (s ) = I s (s ) =
Vg (s )
1/ gm + Z S
Thus I d (s ) = gmVg (s )
= gmVg (s )
YS
gm + YS
where YS =
1
1
=
+ sCS
Z S RS
s + 1/(CS RS )
1/ RS + sCS
= gmVg (s )
gm + 1/RS + sCS
s + (gm + 1/ RS )/CS
which indicates that the bypass capacitor CS introduces a real zero and a real
g + 1/RS
1
1
and P 2 = m
=
L(7.38) ( Z < P 2 )
pole. Z =
CS RS
CS
CS (RS 1/ gm )
7-33
The effect of CS :
CS introduces a zero Z that makes ZS infinite, which makes physical sense
because an infinite ZS will cause Id, and hence Vo, to be zero.
The pole frequency is the inverse of the time constant formed by multiplying CS by
the resistance seen by the capacitor.
z
The output equivalent circuit
(Thevenin theorem)
Vo (s ) = I d (s )(RD ro R L )
s
s + 1/CC 2[R L + (RD ro )]
Thus CC2 introduces a zero at zero frequency (dc) and a real pole with a frequency
1
P 3 =
CC 2[R L + (R D ro )]
Again the pole frequency is the inverse of the time constant formed by multiplying CC2
by the resistance seen by the capacitor.
7-34
17
z The low-frequency amplifier gain AL(s) :

V (s )
s
s + Z
s
= AM
AL (s ) = o
Vi (s )
s + P 1 s + P 2 s + P 3
Rin
gm (RD ro R L )
where the midband gain AM is given by AM =
Rin + R
and
P 1 =
1
CC1(Rin + R )
P 3 =
1
CC 2[R L + (R D ro )]
Z =
1
CS RS
P 2 =
7-35
1
CS (RS 1/ gm )
Design of the Coupling and Bandpass Capacitors

Design Procedure:
n Determine the dominant pole P2 and CS :
Of the three poles, that caused by CS (with frequency P2 ) is
determined by the smallest effective resistance 1/gm .
It follows that the total capacitance is minimized by selecting P2 to be
the highest-frequency, and hence dominant, pole.
Set P2 = L and use Eq. (7.38) to determine CS.

Zero can then be calculated to verify that it is much lower than L .
o Determine two other poles and CC1 and CC2 :
Decide the location of the two other poles, say five to ten times lower than
L , to ensure that L is indeed determined almost by P2
7-36
18
Example: Select appropriate values for the coupling capacitors CC1 and CC2
and the bypass capacitor CS of the amplifier
The low - frequency response is dominated by a pole at 100HZ and that the nearest pole or
zeros will be at least a decade away. Let VDD = 20V, R = 100k, RG1= 1.4M, RG2 =
0.6M, RS = 3.5k, RD = 5k, r0 = , RL = 10k, VP = 2V, and Idss = 8mA. Also,
determine the midband gain.
Solution
n Dc operating point:
ID = 2mA VGS = 1V VGS = 10V
2I DSS I D
= 4mA/V
gm =
VP I DSS
o Find the midband voltage gain
Rin =
RG1RG 2
= 420k
RG1 + RG 2
AM =
Rin
gm (RD R L )
Rin + R
420
5 10
4
= 10.8V/V
520
5 + 10
20.7 dB
7-37
p Find the three capacitors, CC1, CS , and CC2

RCC 1 = R + Rin = 520k
RCS = RS (1/ gm ) = 0.233k

RCC 2 = RD + R L = 15k
As expected, RCs is the smallest and thus should be the one to form the
highest-frequency (dominant) pole.
1
1
=
= 6.83F
CS =
2f L RCS 2 100 0.233 103
Zero:
fZ =
1
1
=
= 6.7Hz
2CS RCS 2 6.83 10 6 3.5 103
Place the two other poles lower than 10Hz,

1
CC1
= 0.03F
2 10 520 103
1
CC 2
= 1.06F
2 10 15 103
7-38
19
Analysis of the Common-Emitter Amplifier

z The classical common-emitter amplifier stage
CC1, CC2 : Coupling Cap.

