Welding and joining processes

Process terminology
The European standard, BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied processes Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers, assigns a unique number to the main
welding processes. These are grouped as follows:

Arc welding
Resistance welding
Gas welding
Forge welding
Other welding processes
Brazing, soldering and braze welding

Each process is identified within the group by a numerical index or reference number.
For example, the MIG welding process has a reference number of 131 which is derived as
follows:

1 - Arc welding
3 - Gas-shielded metal arc welding
1 - Metal arc inert gas welding

The main arc welding process reference numbers are:

111 MMA with covered electrodes

114 Flux cored wire (self-shielded)
112 Submerged arc
131 MIG (inert gas)
135 MAG (CO 2, active gas)
141 TIG
15 Plasma welding

The reference numbers are used as a convenient way of identifying the welding process
in documentation such as welding procedure (EN 288) and welder qualification (EN 287)
records.

Process options
Factors which must be taken into account when choosing a suitable welding or joining
process are:

material type
plate or tubular
quality and strength requirements

degree of mechanization
capital cost

Although consideration of these factors will identify the most suitable welding process,
the choice within a company may be restricted by the cost of implementing a new
process, availability of plant or current workforce skill. Welding and joining processes
available to the welding engineer can be separated into the following generic types:

Fusion
arc
gas
power beam
resistance
Thermomechanical
o friction
o flash
o explosive
Mechanical
o fasteners
Solid state
o adhesive
o soldering
o brazing
o
o
o
o

The suitability of the processes for welding and joining materials, joint types and
components are shown in Table 1.

Process

Index
no.

Steel

Stainless

Al

Butt
joint

Lap
joint

Plate

Tube

Portability

Manual

Mechanised
Automated

Site

Arc

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Gas

Yes

Possible

Possible

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Laser

52

Yes

Yes

Possible

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Resistance

Yes

Yes

Yes

Possible

Yes

Yes

Possible

Possible

Yes

Yes

No

Friction

42

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No

Brazing

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Possible

Yes

Yes

Possible

Yes

Fasteners

none

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Possible

Yes

Yes

Yes

Adhesives

none

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Possible

Yes

In selecting a suitable process, consideration must also be given to the type of

application, for example, the portability of equipment, whether it can be used on site,
whether it is manual or mechanized, and the overall cost of the welding plant.

Fusion welding processes

When welding using a fusion process, the edges of a component are melted together to
form weld metal.
Process

Parent
Deposition
metal
rate Kg/hr
thickness mm

Heat source

Shield

MMA

Arc

Gas/flux 1-100

1-2

MIG

Arc

Gas

0.5-100

1-8

TIG

Arc

Gas

0.1-100

1-4

SAW

Arc

Flux

5-100

5-20

ES/EG

Resistance/arc Gas/flux 5-100

Stud

Arc

4-20

Flame

Gas

0.6-10

1-2

Arc

Gas
Oxyfuel

Power beam
Laser

Radiation

Gas

0.2-100

EB

Electrogas

Vacuum 0.2-100

0.2-10

Gas

10-100

Resistance
Spot/Seam Arc
Thermit
Thermit

Chemical

Table 2 shows heat source, mode of shielding, thickness range and metal deposition rates
for a range of fusion processes. Although fusion welding is one of the simplest joining
techniques, problems likely to occur include porosity in the weld metal, and cracking in
either the weld or heat affected zone (HAZ). Porosity is avoided by ensuring adequate
shielding of the weld pool and, for materials such as aluminum, the addition of filler wire.
Consideration of the joint design and the chemistry of the weld metal will prevent weld
metal cracking. HAZ cracking which might be caused by hydrogen, is avoided by using
low hydrogen consumables (MMA) and controlling the heat input and the rate of cooling
of the parent metal.

The Manual Metal Arc

process
Manual metal arc welding was first invented in Russia
in 1888. It involved a bare metal rod with no flux
coating to give a protective gas shield. The development
of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s
when the Kjellberg process was invented in Sweden and
the Quasi-arc method was introduced in the UK. It is
worth noting that coated electrodes were slow to be
adopted because of their high cost. However, it was inevitable that as the demand for
sound welds grew, manual metal arc became synonymous with coated electrodes. When
an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and the work piece, both the rod and
work piece surface melt to form a weld pool. Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on
the rod will form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from the surrounding
atmosphere. The slag will solidify and cool and must be chipped off the weld bead once
the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited).
The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode
needs to be inserted in the holder. Weld penetration is low and the quality of the weld
deposit is highly dependent on the skill of the welder.

Types of flux/electrodes
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are
greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode.
Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:

Cellulosic
Rutile
Basic

Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are
characterized by a deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding
speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult. These
electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the 'stovepipe'
welding technique.
Features:

deep penetration in all positions

suitability for vertical down welding
reasonably good mechanical properties

high level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone
(HAZ)

Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating.
Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These
electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can be used
with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are especially
suitable for welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (H/V) position.
Features:

moderate weld metal mechanical properties

good bead profile produced through the viscous slag
positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride)
easily removable slag

Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile
coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and overhead
position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications
where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to
high restraint) are required.
Features:

low hydrogen weld metal

requires high welding currents/speeds
poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile)
slag removal difficult

Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to
increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, for a given electrode size,
the metal deposition rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal deposited) are increased
compared with an electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is
normally easily removed. Iron powder electrodes are mainly used in the flat and H/V
positions to take advantage of the higher deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to
140% can be achieved for rutile and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the
arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration.

Power source
Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can
be operated on AC power sources, however AC electrodes are normally used on DC.

Welding current
Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode
- the normal operating range and current are recommended
by manufacturers. Typical operating ranges for a selection
of electrode sizes are illustrated in the table. As a rule of
thumb when selecting a suitable current level, an electrode
will require about 40A per millimeter (diameter).
Therefore, the preferred current level for a 4mm diameter
electrode would be 160A, but the acceptable operating
range is 140 to 180A.

What's new
Transistor (inverter) technology is now enabling very small and comparatively low
weight power sources to be produced. These power sources are finding increasing use for
site welding where they can be readily transported from job to job. As they are
electronically controlled, add-on units are available for TIG and MIG welding which
increase the flexibility. Electrodes are now available in hermetically sealed containers.
These vacuum packs obviate the need for baking the electrodes immediately prior to use.
However, if a container has been opened or damaged, it is essential that the electrodes are
redried according to the manufacturer's instructions.

The oxyacetylene process

Process features
Oxyacetylene welding, commonly referred to as gas welding, is a process which relies on
combustion of oxygen and acetylene. When mixed together in correct proportions within
a hand-held torch or blowpipe, a relatively hot flame is produced with a temperature of
about 3,200 deg.C. The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by
changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to acetylene.
Three distinct flame settings are used, neutral, oxidizing and carburising.

Neutral flame

Oxidising flame

Carburising flame
Welding is generally carried out using the neutral flame setting which has equal
quantities of oxygen and acetylene. The oxidising flame is obtained by increasing just the
oxygen flow rate while the carburising flame is achieved by increasing acetylene flow in
relation to oxygen flow. Because steel melts at a temperature above 1,500 deg.C, the
mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used as it is the only gas combination with enough
heat to weld steel. However, other gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be
used for joining lower melting point non-ferrous metals, and for brazing and silver
soldering.

Equipment
Oxyacetylene equipment is portable and easy to use. It comprises oxygen and acetylene
gases stored under pressure in steel cylinders. The cylinders are fitted with regulators and
flexible hoses which lead to the blowpipe. Specially designed safety devices such as
flame traps are fitted between the hoses and the cylinder regulators. The flame trap
prevents flames generated by a 'flashback' from reaching the cylinders; principal causes
of flashbacks are the failure to purge the hoses and overheating of the blowpipe nozzle.

When welding, the operator must wear protective clothing and tinted coloured goggles.
As the flame is less intense than an arc and very little UV is emitted, general-purpose
tinted goggles provide sufficient protection.

Operating characteristics
The action of the oxyacetylene flame on the surface of
the material to be welded can be adjusted to produce a
soft, harsh or violent reaction by varying the gas
flows. There are of course practical limits as to the
type of flame which can be used for welding. A harsh
forceful flame will cause the molten weld pool to be
blown away, while too soft a flame will not be stable
near the point of application. The blowpipe is
therefore designed to accommodate different sizes of
'swan neck copper nozzle which allows the correct
intensity of flame to be used. The relationship
between material thickness, blowpipe nozzle size and
welding speed, is shown in the chart. When carrying out
fusion welding the addition of filler metal in the form of
a rod can be made when required. The principal
techniques employed in oxyacetylene welding are
leftward, rightward and all-positional rightward. The
former is used almost exclusively and is ideally suited
for welding butt, fillet and lap joints in sheet thicknesses
up to approximately 5mm. The rightward technique
finds application on plate thicknesses above 5mm for
welding in the flat and horizontal-vertical position. The
all-positional rightward method is a modification of the
rightward technique and is ideally suited for welding steel plate and in particular
pipework where positional welding, (vertical and overhead) has to be carried out. The
rightward and all- positional rightward techniques enable the welder to obtain a uniform
penetration bead with added control over the molten weldpool and weld metal. Moreover,
the welder has a clear view of the weldpool and can work in complete freedom of
movement. These techniques are very highly skilled and are less frequently used than the
conventional leftward technique.

