Cottrell, Jason

Spectral Lines and the Properties of Stars

In 1835, a well-known French philosopher, Auguste Comte, claimed that the
chemical composition of stars would never be known.1 However, since the late 20th
century, astrophysicists have been able to calculate not only the composition of stars, but
also the temperature, spin direction, and velocity through space. Not only was Comtes
dictum strongly refuted with this new understanding of the nature of stars, but the grandeur
of God was illuminate. Despite modern culture seeking to suppress God in dictating that
science is the only thing which can be trustworthy, Christians are further able to prove the
existence of God through science as time progresses. By focusing on the pure nature of
light and how it interacts with atoms, mankind has been able to understand distant stars. In
a similar manner, Christians continuously strive for God and are able to know him more
fully when observed through his word. In Genesis 1:16, Gods great power is seen in his
creation of the world and all it contains, as well as his creation of the stars. In this act, God
expresses that he is the true God and that all people should rely on him, realizing that
science is the mere illumination of the greatness of God.
Working in the 1850s, Gustav Kirchoff discovered that there are three different
types of spectra that can be produced when light interacts with matter.2 The first category
of spectra is called the continuous spectrum and is what humans regard as white light. By
using a prism to split the light into its wavelengths, it can be seen that this spectrum occurs
when all the colors blend together to create a perfect rainbow. The second is an emission
spectrum, which only shows particular bright lines or wavelength. The third observed type
is the absorption spectrum, which appears to be a continuous spectrum with the omission of
particular discrete wavelength values seen as dark lines. The principle that dictates which
type of spectrum is produced was first understood by Kirchoff. His explanation, now
formed into three laws, is fundamental in understanding spectroscopy.
Kirchhoffs first law states that a hot solid, liquid or gas produces a continuous
spectrum. This looks like a complete arrangement of all observable and unobservable
colors. An example of this is an incandescent light bulb, which heats the dense tungsten in
the core to excite the atoms, thus producing a continuous spectrum of light. Therefore,
when a continuous spectrum is passed through a prism, a complete rainbow of colors is
seen.
Kirchhoffs second law states that an emission spectrum occurs in thin, hot gases.
The appearance of an emission line spectrum looks like particular wavelengths of color
juxtaposed onto a black background. An example of this would be a neon sign which only
emits photons from its excited state in discrete values of energy. Because atoms of each
element are different, they react differently to applied energy, producing different specific
wavelengths of light.
1 Harrison, George Russell., John R. Loofbourow, and Richard C. Lord. Practical Spectroscopy. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1959. Print.

2 Herzberg, Gerhard, and J. W. T. Spinks. Atomic Spectra and Atomic Structure. London: Blackie
& Son, 1937. Print.

Kirchhoffs third law is a combination of his first and second, and is the most
important because it directly correlates to the subject of emission lines seen from stars. An
absorption line spectrum looks like a continuous spectrum with dark spectral lines
interspersed throughout it. In order to get an emission line spectrum, continuous light
produced from a hot dense object must pass through gas. It is important to note that for
any particular gas, the absorption lines will be the same wavelength values as that of its
emission spectrum.

It turns out that stars always have an absorption line spectrum. This is because even
though the interior of the star is hot and dense, the exterior consists of a lower density,
cooler gas.3 So, the continuous light that is produced inside of a star has to filter up through
the outer layers, thus producing an absorption spectrum of light. In order to understand
this more deeply it is essential to learn very briefly the makeup of atoms on a quantum
level.
As is commonly known, the composition of an atom is a conglomeration of
electrons, neutrons and protons. While neutrons and protons remain at the core of an atom,
the electrons are found in orbitals outside the nucleus. Electrons play a critical role in
spectroscopy because their behavior when absorbing or releasing energy in the form of
photons is what ultimately generates light. In atoms with multiple electrons, the electron
nearest the core or nucleus is the one with the least amount of energy and the outer
electron, called a valence electron is the electron with the highest energy level. It is also
known, by the Pauli Exclusion Principle, that electrons cannot have the same four quantum
numbers. This means that electrons are forced to occupy higher energy states if there are
already electrons occupying the lower states. However, this does not limit the electrons
possibilities of jumping to higher, unoccupied energy states. Electrons are always
absorbing photons and remitting them in different wavelengths which is the light we see.
But, there are a few rules that govern when an electron can completely absorb a photon.
The possible ways a valence electron reacts to a photon depends upon the energy of
the photon striking it. If an electron is bombarded by a high energy photon the valence
3 Kirkbright, G. F., and M. Sargent. "Flames." Atomic Absorption and Fluorescence Spectroscopy.
London: Academic, 1974. 197-203. Print.