CE : Bypass Cap.
7-39
z Determine lower 3-dB frequency L by short-circuit time constant
n Vs = 0, CE and CC2 :
RC1 = Rs + [RB || (rx + r )] where RB = R1||R2
o Vs = 0, CC1 and CC2 : R 'E = RE
r + rx + (RB Rs )
0 + 1
p Vs = 0, CC1 and CE :
RC2 = RL + (RC || ro )
1
1
1
+
+
the lower 3 - dB frequency L
CC1RC1 C E R 'E CC 2RC 2
Note that the zero introduced by CE is found that

1
ZE =

1/ RE + sC E
7-40
sZ =
1
C E RE
20
High-Frequency Response Of The Common-Source

And Common-Emitter Amplifiers
7-41
Common-Source and Common-Emitter Amplifiers
Vs and Rs represent the Thvenin equivalent of the circuit at the input side, including
the output circuit of the preceding amplifier stage (if any) and the bias network of the
transistor Q (if any).
RL represents the total resistance between the drain (the collector) and signal ground.
Although signal ground at the source (emitter) is shown established by a large

capacitor, this is not necessary, and the circuits can be used to represent, for instance,
the differential half-circuit of a differential pair.
7-42
21
Equivalent Circuit for High-Frequency Analysis of CS Amplifier
R 'L = R L ro
7-43
Equivalent Circuit for High-Frequency Analysis of CE Amplifier
V 's = Vs
r
, R 's = (Rs + rx ) r , and R 'L = R L ro
Rs + rx + r
7-44
22
Millers Theorem
I1 = Y(V1 V2 )
Y1V1 = I1
(note that I2 = I1 )
Node2: I2 = Y(V2 V1 )
Y2V2 = I2
Node1:
z
z
z
z
= YV1(1 V2 /V1 ) = YV1(1 K )

Y1V1 = YV1(1 K )
Y1 = Y(1 K )
= YV2(1 V1 /V2 ) = YV2(1 1/K )
Y2V2 = YV2(1 1/K )
Y2 = Y(1 1/K )
In both networks the voltage gain from node 1 to node 2 is equal to K.

The Miller equivalent circuit of Fig.(b) is valid only as long as the conditions that exited
in the network when K was determined are not changed.
Miller theorem is very useful in determining the input impedance and the gain of an
amplifier, it cannot be used to determine its output resistance.
The multiplication effect experienced by Cgd and C is known as the Miller effect.
7-45
Analysis of the High-Frequency Response of the CS Amplifiers
Neglecting the current through Cgd, we have Vo gmVgsRL

Miller capacitance in the input (gate) side: Ceq = Cgd (1 + gmRL )
(7.54)
The total input capacitance CT = Cgs + Cgd (1 + gmRL )

z The 1st-order low-pass filter whose time constant is determine by CT and Rs , introducing a
dominant high-frequency pole. Thus the upper 3-dB frequency is
1
H =
CT R s
1
and the high-frequency gain can be expressed as AH (s ) = AM
.
1 + s / H
z Miller effect: Because the voltages at the two sides of Cgd are in the ratio of gmRL, which
is a larger number ( midband gain), Cgd gives rise to a large capacitance, Cgd (1 + gmRL ),
across the input terminals of the amplifiers.
z To increase H or B.W n gmRL RL AM or o Rs not always be possible
7-46
23
Analysis of the High-Frequency Response of the CE Amplifiers
V 's = Vs
r
, R 's = (Rs + rx ) r , and R 'L = R L ro
Rs + rx + r
CT = C + (1 + gm R 'L )C
H =
1
CT Rs
7-47
Example 7.7: as shown on page 7-9