Solid wire MIG welding

Metal inert gas (MIG) welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding
aluminium. The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by
helium gas, readily available at that time. From about 1952 the process became popular in
the UK for welding aluminium using argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels

using CO 2 . CO 2 and argon-CO 2 mixtures are known as metal active gas (MAG)
processes. MIG is an attractive alternative to MMA, offering high deposition rates and
high productivity.

Process characteristics
MIG is similar to MMA in that heat for welding is produced by forming an arc between a
metal electrode and the workpiece; the electrode melts to form the weld bead. The main
differences are that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a spool and an
externally supplied shielding gas is necessary. As the wire is continuously fed, the
process is often referred to as semi-automatic welding.
Metal transfer mode
The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the electrode to the weld pool
largely determines the operating features of the process. There are three principal metal
transfer modes:

Short circuiting
Droplet / spray
Pulsed

Short-circuiting and pulsed metal transfer are used for low current operation while spray
metal transfer is only used with high welding currents. In short-circuiting or'dip' transfer,
the molten metal forming on the tip of the wire is transferred by the wire dipping into the
weld pool. This is achieved by setting a low voltage; for a 1.2mm diameter wire, arc
voltage varies from about 17V (100A) to 22V (200A). Care in setting the voltage and the
inductance in relation to the wire feed speed is essential to minimise spatter. Inductance
is used to control the surge in current which
occurs when the wire dips into the weld pool.
For droplet or spray transfer, a much higher
voltage is necessary to ensure that the wire does
not make contact i.e.short-circuit, with the weld
pool; for a 1.2mm diameter wire, the arc voltage
varies from approximately 27V (250A) to 35V
(400A). The molten metal at the tip of the wire
transfers to the weld pool in the form of a spray
of small droplets (about the diameter of the wire
and smaller). However, there is a minimum
current level, threshold, below which droplets are
not forcibly projected across the arc. If an open arc technique is attempted much below
the threshold current level, the low arc forces would be insufficient to prevent large
droplets forming at the tip of the wire. These droplets would transfer erratically across the
arc under normal gravitational forces. The pulsed mode was developed as a means of
stabilising the open arc at low current levels i.e. below the threshold level, to avoid short-

circuiting and spatter. Metal transfer is achieved by applying pulses of current, each pulse
having sufficient force to detach a droplet. Synergic pulsed MIG refers to a special type
of controller which enables the power source to be tuned (pulse parameters) for the wire
composition and diameter, and the pulse frequency to be set according to the wire feed
speed.

Shielding gas
In addition to general shielding of the arc and the weld pool, the shielding gas performs a
number of important functions:

forms the arc plasma

stabilises the arc roots on the material surface
ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets from the wire to the weld pool

Thus, the shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc and metal
transfer and the behaviour of the weld pool, in particular, its penetration. General purpose
shielding gases for MIG welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and CO 2 , and special
gas mixtures may contain helium. The gases which are normally used for the various
materials are:

steels
CO 2
argon +2 to 5% oxygen
argon +5 to 25% CO 2
non-ferrous
o argon
o argon / helium
o
o
o

Argon based gases, compared with CO 2 , are generally more tolerant to parameter
settings and generate lower spatter levels with the dip transfer mode. However, there is a
greater risk of lack of fusion defects because these gases are colder. As CO 2 cannot be
used in the open arc (pulsed or spray transfer) modes due to high back-plasma forces,
argon based gases containing oxygen or CO 2 are normally employed.

Applications
MIG is widely used in most industry sectors and accounts for more than 50% of all weld
metal deposited. Compared to MMA, MIG has the advantage in terms of flexibility,
deposition rates and suitability for mechanisation. However, it should be noted that while
MIG is ideal for 'squirting' metal, a high degree of manipulative skill is demanded of the
welder.

10

Submerged-arc Welding

The first patent on the submerged-arc welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and
covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated flux. Developed by the E O Paton
Electric Welding Institute, Russia, during the Second World War, SAW's most famous
application was on the T34 tank.

Process features
Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a continuously-fed
bare wire electrode and the workpiece. The process uses a flux to generate protective
gases and slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool. A shielding gas is not
required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder is placed on the workpiece surface.
The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper.
Remaining fused slag layers can be easily removed after welding. As the arc is
completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. This produces a thermal
efficiency as high as 60% (compared with 25% for manual metal arc). There is no visible
arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

11

Operating characteristics

SAW is usually operated as a fully-mechanised or automatic process, but it can be semiautomatic. Welding parameters: current, arc voltage and travel speed all affect bead
shape, depth of penetration and chemical composition of the deposited weld metal.
Because the operator cannot see the weld pool, greater reliance must be placed on
parameter settings.

Process variants
According to material thickness, joint type and size of component, varying the following
can increase deposition rate and improve bead shape.
Wire
SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or DC current. Common
variants are:

twin wire
triple wire
single wire with hot wire addition
metal powder addition

All contribute to improved productivity through a marked increase in weld metal

deposition rates and/or travel speeds.
Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese,
silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such
as calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given
electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical
properties. All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical
composition and mechanical properties. It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active'
if they add manganese and silicon to the weld, the amount of manganese and silicon

12

added is influenced by the arc voltage and the welding current level. The the main types
of flux for SAW are:

Bonded fluxes - produced by drying the ingredients, then bonding them with a
low melting point compound such as a sodium silicate. Most bonded fluxes
contain metallic deoxidisers which help to prevent weld porosity. These fluxes are
effective over rust and mill scale.
Fused fluxes - produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an
electric furnace to form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and ground to
the required particle size. Smooth
stable arcs, with welding currents up to
2000A and consistent weld metal
properties, are the main attraction of
these fluxes.

Applications
SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and
circumferential butt and fillet welds. However,
because of high fluidity of the weld pool,
molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is
generally carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in both the flat and
horizontal-vertical positions. For circumferential joints, the workpiece is rotated under a
fixed welding head with welding taking place in the flat position. Depending on material
thickness, either single-pass, two-pass or multipass weld procedures can be carried out.
There is virtually no restriction on the material thickness, provided a suitable joint
preparation is adopted. Most commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels,
low alloy steels and stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding some nonferrous materials with judicious choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations.

TIG Welding
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining
magnesium and aluminium. Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect the
weldpool, the process was a highly attractive replacement for gas and manual metal arc
welding. TIG has played a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality
welding and structural applications.

Process characteristics
In the TIG process the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the
workpiece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by
the pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding. Because the

13

electrode is not consumed during welding, the welder does not have to balance the heat
input from the arc as the metal is deposited from the melting electrode. When filler metal
is required, it must be added separately to the weldpool.

Power source
TIG must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC or AC.
A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being
drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the workpiece surface. This could
happen either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently during welding. If, as in
MIG welding, a flat characteristic power source is used, any contact with the workpiece
surface would damage the electrode tip or fuse the electrode to the workpiece surface. In
DC, because arc heat is distributed approximately one-third at the cathode (negative) and
two-thirds at the anode (positive), the electrode is always negative polarity to prevent
overheating and melting. However, the alternative power source connection of DC
electrode positive polarity has the advantage in that when the cathode is on the
workpiece, the surface is cleaned of oxide contamination. For this reason, AC is used
when welding materials with a tenacious surface oxide film, such as aluminium.

Arc starting
The welding arc can be started by scratching the surface, forming a short-circuit. It is
only when the short-circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow. However,
there is a risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a tungsten inclusion in
the weld. This risk can be minimised using the 'lift arc' technique where the short-circuit
is formed at a very low current level. The most common way of starting the TIG arc is to
use HF (High Frequency). HF consists of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts
which last for a few microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - workpiece
gap to break down or ionise. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from
the power source.
Note: As HF generates abnormally high electromagnetic emission (EM), welders should
be aware that its use can cause interference especially in electronic equipment. As EM
emission can be airborne, like radio waves, or transmitted along power cables, care must
be taken to avoid interference with control systems and instruments in the vicinity of
welding.
HF is also important in stabilising the AC arc; in AC, electrode polarity is reversed at a
frequency of about 50 times per second, causing the arc to be extinguished at each
polarity change. To ensure that the arc is reignited at each reversal of polarity, HF sparks
are generated across the electrode/workpiece gap to coincide with the beginning of each
half-cycle.