electron will be completely removed, thereby ionizing the atom. The ionization energy of
an atom is what determines the possibility of electrons escaping. The higher the ionization
energy, the more difficult it is to remove electrons from the atom. The next possibility is for
there to be no reaction between electron and photon. This occurs when a photon has
insufficient energy the electron needs to transition states. Thus, only a certain photon with
an exact amount of energy can excite a unique atoms electron from one energy state to the
next. In addition, because a photons energy level corresponds to its wavelength, only
precisely matched wavelengths of light will be absorbed by particular atoms.4
An electrons ability to absorb and emit photons is what produces specific
wavelengths of light. Initially, the whole science world believed that the composition of
stars was possible through pure analysis of the spectral lines emitted from a star. Even
though this is true, in 1925, Cecilia Payne proved that absorption strength did not directly
correlate with the most abundant elements within a star as was previously believed.5
Instead, Payne demonstrated that because of the quantum energy states of atoms, not all
elements within the solar atmosphere of a star would emit photons. Atoms only become
excited with specific photons and so each star would need a large range of intensity
radiating off of it in order to have each atom in the stratosphere react and be observed. This
means that, because stars lack the full spectrum of radiation, there are gases within its
atmospheres which are impossible to be observed because the photons coming off the core
failed to excite any electrons within the specific atoms. To correct this historic
misconception, Payne took the spectroscopy from multiple stars with different
temperatures. Her end result showed that hydrogen comprised most of the stars core which
was at the time highly controversial. Thus, a stars emission of absorption spectrum shows
not only the temperature of a star but also the chemical properties of the atmosphere
surrounding it.
In spectroscopy, humans look at the nature of light and how it interacts with atoms.
Even with so simple a method and only light used as the data source, it is a true feat that
mankind developed such a method of understanding stars from such a distance. This
directly shows the complexity and greatness of the God of the universe, not only in himself
but also in his creation. With the sense knowledge, Christians are given a sense of
responsibility to learn more about God through his creation so it comes as no surprise why
he should be most glorified in everything. When King David proclaims the goodness of
God from just an analysis of creation it should remind humans to be humble and ever
waiting to learn more about God. Yet, despite these truths proclaimed everywhere, it is sad
to see the brokenness of our culture and the depravity of mankind. Gods greatest creation,
mankind, would rather rely on the answers given by nature rather than God.
In Deuteronomy 4:19, Moses warns the people of Israel to be on their guard against
the susceptibility to look towards the stars and bow down to them. This carries over into
todays culture because as mankind makes great advancements in science, there is a strong
tendency to become more reliant upon it while forgetting God. The ways in which
4 Maoz, Dan. Astrophysics in a Nutshell. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2007. Print.
5 Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia. Introduction. Stellar Atmospheres; a Contribution to the
Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars. Cambridge, MA:
Observatory, 1925. N. pag. Print.

Christians can influence the science community for Christ are boundless. As science
continues to delve deeper into understanding nature, the existence of God begins to become
overwhelming. Not only because humans have the capability to think rationally apart from
all other being, but from sheer evidence of the complexity of creation alone. And, as
science progresses, Christians are repetitively given stronger evidence for God, yet we fail
in many ways to take full advantage of this opportunity. However, it is comforting to know
that when I fail to glorify God, he continuous to pour out his grace upon my life.