Use the approximate method based on Millers effect to find the upper 3dBfrequency of the common-source amplifier whose component values are specified
in Example 7.6. Let Cgs = Cgd = 1pF. Compare the result with that obtained, for the
same amplifier, in Example 7.5 using the method of open circuit time constant.
Solution
From Eq. (7.54), CT = 1 + 1(1 + 43.33) = 15.3 pF
The effective generator resistance Rs = 100k || 420k = 80.8k
fH =
1
H
= 128.7kHz
=
2 2 15.3 10 12 80.8 103
which is very close the value (128.3KHz)

obtained in Example 7.5.
7-48
24
Determination of the Exact High-Frequency Transfer Function of

the CS Amplifier
KCL at G :
Vs (s ) Vgs
=
+ sC gsVgs + sC gd (Vgs Vo )
Rs
Rs
KCL at G : sC gd (Vgs Vo ) = gmVgs +
Vo (s )
R 'L
s
(gm /C gd )
Vo (s )
= AM
Vs (s )
1 + s[C gs + C gd (1 + gm R 'L ) + C gd (R 'L / Rs )]Rs + s 2C gsC gd Rs R 'L
(7.61)
The amplifier has a zero with frequency z = gm/Cgd and two poles whose
frequencies can be determined from the denominator polynomial.
(Note that: z = gm/C for the CE amp.)
7-49
Determine the two poles, P1 and P2, from the denominator polynomial D(s):
Assume that z and P2 are indeed at much much higher frequencies than
the dominant pole P1.
s
s
1 +
D (s ) = 1 +
P 1 P 2
1
1
s2
s
s2
+
= 1 + s
+
1+
+
P 1 P 1 P 2
P 1 P 2 P 1P 2
(7.62)
Equating the coefficients of the s terms in Eqs. (7.61) and (7.62) gives
1
P 1 =
[C gs + C gd (1 + gm R 'L ) + C gd (R 'L /Rs )]Rs
Equating the coefficients of the s2 terms in Eqs. (7.61) and (7.62) gives
P 2 =
C gs + C gd (1 + gm R 'L ) + C gd (R 'L /Rs )
C gsC gd R 'L
g
For gmRL >> 1 and RL < Rs , P 2 m which shows that P2 is very high.
C gs
7-50
25
The Common-Base, Common-Gate,

And Cascode Configuration
7-51
Analysis of the Common-Base Amplifier

z A CB amplifier stage
Vs and Rs represent the Thvenin

equivalent of the circuit at the input side,
including the output circuit of the preceding
amplifier stage (if any) and the bias
network of the transistor Q (if any).
RL represents the total resistance between

the drain (the collector) and signal ground.
7-52
26
z Equivalent circuit of CB amplifier
Ve = V
1
I e = V + sC gmV = Ve + gm + sC
r
r

Ie
1
1
= + gm + sC = + sC
Ve r
re
(the input admittance looking into the emitter)
7-53
z Simplified version of the equivalent circuit of CB amplifier
The most important feature of the CB configuration: the absence of an internal

feedback capacitance. C has one terminal grounded, and no Miller effect is
presented (Unlike the CE circuit).
The upper cutoff frequency is much higher than that of the CE configuration.
The high-frequency poles:
1
At the input side, P 1 =
C (re Rs )
Since re is very small, the frequency P1 is quite high.
1
At the output side, P 2 =
C RL
Since C is quite small, the frequency P2 is also quite high.
1
1
and P 2 =
For a CG amplifier, P 1 =
C gs (Rs 1/ gm )
C gd R2
7-54
27
The Cascode Configuration

z A cascode amplifier using BJTs
Q1 is connected in the CE configuration:
high input resistance to the signal source
The collector signal current of Q1 is fed to the
emitter of Q2, which is connected in CB
configuration (the base is at signal ground).
The low load resistance seen by Q1 reduces the
Miller multiplier effect C1 and thus extend the
upper cutoff frequency.
this is achieved without reducing the midband
gain, since the collector of Q2 carry a current
almost equal to the collector current of Q1.
Q2 does not suffer from the Miller effect and
hence does not limit the high-frequency response.
Q2 acts as a current buffer or an impedance
transformer, faithfully passing on the signal
current to the load while presenting a low
resistance to the amplifying device Q1.
7-55
z High-frequency analysis of the cascode amplifier