14

Electrodes
Electrodes for DC welding are normally
pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thoria to
improve arc ignition. Alternative additives
are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide
which are claimed to give superior
performance (arc starting and lower
electrode consumption). It is important to
select the correct electrode diameter and
tip angle for the level of welding current.
As a rule, the lower the current the smaller the electrode diameter and tip angle. In AC
welding, as the electrode will be operating at a much higher temperature, tungsten with a
zirconia addition is used to reduce electrode erosion. It should be noted that because of
the large amount of heat generated at the electrode, it is difficult to maintain a pointed tip
and the end of the electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.

Shielding gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. The following
guidelines may help:

Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which can be used for welding a
wide range of materials including steels, stainless steel, aluminium and titanium.
Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas
slightly reducing, assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without
surface oxidation. As the arc is hotter and more constricted, it permits higher
welding speeds. Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon steels
and weld metal porosity in aluminium alloys.
Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise the
temperature of the arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and deeper weld
penetration. Disadvantages of using helium or a helium/argon mixture is the high
cost of gas and difficulty in starting the arc.

Applications
TIG is applied in all industrial sectors but is especially suitable for high quality welding.
In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material or controlled
penetration (in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate can be quite low
(using a separate filler rod) MMA or MIG may be preferable for thicker material and for
fill passes in thick-wall pipe welds.
TIG is also widely applied in mechanised systems either autogenously or with filler wire.
However, several 'off the shelf' systems are available for orbital welding of pipes, used in
the manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The systems require no manipulative skill,
but the operator must be well trained. Because the welder has less control over arc and

15

weldpool behaviour, careful attention must be paid to edge preparation (machined rather
than hand-prepared), joint fit-up and control of welding parameters.

Plasma Welding
Process characteristics
Plasma welding is very similar to TIG as the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten
electrode and the workpiece. However, by positioning the electrode within the body of
the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then
forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc. Three operating modes
can be produced by varying bore diameter and plasma gas flow rate:

Microplasma:
0.1
to
15A.
The microplasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents. The columnar
arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm.

Medium
current:
15
to
200A.
At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the process characteristics of the plasma arc
are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is stiffer.
Although the plasma gas flow rate can be increased to improve weld pool
penetration, there is a risk of air and shielding gas entrainment through excessive
turbulence in the gas shield.

Keyhole
plasma:
over
100A.
By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very powerful plasma beam
is created which can achieve full penetration in a material, as in laser or electron
beam welding. During welding, the hole progressively cuts through the metal with
the molten weld pool flowing behind to form the weld bead under surface tension
forces. This process can be used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless
steel) in a single pass.

Power source
The plasma arc is normally operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power source.
Because its unique operating features are derived from the special torch arrangement and
separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control console can be added on to a
conventional TIG power source. Purpose-built plasma systems are also available. The
plasma arc is not readily stabilised with sine wave AC. Arc reignition is difficult when
there is a long electrode to workpiece distance and the plasma is constricted, Moreover,
excessive heating of the electrode during the positive half-cycle causes balling of the tip
which can disturb arc stability.

16

Special-purpose switched DC power sources are available. By imbalancing the waveform

to reduce the duration of electrode positive polarity, the electrode is kept sufficiently cool
to maintain a pointed tip and achieve arc stability.

Arc starting
Although the arc is initiated using HF, it is first formed between the electrode and plasma
nozzle. This 'pilot' arc is held within the body of the torch until required for welding then
it is transferred to the workpiece. The pilot arc system ensures reliable arc starting and, as
the pilot arc is maintained between welds, it obviates the need for HF which may cause
electrical interference.

Electrode
The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten-2%thoria and the plasma nozzle is
copper. The electrode tip diameter is not as critical as for TIG and should be maintained
at around 30-60 degrees. The plasma nozzle bore diameter is critical and too small a bore
diameter for the current level and plasma gas flow rate will lead to excessive nozzle
erosion or even melting. It is prudent to use the largest bore diameter for the operating
current
level.
Note: too large a bore diameter, may give problems with arc stability and maintaining a
keyhole.

Plasma and shielding gases

The normal combination of gases is argon for the plasma gas, with argon plus 2 to 5%
hydrogen for the shielding gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas but because it is hotter
this reduces the current rating of the nozzle. Helium's lower mass can also make the
keyhole mode more difficult.

Applications
Microplasma welding
Microplasma was traditionally used for welding thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm thickness),
and wire and mesh sections. The needle-like stiff arc minimises arc wander and
distortion. Although the equivalent TIG arc is more diffuse, the newer transistorised
(TIG) power sources can produce a very stable arc at low current levels.
Medium current welding
When used in the melt mode this is an alternative to conventional TIG. The advantages
are deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), and greater tolerance to surface
contamination including coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch). The
major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch, making manual welding more

17

difficult. In mechanised welding, greater attention must be paid to maintenance of the

torch to ensure consistent performance.
Keyhole welding
This has several advantages which can be exploited: deep penetration and high welding
speeds. Compared with the TIG arc, it can penetrate plate thicknesses up to l0mm, but
when welding using a single pass technique, it is more usual to limit the thickness to
6mm. The normal methods is to use the keyhole mode with filler to ensure smooth weld
bead profile (with no undercut). For thicknesses up to 15mm, a vee joint preparation is
used with a 6mm root face. A two-pass technique is employed and here, the first pass is
autogenous with the second pass being made in melt mode with filler wire addition.
As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow rate and filler wire addition (into the
keyhole) must be carefully balanced to maintain the keyhole and weld pool stability, this
technique is only suitable for mechanised welding. Although it can be used for positional
welding, usually with current pulsing, it is normally applied in high speed welding of
thicker sheet material (over 3 mm) in the flat position. When pipe welding, the slope-out
of current and plasma gas flow must be carefully controlled to close the keyhole without
leaving a hole.

Thermal Gouging
Thermal gouging is an essential part of welding fabrication. Used for rapid removal of
unwanted metal, the material is locally heated and molten metal ejected - usually by
blowing it away. Normal oxyfuel gas or arc processes can be used to produce rapid
melting and metal removal. However, to produce a groove of specific dimensions,
particularly regarding depth and width, the welder must exercise careful control of the
gouging operation. If this does not happen, an erratic and badly-serrated groove will
result.
Thermal processes, operations and metals which may be gouged or otherwise shaped:

Thermal
process

Process operations

Metals

Primary Secondary

Oxyfuel
gas flame

Low carbon steels, carbon manganese steels

Grooving
(structural), pressure vessel steels (carbon not over
Gouging Washing
0.35%), low alloy steels (less than 5%Cr) cast iron (if
Chamfering
preheated to 400-450 deg.C)

Manual
metal arc

Gouging

Low carbon steels carbon manganese steels

Grooving
(structural), pressure vessel steels, low alloy steels,
Chamfering
stainless steels, cast iron, nickel-based alloys

18

Low carbon steels carbon manganese steels

Air carbon
Grooving (structural), pressure vessel steels, low and high alloy
Gouging
Chamfering steels, cast iron, nickel-based alloys, copper and
arc
copper alloys, copper/nickel alloys, aluminium
Chamfering
Plasma arc Gouging Grooving Aluminium, stainless steels
Washing
Note: All processes are capable of cutting/severing operations. Preheat may or may not
be required on some metals prior to gouging

Safety
It should be emphasised that because gouging relies on molten metal being forcibly
ejected, often over quite large distances, the welder must take appropriate precautions to
protect himself, other workers and his equipment. Sensible precautions include protective
clothing for the welder, shielding inside a specially-enclosed booth or screens, adequate
fume extraction, and removal of all combustible material from the immediate area.

Industrial applications
Thermal gouging was developed primarily for removal of metal from the reverse side of
welded joints, removal of tack welds, temporary welds, and weld imperfections. Figure 1
illustrates the value of typical back-gouging applications carried out on arc welded
joints., while Fig. 2 shows imperfection removal in preparation for weld repair.

Fig.1 Typical back-gouging applications carried out on arc welded joints

Fig. 2 Imperfection removal in preparation for weld repair

The gouging process has proved to be so successful that it is used for a wide spectrum of
applications in engineering industries:
19

repair and maintenance of structures - bridges,

earth-moving equipment, mining machinery,
railway rolling stock, ships, offshore rigs, piping
and storage tanks

removal of cracks and imperfections - blow

holes and sand traps in both ferrous and nonferrous forgings and castings

preparation of plate edges for welding

removal of surplus metal - riser pads and fins on castings, excess weld bead
profiles, temporary backing strips, rivet washing and shaping operations,
demolition of welded and unwelded structures - site work

Thermal gouging is also suitable for efficient removal of temporary welded attachments
such as brackets, strongbacks, lifting lugs and redundant tack welds, during various
stages of fabrication and construction work.

