Module 9

Riemann Zeta Function

9.1

Lecture 1

Preamble: In this lecture, we will introduce the Riemann Zeta Function. The theory of
innite series and results from real and complex analysis will also be used in this module.

Keywords: Riemann Zeta Function, Euler product, Bernoulli number

9.1.1

Riemann Zeta Function

Recall that an innite series is an innite sum of the form

an = a 0 + a1 + a2 + ,

n=1

where ai s are complex numbers. One of the most familiar innite series is the harmonic
series, dened as


1 1 1
1
= 1 + + + + .
n
2 3 4
n=1

Riemann considered a more general series, where the terms

s is a variable that takes complex values:


1
1
1
1
= 1 + s + s + s + .
s
n
2
3
4

1
n

is replaced by

1
ns ,

where

(9.1)

n=1

We will show that the above series converges absolutely for all complex values s with
real part Re(s) > 1. Thus, the series represents an analytic function for Re(s) > 1. This
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MODULE 9. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

Lecture 1

function can be extended to the whole complex plane (i.e., for Re(s) 1). The extended
function is analytic everywhere except at s = 1, where it has a simple pole of residue 1.
This function is known as the Riemann Zeta Function, and is denoted by (s). Thus,
the Riemann Zeta Function can be dened as the function
(s) = 1 +

1
1
1
+ s + s +
s
2
3
4

when Re(s) > 1. For Re(s) 1, (s) is not dened by the series, but by its meromorphic
continuation. Riemann discovered many interesting properties of this function in the
later half of the nineteenth century. Much before Riemann, Euler had studied this
function and obtained various signicant results.

9.1.2

Convergence

PROPOSITION 9.1. The innite series

1+

1
1
1
+ s + s +
s
2
3
4

converges absolutely for all complex values of s with Re(s) > 1.

Proof: Let s be a complex number with real part r and imaginary part t, i.e., s = r + it.
Observe that for any real number t,
nit = eloge (n

it )

= eit loge n
= cos(t loge n) + i sin(t loge n)
= | nit | = cos2 (t loge n) + sin2 (t loge n) = 1.
Therefore,
|

1
1
1
|=
= r.
s
r
it
n
| n || n |
n

It suces to show the sequence Sn of partial sums of the series

1+

1
1
1
+ r + r +
r
2
3
4

converges for r > 1. Since the above series consists of positive real terms, it is enough
to show that the subsequence S2n 1 of partial sums is convergent, where
S2n 1 = 1 +

1
1
1
1
+ r + r + + n
.
2r
3
4
(2 1)r
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MODULE 9. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

Now,

 
1
1
1
1
1
+
+ r+ r+ r+
2r
3r
4
5
6

 
1
1
1
1
1
< 1+ r + r + r + r + r +
2
2
4
4
4
n1
2
4
2
= 1 + r + r + + n1 r
2
4
(2
)
1
1
1
= 1 + r1 + r1 + n1 r1
2
4
(2
)

S2n 1 = 1 +

Lecture 1




1
1
1
+

+
+

+
7r
(2n1 )r
(2n 1)r



1
1
1
+ + n1 r
+ +
4r
(2n1 )r
(2
)

The sum on the right is the sequence of partial sums of a geometric series with common
1
ratio 2r1
, and the geometric series converges for r > 1. Hence the subsequence S2n 1
of partial sums is convergent. We can conclude that the series in the theorem converges
absolutely for Re(s) > 1.

When s is a real number less than 1, it is easy to see that the series (9.2) diverges.
PROPOSITION 9.2. Let r be a real number with r 1. Then the series


1
1
1
1
= 1 + r + r + r +
nr
2
3
4

n=1

diverges.
Proof: If r 0, the n-th term of the above series is n1r 1, and hence the n-th term does
not approach 0 as n approach innity. Hence the series clearly diverges for r 0. Since
the given series is a series of positive terms, it is enough to show that the subsequence
S2n1 of partial sums given by
S2n1 = 1 +

1
1
1
1
+ r + r + + n r.
r
2
3
4
(2 )

diverges. Now, noting that n1r n1 for r 1,


 



1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
n
S2 = 1 + r + r + r + r + r + r + r + +
+ + n r
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(2n1 + 1)r
(2 )


 


1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1
+
+ + +
> 1+ +
+
+ + n + + n
2
4 4
8 8 8 8
2
2
n1
1 2
2
= 1 + + + n
2 4
2
n
.
=
2
Hence, the given series diverges for real numbers r 1.
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MODULE 9. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

9.1.3

Lecture 1

Euler Product

It was Euler who studied the series (9.2) much before Riemann. He found that the
series can also be expressed as an innite product of factors, one for each prime p. The
expression is known as the Euler product.
THEOREM 9.3. For Re(s) > 1,

(s) =
p

1
1  
s
=
1

p
.
1 ps
p

Proof: First observe that

1
1
1
= 1 + s + 2s + ,
s
1p
p
p
where the RHS is an innite geometric series with common ration ps , and the series
converges absolutely as | ps | = pRe(s) < 1. Let {p1 , , pk } be the rst k primes,
and
k 
k


1  
1
1
Pk (s) =
=
1
+
+
+

.
s
2s
psi
p
1

p
i
i
i=1
i=1
We have to show that Pk (s) approaches (s) as k approaches innity. By the fundamental
theorem of arithmetic, any natural number can be uniquely written as a product of prime
powers. Let Nk = {pe11 pekk | ei 0} be the set of natural numbers which can be
written as a product of power of the rst k primes. Then we have
k 
 
 1

1
1
1
1 + s + 2s + =
.
Pk (s) =
ek s =
e1
pi
(p1 pk )
ns
pi
i=1

ei 0

Now, n  Nk implies n > pk .

| Pk (s) (s) |

= | (s)

nNk

 1
|
ns

nNk

 1
= |
|
ns
nNk

 1
|
s
n
n>pk
 1
|
= | (s)
ns
n>p

As we have already seen that the series (9.2) converges absolutely to (s) for Re(s) > 1,
we must have the RHS above converge to 0 as k approaches innity, hence
lim Pk (s) = (s).

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MODULE 9. RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

9.1.4

Lecture 1

Riemann Hypothesis


s is analytic in the region Re(s) >
The function (s) dened by the innite series
n=1 n
1 as we have shown. But it can be extended to the whole complex plane. The extended
function satises the following relation involving the values at s and 1 s:
 s 
(s),
(1 s) = 2(2)s (s) cos
2
where the (s) denotes the meromorphic continuation of the usual Gamma function
dened by the improper integral

(s) =
xs1 ex dx,
Re(s) > 1.
0

It is clear from the above relation that (2k) = 0 for k = 1, 2, 3, . These are
known as the trivial zeros of the Riemann Zeta Function. In 1859, Riemann conjectured
that all the other zeros of (the extended) (s) lies on the line Re(s) = 12 . This conjecture
is famously known as the Riemann Hypothesis, and is recognized as one of the seven
Milennium problems with a million dollar prize-tag.

It is noteworthy that if we normalize (s) as

(s) =

s
2

s

(s),

then we have
(s) = (1 s),
which is referred to as the functional equation for the Riemann Zeta Function. The
values of the zeta function at even positive integers turn out to be a rational multiple of
2k . More precisely,
(2k) = (1)k+1

(2)2k B2k
,
2 (2k)!

k = 1, 2,

where Bn denotes the n-th Bernoulli number, dened as the coecient of z n in

 Bn
z
=
zn.
ez 1
n!
n=0

For example, we can easily compute that B2 =

4
(4) = 90 .

190

1
4

1
and B4 = 30
. Hence, (2) =

2
6

and