(To simplify the analysis, rx2 and ro2 are not included.)
Reduce the circuit to the left of xx to Vs and Rs

(Thevenins theorem)
r 1
V 's = Vs
r 1 + rx1 + Rs
R 's = r 1 (rx1 + Rs )
7-56
28
r 2 1/ gm 2 = re 2
n Since re2 << ro1, we see that between C1 and ground the total resistance is re2 || ro1 re2
1
We have 2 =
which is much higher than the frequency of the pole that
T 2
C 2re 2
arises due to the interaction of Rs and the input capacitance of Q1.
o Ignore C2 ; Vc1 gm1V1re2 V1 ; The gain between B1 and C1 is approximately 1.
Thus by Miller theorem, C1 (B1 and C1) 2C1 (B1 and ground) , 2C1 (C1 and ground)
Due to RC low-pass circuit, 1 =
where Rs is large.
1
R 's (C 1 + 2C 1 )
1 < 2
p The pole at the output
3 =
1
C 2R L
In this case the input produces a dominant high-frequency pole, H 1.
1 =
1
R 's (C 1 + 2C 1 )
7-57
2 =
1
T 2
C 2re 2
q Determine the midband gain: AM =
3 =
1
C 2R L
Vo
r
= gm R L
Vs
r + rx + Rs
which is identical the gain of a CE circuit.

r Because of the active load, RL is usually very large, causing the pole at the output to
1
dominate. 3 =
(the dominant pole) C L : output capacitive load
(C 2 + C L )R L
7-58
29
Frequency Response Of The Emitter

And Source Followers
7-59
High-Frequency Analysis of the Emitter Follower

RS: Source resistance
RE: The combination of emitter-biasing
resistance and load resistance
High-frequency equivalent circuit:
Transfer function:
Vo (s )
1 + s / z
= AM
(1 + s /P 1 )(1 + s /P 2 )
Vs (s )
It do not reveal whether or not one of the
poles is dominant.
z Determine zeroes:
1
+ sC
Vo = (gm + y )V RE where y =
Vo = 0 : n V = 0 z = 0 or y = sZ =
1
o gm + y = 0 gm + + sZ C = 0
r
7-60
sZ =
1
gm + 1/r
=
T
C
C re
30
Since the frequency of the zero is quite high, it will normally play a minor
role in determining the high-frequency response of the emitter follower.
z Determine the dominant pole:
Which is the dominant pole? It depends on the values of Rs and RE.
In most applications Rs is large, and it together with the input capacitance
provides a dominant pole.
Z eq
Vo
(g + y )RE
= m
yV
y
The total impedance between B and ground:

Zb' =
1
1 + gm RE
+ RE
+ Z eq =
y
y
7-61
1
(1 + gm RE )
Z b ' = (1 + gm RE ) r
+ RE
+ RE = (1 + gm RE )r
sC
sC
(1 + gm RE )
Q (1 + gm R E )r
>> R E
sC
From this STC circuit, a pole exists at P =
Z b ' (1 + gm RE )r
(1 + gm RE )
sC
C
C +
[R 's (1 + gm RE )r ]
1 + gm RE
This pole is usually dominant, its frequency is normally quite high, giving the
emitter follower a wide bandwidth.
7-62
31
High-Frequency Analysis of the Source Follower
z Similarly, the results of the emitter follower can be applied to the case of an
FET by replace Rs with Rs , r with , C with Cgd , and C with Cgs .
The dominant pole
P =
C gd
1
C gs
Rs
+
1 + gm R L
7-63
The Common-Collector Common-Emitter Cascade
7-64
32
The Common-Collector Common-Emitter Cascade Amplifier
B2
z CC-CE cascade amplifier:

The voltage gain is provided by CE transistor Q2.
This transistor suffers from the Miller effect; that is, the total effective
capacitance between B2 and ground is large.
The resistance seen by B2 is small because of the low output resistance
of the emitter follower Q1.
Although Miller multiplication occurs, the resulting large capacitance is
isolated from the source resistance by an emitter follower.
We can obtain both gain and wide bandwidth by using a cascade of CC-CE
cascade stage.
7-65
Example: A capacitively coupled amplifier designed as the cascade of