Gouging processes
Gouging operations can be carried out using the following thermal processes:

oxyfuel gas flame

manual metal arc
air carbon arc
plasma arc

Oxy-fuel Gouging
Oxy-fuel or flame gouging offers fabricators a quick and efficient method of removing
metal. It can be at least four times quicker than cold chipping operations. The process is
particularly attractive because of its low noise, ease of handling, and ability to be used in
all positions.

Process description
Flame gouging is a variant of conventional oxyfuel gas welding. Oxygen and a fuel gas
are used to produce a high temperature flame for melting the steel. When gouging, the
steel is locally heated to a temperature above the 'ignition' temperature (typically
900deg.C) and a jet of oxygen is used to melt the metal - a chemical reaction between
pure oxygen and hot metal. This jet is also used to blow away molten metal and slag. It

20

should be noted that compared with oxyfuel cutting, slag is not blown through the
material, but remains on the top surface of the workpiece.
The gouging nozzle is designed to supply a relatively large volume of oxygen through the
gouging jet. This can be as much as 300 litre/min through a 6mm orifice nozzle. In
oxyacetylene gouging, equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene are used to set a nearneutral preheating flame. The oxygen jet flow rate determines the depth and width of the
gouge. Typical operating parameters (gas pressures and flow rates) for achieving a range
of gouge sizes (depth and width) can be seen in the Table.

Typical operating data for manual oxyacetylene flame gouging

Gouge
Gas consumption
Nozzle dimensions Gas pressure
Travel
orifice
speed
Width
Depth
Acetylene
Oxygen
Acetylene
Preheat
Oxygen
dia.(mm)
(mm/min)
(mm) (mm) (Bar)
(Bar) (Litre/min) (Litre/min) (Litre/min)
3

6-8

3-9

0.48

4.2

15

22

62

600

8-10

6-12

0.48

5.2

29

31

158

1000

6.5

10-13 10-13 0.55

5.5

36

43

276

1200

When the preheating flame and oxygen jet are correctly set, the gouge has a uniform
profile and its surfaces are smooth with a dull blue colour.

Operating techniques
The depth of the gouge is determined principally by the speed and angle of the torch. To
cut a deep groove the angle of the torch is stepped up (this increases the impingement
angle of the oxygen jet) and gouging speed is reduced. To produce a shallow groove, the
torch is less steeply angled, see above, and speed is increased. Wide grooves can be
produced by weaving the torch. The contour of the groove is dependent upon the size of
the nozzle and the operating parameters. If the cutting oxygen pressure is too low,
gouging progresses with a washing action, leaving smooth ripples in the bottom of the
groove. If the cutting oxygen pressure is too high, the cut advances ahead of the molten
pool - this will disrupt the gouging operation especially when
making shallow grooves.
There are four basic flame gouging techniques which are used in the
following types of application.

21

Progressive gouging
This technique is used to produce uniform grooves. Gouging is conducted in either a
continuous or progressive manner. Applications include removal of an unfused root area
on the reverse side of a welded joint, part-shaping a steel forging, complete removal of a
weld deposit and preparing plate edges for welding.
Spot gouging
Spot gouging produces a deep narrow U-shaped groove over a relatively short length.
The process is ideally suited to removal of localised areas such as isolated weld
imperfections. Experienced operators are able to observe any imperfections during
gouging. These appear as dark or light
spots/streaks within the molten pool (reaction
zone).
Back-step gouging
Once the material has reached ignition
temperature, the oxygen stream is introduced
and the torch moved in a backward movement
for a distance of 15-20mm. The oxygen is shut
off and the torch moved forward a distance of
25-30mm before restarting the gouging operation. This technique is favoured for removal
of local imperfections which may be deeply embedded in the base plate.
Deep gouging
It is sometimes necessary to produce a long deep gouge. Such operations are completed
using the deep gouging technique, which is basically a combination of progressive and
spot gouging.

Manual Metal Arc Gouging

The main advantage of manual metal arc (MMA) gouging is that the same power source
can be used for welding, gouging, or cutting, simply by changing the type of electrode.

Process description
As in conventional MMA welding, the arc is formed between the tip of the electrode and
the workpiece. MMA gouging differs because it requires special purpose electrodes with
thick flux coatings to generate a strong arc force and gas stream. Unlike MMA welding

22

where a stable weld pool must be maintained, this process forces the molten metal away
from the arc zone to leave a clean cut surface.
The gouging process is characterised by the large amount of gas which is generated to
eject the molten metal. However, because the arc/gas stream is not as powerful as a gas or
a separate air jet, the surface of the gouge is not as smooth as an oxyfuel gouge or air
carbon arc gouge.

Electrode
According to the size of gouge specified, there is a wide range of electrode diameters
available to choose from. These grooving electrodes are also not just restricted to steels,
and the same electrode composition may be used for gouging stainless steel and nonferrous alloys.

Power source
MMA gouging can be carried out using conventional DC and AC power sources. In DC
gouging, electrode polarity is normally negative but electrode manufacturers may well
recommend electrode polarity for their brand of electrodes and for gouging specific
materials. When using an AC power source, a minimum of 70V open circuit (OCV) is
required to stabilise the arc.
Although most MMA welding power sources can be used for gouging, the current rating
and OCV must be capable of accommodating current surges and longer arc lengths.

Typical operating data for MMA gouging

Electrode
(mm)

diameter Current
(A)

Gouging dimensions
Depth
(mm)

Width
(mm)

Gouging
(mm/min)

3.2

210

1200

4.0

300

1000

4.8

350

10

800

speed

Operational characteristics
The arc is struck with an electrode which is held at a normal angle to the workpiece (15
degrees backwards from the vertical plane in line with proposed direction of gouging).
Once the arc is established, the electrode is immediately inclined in one smooth and
continuous movement to an angle of around 15-20 degrees to the plate surface. With the

23

arc pointing in the direction of travel, the electrode is pushed forward slightly to melt the
metal. It should then be pulled back to allow the gas jet to displace the molten metal and
slag. This forward and backward motion is repeated as the electrode is guided along the
line to complete the gouge.
To produce a consistent depth and width of gouge, a uniform rate of travel must be
maintained, together with the angle of electrode: 10-20 degrees. If the electrode angle
becomes too steep, in excess of about 20 degrees, the amount of slag and molten metal
will increase. This is a result of the arc penetrating too deeply. Digging the electrode into
the metal causes problems in controlling the gouging operation and will produce a rough
surface profile. For gouging in positions other than vertical, the electrode is always
pushed forward. With vertical surfaces, the electrode is directed and pushed vertically
downwards.

Application
MMA gouging is used for localised gouging operations, removal of defects for example,
and where it is more convenient to switch from a welding electrode to a gouging
electrode rather than use specialised equipment. Compared with alternative gouging
processes, metal removal rates are low and the quality of the gouged surface is inferior.
When correctly applied, MMA gouging can produce relatively clean gouged surfaces.
For general applications, welding can be carried out without the need to dress by
grinding. However when gouging stainless steel, a thin layer of higher carbon content
material will be produced - this should be removed by grinding.

Plasma Arc Gouging

The use of the plasma arc as a gouging tool dates back
to the 1960s when the process was developed for
welding. Compared with the alternative oxyfuel and
MMA gouging techniques, plasma arc has a needle-like
jet which can produce a very precise groove, suitable
for application on almost all ferrous and non- ferrous
materials.

Process description
Plasma arc gouging is a variant of the plasma arc
process. The arc is formed between a refractory (usually tungsten) electrode and the
workpiece. Intense plasma is achieved by constricting the arc using a fine bore copper
nozzle. By locating the electrode behind the nozzle, the plasma-forming gas can be
separated from the general gas supply used to cool the torch/assist the plasma gas to blow
away molten metal (dross) from the groove.

24

The temperature and force of the constricted plasma arc is determined by the current level
and plasma gas flow rate. Thus, the plasma can be varied to produce a hot gas stream or a
high power, deeply penetrating jet. This ability to control quite precisely the size and
shape of a groove is very useful for removing unwanted defects from a workpiece
surface.
Whilst gouging, normal precautions should be taken to protect the operator and other
workers in the immediate area from the effects of intense arc light and hot metal spray.
Unlike the oxyfuel and MMA processes, the plasma arc's high velocity jet will propel
fume and hot metal dross some considerable distance from the operator. When using a
deeply penetrating arc, noise protection is an essential requirement.

Equipment
The power source for sustaining this gouging arc must have a high open circuit voltage,
usually well in excess of 100V. The torch is connected to the negative polarity of the
power source and the workpiece must be connected to the positive. The plasma torch is
the same as the one used for cutting; it will be either gas or water cooled and have the
facility for single and dual gas operation.
Electrodes are normally tungsten for argon and argon-based gases. However, when using
air as the plasma gas, special purpose, for example hafnium tipped copper, electrodes
must be used to withstand the more aggressive, oxidising arc.

Plasma and cooling gases

Plasma gas can be argon, helium, argon - H 2 , nitrogen or air. Argon - 35%H 2 is
normally recommended as a general- purpose plasma gas for cutting most materials.
Alternative plasma gases are argon and helium. Argon, a colder gas, will reduce metal
removal rates. Helium, which generates a hot but less intense arc than argon - H 2 , can
produce a wider and shallower groove. Nitrogen and air are also used as plasma gases,
especially for gouging C-Mn steels. Although gas costs will be substantially reduced, the
groove surface profile will be inferior to that which can be achieved with argon - H 2 gas.
Air is not recommended for gouging aluminium as this requires an inert or reducing gas.
Argon, nitrogen or air are all used as cooling gases. Use of argon will normally produce
the best quality of gouge, but nitrogen or air will reduce operating costs.

Operating techniques
Gouging is effected by moving the torch forward at a steady controlled rate. It is carried
out in a progressive manner to remove metal over a distance of 200 to 250mm. The jet
can then be repositioned, either to deepen or widen the groove, or to continue gouging for
a further 200 to 250mm. Principal process parameters are current level, gas flow rate, and
speed of gouging. These settings determine groove size and metal removal rate. In a
typical gouging operation on C-Mn steel, metal is removed at about 100 kg/hr at a speed
of 0.5 m/min, and groove size will be around 12mm wide and 5mm deep.

25

The torch stand-off and its angle to the surface of the workpiece have a major influence
on speed of travel, groove profile and quality of surface. The torch is normally held at a
distance of 20mm from the workpiece and inclined backwards to the direction of gouging
at an angle of 40 to 45 degrees. Gouging will remove up to approximately 6mm depth of
metal in a single pass.
The torch stand-off should not be reduced to less than 12mm, to avoid spatter build-up on
the nozzle from the molten particles ejected from the groove. At standoff distances
greater than 25mm, arc/gas forces are reduced and this lessens the depth of penetration of
the jet. By reducing the torch angle to the workpiece surface, the plasma jet can be
encouraged to 'skate' along the surface of the workpiece; this produces a shallower and
wider groove. By increasing the angle of the torch the plasma jet is directed into the
workpiece surface, resulting in a deeper and narrower groove.

Air Carbon Arc Gouging

The main difference between this gouging technique and the others is that a separate air
jet is used to eject molten metal to form the groove.

Process description
Air carbon arc gouging works as
follows. An electric arc is generated
between the tip of a carbon electrode
and the workpiece. The metal becomes
molten and a high velocity air jet
streams down the electrode to blow it
away, thus leaving a clean groove. The
process is simple to apply (using the
same equipment as MMA welding), has
a high metal removal rate, and gouge
profile can be closely controlled. Disadvantages are that the air jet causes the molten
metal to be ejected over quite a large distance and, because of high currents (up to
2000A) and high air pressures (80 to 100 psi), it can be very noisy.

Application
As air carbon arc gouging does not rely on oxidation it can be applied to a wide range of
metals. DC (electrode positive) is normally preferred for steel and stainless steel but AC
is more effective for cast iron, copper and nickel alloys. Typical applications include
back gouging, removal of surface and internal defects, removal of excess weld metal and
preparation of bevel edges for welding.

26

Electrode
The electrode is a non-consumable graphite (carbon) rod
which has a copper coating to reduce electrode erosion.
Electrode diameter is selected according to required
depth and width of gouge. Cutting can be precisely
controlled and molten metal/dross is kept to a minimum.

Power source
A DC power supply with electrode positive polarity is
most suitable. AC power sources which are also constant
current can be used but with special AC type electrodes. The power source must have a
constant current output characteristic. If it does not, inadvertant touching of the electrode
to the workpiece will cause a high current surge sufficient to 'explode' the electrode tip.
This will disrupt the operation and cause carbon pick-up. As arc voltage can be quite high
(up to 50V), open circuit voltage of the power source should be over 60V.

Air supply
The gouging torch is normally operated with either a compressed air line or seperate
bottled gas supply. Air supply pressure will be up to 100psi from the air line but
restricted to about 35psi from a bottled supply. Providing there is sufficient air flow to
remove molten metal, there are no advantages in using higher pressure and flow rates.

Carbon pickup
Although carbon is picked up by the molten metal, the air stream will remove carbon-rich
metal from the groove to leave only minimal contamination of the sidewalls. Poor
gouging technique or insufficient air flow will result in carbon pick-up with the risk of
metallurgical problems, e.g high hardness and even cracking.

27

Typical operating data for air carbon arc gouging:

Gouging
Current A
dimensions
Note: DC
Depth Width
electrode
(mm)
(mm)

Carbon electrode Gouging

consumed
speed
(mm/min)
(mm/min)

6.4

275

6-7

9-10

120

609

8.0

350

7-8

10-11

114

711

9.5

425

9-10

12-13

100

660

13.0 550

12-13

18-19

76

508

8.0

300-400

2-9

3-8

100

1650-840

9.5

500

3-12

3-10

142

1650-635

13.0 850

3-15

3-13

82

1830-610

16.0 1250

3-19

3-16

63

1830-710

Electrode
diameter (mm)

Manual

Automatic

Operation
Gouging is commenced by striking the electrode tip on to the workpiece surface to
initiate the arc. Unlike manual metal arc (MMA) welding the electrode tip is not
withdrawn to establish arc length. Molten metal directly under the electrode tip (arc) is
immediately blown away by the air stream. For effective metal removal, it is important
that the air stream is directed at the arc from behind the electrode and sweeps under the
tip of the electrode. The width of groove is determined by the diameter of electrode, but
depth is dictated by the angle of electrode to the workpiece and rate of travel. Relatively
high travel speeds are possible when a low electrode angle is used. This produces a
shallow groove: a steep angle results in a deep groove and requires slower travel speed.
Note, a steeply angled electrode may give rise to carbon contamination.
Oscillating the electrode in a circular or restricted weave motion during gouging can
greatly increase gouging width. This is useful for removal of a weld or plate imperfection
that is wider than the electrode itself. It is important, however, that weave width should
not exceed four times the diameter of the electrode.The groove surface should be
relatively free of oxidised metal and can be considered ready for welding without further
preparation. Dressing by grinding the side-walls of the gouge should be carried out if a
carbon rich layer has been formed. Also, dressing by grinding or another approved
method will be necessary if working on crack-sensitive material such as high strength,
low alloy steel.

28

Equipment for Oxyacetylene Welding

Essential equipment components
Torch
The basic oxyacetylene torch comprises:

torch body (or handle)

two separate gas tubes (through the handle connected to the hoses)
separate control valves
mixer chamber
flame tube
welding tip

NB The cutting torch requires two oxygen supplies to the nozzle, one mixed with fuel gas
for preheating and a separate oxygen flow for cutting.
Hoses
Hoses are colour-coded red for acetylene and blue (UK) or green (US) for oxygen.
Oxygen fittings on the hose have a right-hand thread while acetylene is left-handed.
Gas regulators
The primary function of a gas regulator is to control gas pressure. It reduces the high
pressure of the bottle-stored gas to the working pressure of the torch, and this will be
maintained during welding.
The regulator has two separate gauges: a high pressure gauge for gas in the cylinder and a
low pressure gauge for pressure of gas fed to the torch. The amount of gas remaining in
the cylinder can be judged from the high pressure gauge. The regulator, which has a
pressure adjusting screw, is used to control gas flow rate to the torch by setting the outlet
gas pressure. Note Acetylene is supplied in cylinders under a pressure of about 15 bars
psi but welding is carried out with torch gas pressures typically up to 2 bars.
Flame traps
Flame traps (also called flashback arresters) must be fitted into both oxygen and
acetylene gas lines to prevent a flashback flame from reaching the regulators. Non-return
spring-loaded valves can be fitted in the hoses to detect/stop reverse gas flow. Thus, the
valves can be used to prevent conditions leading to flashback, but should always be used
in conjunction with flashback arresters.

29

A flashback is where the flame burns in the torch body, accompanied by a whistling
sound. It will occur when flame speed exceeds gas flow rate and the flame can pass back
through the mixing chamber into the hoses. Most likely causes are: incorrect gas
pressures giving too low a gas velocity, hose leaks, loose connections, or welder
techniques which disturb gas flow.