CC-CE stage.
Assume that the transistors used have = 100, fT = 400MHz, and C = 2pF, and neglect rx
and ro. We wish to evaluate the midband gain and the high-frequency response of this circuit.
Solution:
n Determine the dc bias:
4.3V
= 1mA
VB1 5V, VE1 = 5 0.7 = 4.3V, I E1 =
4.3K
3.6V
VE 2 = 4.3 0.7 = 3.6V, I E 2 =
= 1mA, I C 2 = I E = 1mA
3.6K
o Determine the equivalent components:
I
1mA
gm = C =
= 40mA /V
VT 0.025 V
r = h fe / gm = 100 / 40 = 2.5K
re =
gm
C + C =
1
= 25
40mA /V
gm
40
2f T
40
= 15.9PF
2 400 106
C = 2pF
=
C = 15.9 2 = 13.9pF
7-66
33
V0 V0 Ve1 Vb1
=
VS Ve1 Vb1 VS
Q Ve1 = ie1 (RE 1 r 2 ) = ( 1 + 1)ib1 (R E1 r 2 )
Rin = R1 R2 {( 1 + 1)[re1 + (RE1 r 2 )]} = 38K
Vb1 = ( 1 + 1)[re1 + (R E 1 r 2 )]ib1
V
Rin
Q1 : b1 =
= 0.9
(R E1 r 2 )
V
VS
Rin + RS
e1 =
Vb1 (RE 1 r 2 ) + re1
(RE 1 r 2 )
Ve1
=
= 0.98 LL The gain of Q1(CC)
Vb1 (R E1 r 2 ) + re1
V0 = gm 2Vb 2 (RC R L )
V0
V
= 0 = gm 2 (RC R L ) = 80 LL The gain of Q2 (CE )
V0
Ve1 Vb 2
= gm 2 (RC R L )
Vb 2
V
V V V
0 = 0 e1 b1 = (80) (0.98) (0.9) = 70.6 V /V
VS Ve1 Vb1 VS
p Determine the midband gain:
q High-frequency response:
VC 2 = gm 2V 2R 'L
and Vb 2 = V 2
K =
VC 2
= gm 2R L '
Vb 2
Apply Millers theorem

CT = C 2 + C 2 (1 + gm 2R 'L )
R 'L = RC RL
7-67
R 'S = RS R1 R2
V 'S =
R1 R 2
VS
(R1 R2 ) + RS
CT = C 2 + C 2 (1 + gm 2R 'L )
R 'L = RC R L
(a) C1 sees a resistance R1 = Rs || Rin = 4 || 38 = 3.62 k

(b) C1 sees a resistance R 1 = r 1
(c) CT sees a resistance
R 's +(RE 2 + r 2 )
= 80
1 + gm (RE 2 + r 2 )
RT = R 'E 1
r 2 + R 's
= 59
1 + 1
(d) C2 sees a resistance RL = RL || RC = 2 k

The effective time constant = C 1R 1 + C 1R 1 + CT RT + C 2R 'L = 22.7nsec
Upper 3 dB freq.
7-68
fH
1
= 7MHZ
2
34
Frequency Response Of The Differential Amplifier
7-69
Variation of the Differential Gain with Frequency

z A symmetrical excited differential pair
Equivalent half-circuit
n Low-frequency differential gain

Ao =
r
Vo
r
gm RC
gm (RC ro )
=
r + Rs / 2
Vs
r + (Rs / 2 + rx )
o High-frequency response is dominated by a real pole

P =
1
[(Rs / 2) r ][C + C (1 + gm RC )]
7-70
35
Ao
Vo
=
Vs 1 + s /P
The 3-dB frequency H = P .
p Transfer function
z Frequency response of the differential amplifier:
z Note that the common-emitter amplifier has the dominant pole due to the
Miller effect, a nondominant pole and a zero.
7-71
Effect of Emitter Resistance on the Frequency Response