Identification of gas cylinders

An oxygen cylinder is colour-coded black and the acetylene cylinder is maroon. Oxygen
and acetylene are stored in cylinders at high pressure. Oxygen pressure can be as high as
230 bars. Acetylene, which is dissolved in acetone contained in a porous material, is
stored at a much lower pressure, approximately 15 bars.
The appropriate regulator must be fitted to the cylinders to accommodate cylinder
pressures. To avoid confusion, oxygen cylinders and regulators have right-hand threads
and acetylene cylinders and regulators have left-hand ones.
Typical gas pressures and flow rates for C-Mn steel:

Steel
thickness
(mm)

Nozzle
size

0.90

Acetylene

Oxygen

Pressure
(bar)

Consumption
(l/min)

Pressure
(bar)

Consumption
(l/min)

0.14

0.50

0.14

0.50

1.20

0.14

0.90

0.14

0.90

2.00

0.14

1.40

0.14

1.40

2.60

0.14

2.40

0.14

2.40

3.20

0.14

3.30

0.14

3.30

4.00

10

0.21

4.70

0.21

4.70

5.00

13

0.28

6.00

0.28

6.00

6.50

18

0.28

8.50

0.28

8.50

8.20

25

0.42

12.00

0.42

12.00

10.00

35

0.63

17.00

0.63

17.00

13.00

45

0.35

22.00

0.35

22.00

25.00

90

0.63

42.00

0.63

42.00

30

Selection of correct nozzles

Welding torches are generally rated according to thickness of material to be welded. They
range from light duty (for sheet steel up to 2mm in thickness) to heavy duty (for steel
plate greater than 25mm in thickness). Each torch can be fitted with a range of nozzles
with a bore diameter selected according to material thickness. Gas pressures are set to
give correct flow rate for nozzle bore diameter. Proportions of oxygen and acetylene in
the mixture can be adjusted to give a neutral, oxidising or carburising flame. (See the
description of oxyacetylene processes) Welding is normally carried out using a neutral
flame with equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene.

Equipment safety checks

Before commencing welding it is wise to inspect the condition and operation of all
equipment. As well as normal equipment and workplace safety checks, there are specific
procedures for oxyacetylene. Operators should verify that:

flashback arresters are present in each gas line

hoses are the correct colour, with no sign of wear, as short as possible and not
taped together
regulators are the correct type for the gas
a bottle key is in each bottle (unless the bottle has an adjusting screw)

It is recommended that oxyacetylene equipment is checked at least annually - regulators

should be taken out of service after five years. Flashback arresters should be checked
regularly according to manufacturer's instructions and, with specific designs, it may be
necessary to replace if flashback has occurred.
For more detailed information the following legislation and codes of practice should be
consulted:

UK Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations
British Compressed Gases Association, Codes of Practice
BOC Handbook

Equipment for MMA Welding

Although the manual metal arc (MMA) process has relatively basic equipment
requirements, it is important that the welder has a knowledge of operating features and
performance to comply with welding procedures for the job and, of course, for safety
reasons.

31

Essential equipment
The main components of the equipment required for
welding are:

power source
electrode holder and cables
welder protection
fume extraction

Tools required include: a wire brush to clean the

joint area adjacent to the weld (and the weld itself
after slag removal); a chipping hammer to remove slag from the weld deposit; and, when
removing slag, a pair of clear lens goggles or a face shield to protect the eyes (lenses
should be shatter-proof and noninflammable).

Power source
The primary function of a welding power source is to provide sufficient power to melt the
joint. However with MMA the power source must also provide current for melting the
end of the electrode to produce weld metal, and it must have a sufficiently high voltage to
stabilise the arc.
MMA electrodes are designed to be operated with alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC) power sources. Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, not all DC
electrodes can be used with AC power sources.
As MMA requires a high current (50-30OA) but a relatively low voltage (10-50V), high
voltage mains supply (240 or 440V) must be reduced by a transformer. To produce DC,
the output from the transformer must be further rectified. To reduce the hazard of
electrical shock, the power source must function with a maximum no-load voltage, that
is, when the external (output) circuit is open (power leads connected and live) but no arc
is present. The no-load voltage rating of the power source is as defined in BS 638 and
must be in accordance with the type of welding environment or hazard of electrical
shock. The power source may have an internal or external hazard reducing device to
reduce the no-load voltage; the main welding current is delivered as soon as the electrode
touches the workpiece. For welding in confined spaces, you should use a low voltage
safety device to limit the voltage available at the holder to approximately 25V.
There are four basic types of power source:

AC transformer
DC rectifier
AC/DC transformer-rectifier
DC generator

32

AC electrodes are frequently operated with the simple, single phase transformer with
current adjusted by means of tappings or sliding core control. DC rectifiers and AC/DC
transformer-rectifiers are controlled electronically, for example by thyristors. A new
generation of power sources called inverters is available. These use transistors to convert
mains AC (50Hz) to a high frequency AC (over 500 Hz) before transforming down to a
voltage suitable for welding and then rectifying to DC. Because high frequency
transformers can be relatively small, principal advantages of inverter power sources are
undoubtedly their size and weight when the source must be portable.

Electrode holder and cables

The electrode holder clamps the end of the electrode with copper contact shoes built into
its head. The shoes are actuated by either a twist grip or spring-loaded mechanism. The
clamping mechanism allows for quick release of the stub end. For efficiency the electrode
has to be firmly clamped into the holder, otherwise poor electrical contact may cause arc
instability through voltage fluctuations. Welding cable connecting the holder to the power
source is mechanically crimped or soldered.
It is essential that good electrical connections are maintained between electrode, holder
and cable. With poor connections, resistance heating and, in severe cases, minor arcing
with the torch body will cause the holder to overheat. Two cables are connected to the
output of the power source, the welding lead goes to the electrode holder and the current
return lead is clamped to the workpiece. The latter is often wrongly referred to as the
earthlead. A separate earth lead is normally required to provide protection from faults in
the power source. The earth cable should therefore be capable of carrying the maximum
output current of the power source.
Cables are covered in a smooth and hard-wearing protective rubberised flexible sheath.
This oil and water resistant coating provides electrical insulation at voltages to earth not
exceeding 100V DC and AC (rms value). Cable diameter is generally selected on the
basis of welding current level, As these electrode types are When welding, the welder air
movement should be from duty cycle and distance of the work from the power source.
The higher the current and duty cycle, the larger the diameter of the cable to ensure that it
does not overheat (see BS 638 Pt 4). If welding is carried out some distance from the
power source, it may be necessary to increase cable diameter to reduce voltage drop.

Care of electrodes
The quality of weld relies upon consistent performance of the electrode. The flux coating
should not be chipped, cracked or, more importantly, allowed to become damp.
Storage
Electrodes should always be kept in a dry and well-ventilated store. It is good practice to
stack packets of electrodes on wooden pallets or racks well clear of the floor. Also, all
unused electrodes which are to be returned should be stored so they are not exposed to

33

damp conditions to regain moisture. Good storage conditions are 10 degrees C above
external air temperature. As the storage conditions are to prevent moisture from
condensing on the electrodes, the electrode stores should be dry rather that warm. Under
these conditions and in original packaging, electrode storage time is practically unlimited.
It should be noted that electrodes are now available in hermetically sealed packs which
obviate the need for drying. However, if necessary, any unused electrodes must be
redried according to manufacturer's instructions.
Drying of electrodes
Drying is usually carried out following the manufacturer's recommendations and
requirements will be determined by the type of electrode.
Cellulosic coatings
As these electrode coatings are designed to operate with a definite amount of moisture in
the coating, they are less sensitive to moisture pick-up and do not generally require a
drying operation. However, in cases where ambient relative humidity has been very high,
drying may be necessary.
Rutile coatings
These can tolerate a limited amount of moisture and coatings may deteriorate if they are
overdried. Particular brands may need to be dried before use.
Basic and basic/rutile coatings
Because of the greater need for hydrogen control, moisture pick-up is rapid on exposure
to air. These electrodes should be thoroughly dried in a controlled temperature drying
oven. Typical drying time is one hour at a temperature of approximately 150 to 300
degrees C but instructions should be adhered to.
After controlled drying, basic and basic/rutile electrodes must be held at a temperature
between 100 and 150 degrees C to help protect them from re-absorbing moisture into the
coating. These conditions can be obtained by transferring the electrodes from the main
drying oven to a holding oven or a heated quiver at the workplace.

Protective clothing
When welding, the welder must be protected from heat and light radiation emitted from
the arc, spatter ejected from the weld pool, and from welding fume.
Hand and head shield
For most operations a hand-held or head shield constructed of lightweight insulating and
non-reflecting material is used. The shield is fitted with a protective filter glass,

34

sufficiently dark in colour and capable of absorbmg the harmful infrared and ultraviolet
rays. The filter glasses conform to the strict requirements of BS 679 and are graded
according to a shade number which specifies the amount of visible light allowed to pass
through - the lower the number, the lighter the filter. The correct shade number must be
used according to the welding current level, for example:

Shade 9 - up to 40A
Shade 10 - 40 to 80A
Shade 11 - 80 to 175A
Shade 12 - 175 to 300A
Shade 13 - 300 to 500A

Clothing
For protection against sparks, hot spatter, slag and burns, a leather apron and leather
gloves should be worn. Various types of leather gloves are available, such as short or
elbow length, full fingered or part mitten.
Fume extraction
When welding within a welding shop, ventilation must dispose harmlessly of the welding
fume. Particular attention should be paid to ventilation when welding in a confined space
such as inside a boiler, tank or compartment of a ship.
Fume removal should be by some form of mechanical ventilation which will produce a
current of fresh air in the immediate area. Direction of the air movement should be from
the welder's face towards the work. This is best achieved by localised exhaust ventilation
using a suitably designed hood near to the welding area.

Equipment for MIG Welding

The MIG process is a versatile welding technique which is suitable for both thin sheet
and thick section components. It is capable of high productivity but the quality of welds
can be called into question. To achieve satisfactory welds, welders must have a good
knowledge of equipment requirements and should also recognise fully the importance of
setting up and maintaining component parts correctly.

35

Essential equipment
In MIG the arc is formed between the end of a
small diameter wire electrode fed from a spool,
and the workpiece. Main equipment components
are:

power source
wire feed system
conduit
gun

The arc and weldpool are protected from the

atmosphere by a gas shield. This enables bare
wire to be used without a flux coating (required
by MMA). However, the absence of flux to 'mop
up' surface oxide places greater demand on the welder to ensure that the joint area is
cleaned immediately before welding. This can be done using either a wire brush for
relatively clean parts, or a hand grinder to remove rust and scale. The other essential
piece of equipment is a wire cutter to trim the end of the electrode wire.

Power source
MIG is operated exclusively with a DC power source. The source is termed a flat, or
constant current, characteristic power source, which refers to the voltage/welding current
relationship. In MIG, welding current is determined by wire feed speed, and arc length is
determined by power source voltage level (open circuit voltage). Wire burn-off rate is
automatically adjusted for any slight variation in the gun to workpiece distance, wire feed
speed, or current pick-up in the contact tip. For example, if the arc momentarily shortens,
arc voltage will decrease and welding current will be momentarily increased to burn back
the wire and maintain pre-set arc length. The reverse will occur to counteract a
momentary lengthening of the arc.
There is a wide range of power sources available, mode of metal transfer can be:

dip
spray
pulsed

A low welding current is used for thin-section material, or welding in the vertical
position. The molten metal is transferred to the workpiece by the wire dipping into the
weldpool. As welding parameters will vary from around 100A \ 17V to 200A \ 22V (for a
1.2mm diameter wire), power sources normally have a current rating of up to 350A.
Circuit inductance is used to control the surge in current when the wire dips into the
weldpool (this is the main cause of spatter). Modern electronic power sources
automatically set the inductance to give a smooth arc and metal transfer.

36

In spray metal transfer, metal transfers as a spray of fine droplets without the wire
touching the weldpool. The welding current level needed to maintain the non shortcircuiting arc must be above a minimum threshold level; the arc voltage is higher to
ensure that the wire tip does not touch the weldpool. Typical welding parameters for a
1.2mm diameter wire are within 250A \ 28V to 400A \ 35V. For high deposition rates the
power source must have a much higher current capacity: up to 500A.
The pulsed mode provides a means of achieving a spray type metal transfer at current
levels below threshold level. High current pulses between 25 and 100Hz are used to
detach droplets as an alternative to dip transfer. As control of the arc and metal transfer
requires careful setting of pulse and background parameters, a more sophisticated power
source is required. Synergic pulsed MIG power sources, which are advanced transistorcontrolled power sources, are preprogrammed so that the correct pulse parameters are
delivered automatically as the welder varies wire feed speed.
Welding current and arc voltage ranges for selected wire diameters operating with dip
and spray metal transfer:

Wire diameter (mm)

Dip transfer

Spray transfer

Current (A) Voltage (V) Current (A) Voltage (V)

0.6

30 - 80

15 - 18

0.8

45 - 180

16 - 21

150 - 250

25 - 33

1.0

70 - 180

17 - 22

230 - 300

26 - 35

1.2

100 - 200

17 - 22

250 - 400

27 - 35

1.6

120 - 200

18 - 22

250 - 500

30 - 40

Wire feed system

The performance of the wire feed system can be crucial to the stability and
reproducibility of MIG welding. As the system must be capable of feeding the wire
smoothly, attention should be paid to the feed rolls and liners. There are three types of
feeding systems:

pinch rolls
push-pull
spool on gun

The conventional wire feeding system normally has a set of rolls where one is grooved
and the other has a flat surface. Roll pressure must not be too high otherwise the wire will
deform and cause poor current pick up in the contact tip. With copper coated wires, too
high a roll pressure or use of knurled rolls increases the risk of flaking of the coating

37

(resulting in copper build up in the contact tip). For feeding soft wires such as aluminium
dual-drive systems should be used to avoid deforming the soft wire.
Small diameter aluminium wires, 1mm and smaller, are more reliably fed using a pushpull system. Here, a second set of rolls is located in the welding gun - this greatly assists
in drawing the wire through the conduit. The disadvantage of this system is increased size
of gun. Small wires can also be fed using a small spool mounted directly on the gun. The
disadvantages with this are increased size, awkwardness of the gun, and higher wire cost.

Conduit
The conduit can measure up to 5m in length, and to facilitate feeding, should be kept as
short and straight as possible. (For longer lengths of conduit, an intermediate push-pull
system can be inserted). It has an internal liner made either of spirally-wound steel for
hard wires (steel, stainless steel, titanium, nickel) or PTFE for soft wires (aluminium,
copper).

Gun
In addition to directing the wire to the joint, the welding gun fulfils two important
functions - it transfers the welding current to the wire and provides the gas for shielding
the arc and weldpool.
There are two types of welding guns: 'air' cooled and water cooled. The 'air' cooled guns
rely on the shielding gas passing through the body to cool the nozzle and have a limited
current-carrying capacity. These are suited to light duty work. Although 'air' cooled guns
are available with current ratings up to 500A, water cooled guns are preferred for high
current levels, especially at high duty cycles.
Welding current is transferred to the wire through the contact tip whose bore is slightly
greater than the wire diameter. The contact tip bore diameter for a 1.2mm diameter wire
is between 1.4 andt 1.5mm. As too large a bore diameter affects current pick up, tips must
be inspected regularly and changed as soon as excessive wear is noted. Copper alloy
(chromium and zirconium additions) contact tips, harder than pure copper, have a longer
life, especially when using spray and pulsed modes.
Gas flow rate is set according to nozzle diameter and gun to workpiece distance, but is
typically between 10 and 30 l/min. The nozzle must be cleaned regularly to prevent
excessive spatter build-up which creates porosity. Anti-spatter spray can be particularly
effective in automatic and robotic welding to limit the amount of spatter adhering to the
nozzle.

Protective equipment
A darker glass than that used for MMA welding at the same current level should be used
in hand or head shields.

38

Recommended shade number of filter for MIG/MAG welding:

Shade number

Welding current A
MIG Heavy metal MIG Light metal MAG

10

under 100

under 100

under 80

11

1001 - 175

100 - 175

80 - 125

12

175 - 300

175 - 250

125 - 175

13

300 - 500

250 - 350

175 - 300

14

over 500

350 - 500

300 - 500

over 500

over 450

15

Equipment for Submerged-arc Welding

The submerged-arc welding(SAW) process is similar to MIG where the arc is formed
between a continuously-fed wire electrode and the workpiece, and the weld is formed by
the arc melting the workpiece and the wire. However, in SAW a shielding gas is not
required as the layer of flux generates the gases and slag to protect the weld pool and hot
weld metal from contamination. Flux plays an additional role in adding alloying elements
to the weld pool.

Essential equipment
Essential equipment components for SAW are:

power source
wire gun
flux handling
protective equipment

As SAW is a high current welding process, the

equipment is designed to produce high deposition
rates.

Power source
SAW can be operated using either a DC or an AC power source. DC is supplied by a
transformer-rectifier and AC is supplied by a transformer. Current for a single wire

39

ranges from as low as 200A (1.6mm diameter wire) to as high as 1000A (6.0mm
diameter wire). In practice, most welding is carried out on thick plate where a single wire
(4.0mm diameter) is normally used over a more limited range of 600 to 900A, with a twin
wire system operating between 800 and 1200A.
In DC operation, the electrode is normally connected to the positive terminal. Electrode
negative (DCEN) polarity can be used to increase deposition rate but depth of penetration
is reduced by between 20 and 25%. For this reason, DCEN is used for surfacing
applications where parent metal dilution is important. The DC power source has a
'constant voltage' output characteristic which produces a self-regulating arc. For a given
diameter of wire, welding current is controlled by wire feed speed and arc length is
determined by voltage setting.
AC power sources usually have a constant-current output characteristic and are therefore
not self-regulating. The arc with this type of power source is controlled by sensing the arc
voltage and using the signal to control wire feed speed. In practice, for a given welding
current level, arc length is determined by wire burnoff rate, i.e. the balance between the
welding current setting and wire feed speed which is under feedback control.
Square wave AC square wave power sources have a constant voltage output current
characteristic. Advantages are easier arc ignition and constant wire feed speed control.