Equivalent half-circuit
z Low-frequency differential gain

Ao
( + 1)(re + RE )
RC
Vo
=
Vs
Rs / 2 + rx + ( + 1)(re + RE ) RE + re
7-72
36
z High-frequency equivalent circuit of the half-circuit:
z Since it is not convenient to apply

Millers theorem, the technique of
open-circuit time constant is used.
n Determine R (Vs = 0, C = 0)
(1) I RE = gmV +
V
I
r
(2) VR 'S = V + VRE = V + I RE R E = V + (gmV +

(3) I R 'S =
(4) I =
(5) I (
VR 'S
R 'S
V
+ I R 'S
r
V
V + gmV RE + r RE IRE
IR
V
1
V
V + gmV R E +
R E E
=
+
r R 'S
r
R 'S
1
R 'S
7-73
1
R 'S +R E
g R
RE
1
) = V +
+ m E +
R 'S
R 'S
R 'S r
r R 'S
V
I )RE
r
V R 'S +RE
1 + gm R E
=
+ V
R 'S
R 'S
r
1
1 1 + gm RE
I
=
= +
V R r
R 'S +RE
R = r
R 'S +RE
1 + gm RE
o Determine R (Vs = 0, C = 0)
(1) I RE = gmV +
V
1
1
= gm + V = V
r
r
re
(2) V + = VR 'S = V + VE = V + I RE RE = V +
(3) I R 'S =
(4) I =
VR 'S
R 'S
RE
V
re
R
1
V 1 + E
R 'S
re
V
1
V
R
V 1 + E
+ I R 'S = +
r
r RS '
re
1
1
RE
= V +
1 + r
'
r
R
S
e
7-74
37
1
1
(5) VC = V = (I + gmV )RC = V +
r R 'S
R
1 + E + gm RC
re
1
RE
= V +
1 + r + gm RC
'
r
R
S
e
e
(6) V = V + V = (2) (5) = V +
V (6)
(7) R = =
=
I (4)
1+
1
RE
R
1 + E + gm RC
V + V +
re
re
re R 'S
RE 1
R
1
R
1 + E RC + gm RC
+ +
1 + E + gm RC
re
re
re
re R 'S
L(7.100 )
= RC +
RE
1
1
1
1
R
1 +
1 + E
+
+
r R 'S
re
r R 'S
re
p The effective time constant = C R + C R

1
and the 3-dB frequency H .
z Summary:
The use of emitter-degeneration resistors results in an increase in H.
The gain-bandwidth product produce remains constant. (Q the lowfrequency gain decreases)
Trade-off between gain and bandwidth through the appropriate selection of RE.
7-75
Variation of the CMRR with Frequency

z Equivalent common-mode half-circuit
R is the output resistance and

C is the output capacitance of
the bias current source.
The components 2R and C/2 introduce a zero in the common-mode gain

function.
1
1
fZ =
=
2 (2R )(C / 2) 2RC
Since R is very large, even a very small output capacitance C results in fZ
having a relatively low value.
7-76
38
z Frequency response
CMRR 20 log
Ad
Acm
Ad : Differential Gain
Acm : Common-Mode Gain
Description:
The CM gain falls off at high frequencies
because of the internal capacitances C
and C and because of the pole created
by C/2.
CMRR of a differential amplifier falls off
at high frequencies due to the increase
of the CM gain with frequency.
7-77
The Differential Pair as a Wideband Amplifier

z The common-collector common-base configuration
Q1 acts as an input buffer while Q2 provides the voltage gain.

The CC stage (Q1): The collector of Q1 is at signal ground, and thus C1 does not
experience the Miller effect. Bandwidth q.
The CB stage (Q2): C has one terminal grounded, and no Miller effect is presented.
Bandwidth q.
Unfortunately, Rs , being in the base circuit of only one of the two transistor,
introduces dc imbalance and dc offset voltage.
7-78
39
z The common-drain common-gate configuration
Here the zero dc gate currents make the circuit immune to dc imbalances
caused by Rs. Some dc imbalance still exists due to the difference in dc
voltages at the drains.
7-79
z Low-frequency voltage gain
Q1: ie =
vb1
v
= b1
re1 + re 2 2re
V
Q re1 = re 2 = re = T
I /2
vb1
2re
vb1
v 0 = iC 2RC =
RC
2re
Q2: iC 2 = ie =
v 0 RC
=
vb1
2re
vb1
2r
2re ( + 1)
=
=
vS
RS + 2r RS + 2re ( + 1)
and
RC
v 0 v 0 vb1 RC
2re ( + 1)
=
=
vS v b1 vS
2re RS + 2re ( + 1) 2re + RS /( + 1)
7-80
40
z High-frequency response
Equivalent circuit (ignore rx and ro):
At node E (E1, E2):

V
V
gmV 1 + 1 + sCV 1 + gmV 2 + 2 + sCV 2 = 0
r
r
V 1 = V 2
Simplified equivalent circuit: V = V 1 = V 2
Input side:
C
+ C
2
1
1
1
=
=
2 RC 2
C
(RS 2r )
+ C
2
R = RS 2r
f P1
C=
Output side:
R = RC
fP2 =
7-81
C = C
1
1
=
2RC 2RCC
z A differential amplifier utilizing a cascade of a CC stage and a CB stage
CC stage: Q1 and Q4
CB stage: Q2 and Q3
Equivalent half-circuit:
V 2r
Vb1 = S
2 RS + 2r
V
ie1 = ie 2 = b1
2re
R V
2r
V0
= iC 2RC = ie 2RC =
Vb1 = C S
2
2re
2re 2 RS + 2r
V0 re ( + 1)RC
RC
=
=
RS
VS
re (RS + 2r )
+ 2re
+1
7-82
41

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Microelectronic Circuits - 2003

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Complex Frequency Domain T (s ) =

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Poles and Zeros

where am is a multiplicative constant (the coefficient of sm in the numerator),

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

z High-pass transfer function

z First-order transfer function of the general form

where 0 is the location of the real pole. (pole frequency)

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

20 log T ( j ) = 20 log am + 20 log Z12 + 2 + 20 log Z 22 + 2 + L + 20 log Z n2 + 2

Bode plot is a technique to obtain an approximate plot the magnitude and

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Bode plot for the typical magnitude term:

Slope = 20dB/decade = 6dB/octave

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Bode plot for a pole:

For a = 0, a pole or a zero at s = 0, the plot is simply a straight line of 6dB/octave

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Bode plot for the typical phase term: (a < 0 )

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Bode plot for a pole:

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Example: Bode plots

The amplifier Transfer Function

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

(b) Frequency response for a capacitively

Three frequency bands [as shown in Fig.(b)]:

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

The Gain Function A(s)

In the midband, for L << << H ,

In the low-frequency band, AL(s) AM FL(s)

How to determine the gain function?

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

The three-frequency bands that characterize the frequency response of

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

The Low-Frequency Response

(s + Z 1 )(s + Z 2 )L(s + ZnL )

which is the transfer function of a 1st-order high-pass network.

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

o If a dominant low-frequency pole does not exist, an approximate formula can

By definition, at = L , |FL |2 = , and thus

1 ( L2 + Z21 )( L2 + Z2 2 ) 1 + (1/ L2 )( Z21 + Z2 2 ) + (1/ L4 )( Z21 Z2 2 )

The formula for L is L P21 + P22 + L 2 Z21 2 Z2 2 L

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

L = 1002 + 252 2 102

p The exact value of can be

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

The High-Frequency Response

(1 + s / Z 1 )(1 + s / Z 2 )L(1 + s / ZnH )

which is the transfer function of a 1st - order low - pass network.

o An approximate formula for H in terms of the high-frequency poles and

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

n We find that a dominant-pole

108 16 108 1010

Ching-Yuan Yang / EE, NCHU

Using Open-Circuit Time Constants for the Approximate

The high-frequency response:

b1 can be obtained by considering the various capacitances in the high-frequency