Welding gun
SAW can be carried out using both manual and mechanised techniques. Mechanised
welding, which can exploit the potential for extremely high deposition rates, accounts for
the majority of applications.
Manual welding
For manual welding, the welding gun is similar to a MIG gun, with the flux which is fed
concentrically around the electrode, replacing the shielding gas. Flux is fed by air
pressure through the handle of the gun or from a small hopper mounted on the gun. The
equipment is relatively portable and, as the operator guides the gun along the joint, little
manipulative skill is required. However, because the operator has limited control over the
welding operation (apart from adjusting travel speed to maintain the bead profile) it is
best used for short runs and simple filling operations.

40

Mechanised welding - single wire

As SAW is often used for welding large components, the gun, wire feeder and flux
delivery feed can be mounted on a rail, tractor or boom manipulator. Single wire welding
is mostly practised using DCEP even though AC will produce a higher deposition rate for
the same welding current. AC is used to overcome problems with arc blow, caused by
residual magnetism in the workpiece, jigging or welding machine.
Wire stickout, or electrode extension - the distance the wire protrudes from the end of the
contact tip - is an important control parameter in SAW. As the current flowing between
the contact tip and the arc will preheat the wire, wire burnoff rate will increase with
increase in wire stickout. For example, the deposition rate for a 4mm diameter wire at a
welding current of 700A can be increased from approximately 9 kg/hr at the normal
32mm stickout, to 14 kg/hr at a stickout length of 178mm. In practice, because of the
reduction in penetration and greater risk of arc wander, a long stickout is normally only
used in cladding and surfacing applications where
there is greater emphasis on deposition rate and
control of penetration, rather than accurate
positioning of the wire.
For most applications, electrode stickout is set so
that the contact tube is slightly proud of the flux
layer. The depth of flux is normally just sufficient to
cover the arc whose light can be seen through the
flux.

41

Recommended and maximum stickout lengths:

Wire diameter mm Current range A

Wire stickout
Normal mm Maximum mm

0.8

100 to 200

12

1.2

150 to 300

20

1.6

200 to 500

20

2.0

250 to 600

25

63

3.2

350 to 800

30

76

4.0

400 to 900

32

128

4.75

450 to 1000

35

165

Mechanised welding - twin wire

Tandem arc connections

SAW can be operated with more than one wire. Although up to five wires are used for
high deposition rates, e.g. in pipe mills, the most common multi-wire systems have two
wires in a tandem arrangement. The leading wire is run on DCEP to produce deep
penetration. The trailing wire is operated on AC which spreads the weld pool, which is
ideal for filling the joint. AC also minimises: interaction between the arcs, and the risk of
lack of fusion defects and porosity through the deflection of the arcs (arc blow). The
wires are normally spaced 20mm apart so that the second wire feeds into the rear of the
weld pool.

Gun angle
In manual welding, the gun is operated with a trailing angle, i.e. with the gun at an angle
of 45 degrees (backwards) from the vertical. In single wire mechanised welding
operations, the gun is perpendicular to the workpiece. However, in twin wire operations
the leading gun is normal to the workpiece, with the trailing gun angled slightly forwards
between an angle of 60 and 80 degrees. This reduces disturbance of the weld pool and
produces a smooth weld bead profile.

Flux handling
Flux should be stored in unopened packages under dry conditions. Open packages should
be stored in a humidity-controlled store. While flux from a newly-opened package is
ready for immediate use, flux which has been opened and held in a store should first be
dried according to manufacturer's instructions. In small welding systems, flux is usually
held in a small hopper above the welding gun. It is fed automatically (by gravity or

42

mechanised feed) ahead of the arc. In larger installations the flux is stored in large
hoppers and is fed with compressed air. Unused flux is collected using a vacuum hose
and returned to the hopper.
Note: Care must be taken in recycling unused flux, particularly regarding the removal of
slag and metal dust particles. The presence of slag will change the composition of the
flux which, together with the wire, determines the composition of the weld metal. The
presence of fine particles can cause blockages in the feeding system.

Protective equipment
Unlike other arc welding processes, SAW is a clean process which produces minimum
fume and spatter when welding steels. (Some noxious emissions can be produced when
welding special materials.) For normal applications, general workshop extraction should
be adequate.
Protective equipment such as a head shield and a leather apron are not necessary. Normal
protective equipment (goggles, heavy gloves and protective shoes) are required for
ancillary operations such as slag removal by chipping or grinding. Special precautions
should be taken when handling flux - a dust respirator and gloves are needed when
loading the storage hoppers.

Equipment for TIG Welding

Job Knowledge for Welders No. 6 describes the TIG welding process. Using an inert gas
shield instead of a slag to protect the weldpool, this technology is a highly attractive
alternative to gas and manual metal arc welding and has played a major role in the
acceptance of high quality welding in critical applications.

Essential equipment
In TIG, the arc is formed between the end of a small
diameter tungsten electrode and the workpiece. The main
equipment components are:

power source
torch
backing system
protective equipment

43

Power source
The power source for TIG welding can be either DC or AC but in both the output is
termed a drooping, or constant current, characteristic; the arc voltage / welding current
relationship delivers a constant current for a given power source setting.
If the arc voltage is slightly increased or decreased, there will be very little change in
welding current. In manual welding, it can accommodate the welder's natural variations
in arc length and, in the event of the electrode touching the work, an excessively high
current will not be drawn which could fuse the electrode to the workpiece.
The arc is usually started by HF (High Frequency) sparks which ionise the gap between
the electrode and the workpiece. HF generates airborne and line transmitted interference,
so care must be taken to avoid interference with control systems and instruments near
welding equipment. When welding is carried out in sensitive areas, a non-HF technique,
touch starting or 'lift arc', can be used. The electrode can be short circuited to the
workpiece, but the current will only flow when the electrode is lifted off the surface.
There is, therefore, little risk of the electrode fusing to the workpiece surface and forming
tungsten inclusions in the weld metal. For high quality applications, using HF is
preferred.
DC power source
DC power produces a concentrated arc with most of the heat in the workpiece, so this
power source is generally used for welding. However, the arc with its cathode roots on
the electrode (DC electrode negative polarity), results in little cleaning of the workpiece
surface. Care must be taken to clean the surface prior to welding and to ensure that there
is an efficient gas shield.
Transistor and inverter power sources are being used increasingly for TIG welding. The
advantages are:

the smaller size makes them easily transported

arc ignition is easier
special operating features, e.g. current pulsing, are readily included
the output can be pre-programmed for
mechanised operations

The greater stability of these power sources allows very

low currents to be used particularly for micro-TIG
welding and largely replaced the plasma process for
micro-welding operations.
AC power source
For materials such as aluminium, which has a tenacious
oxide film on the surface, AC power must be employed.

44

By switching between positive and negative polarity, the periods of electrode positive
will
remove
the
oxide
and
clean
the
surface.
The figure shows current and voltage waveforms for (sine wave) AC TIG welding.
Disadvantages of conventional, sine wave AC compared with DC are:

the arc is more diffuse

HF is required to reignite the arc at each current reversal
excessive heating of the electrode makes it impossible to maintain a tapered point
and the end becomes balled

Square wave AC, or switched DC, power sources are particularly attractive for welding
aluminium.
By switching between polarities, arc reignition is made easier so that the HF can be
reduced or eliminated. The ability to imbalance the waveform to vary the proportion of
positive to negative polarity is important by determining the relative amount of heat
generated in the workpiece and the electrode.
To weld the root run, the power source is operated with the greater amount of positive
polarity
to
put
the
maximum
heat
into
the
workpiece.
For filler runs a greater proportion of negative polarity should be used to minimise
heating of the electrode. By using 90% negative polarity, it is possible to maintain a
pointed electrode. A balanced position (50% electrode positive and negative polarities) is
preferable for welding heavily oxidised aluminium.

Torch
There is a wide range of torch designs for welding, according to the application. Designs
which have the on/off switch and current control in the handle are often preferred to foot
controls. Specialised torches are available for mechanised applications, e.g. orbital and
bore welding of pipes.

Electrode
For DC current, the electrode is tungsten with between 2 and 5% thoria to aid arc
initiation. The electrode tip is ground to an angle of 600 to 900 for manual welding,
irrespective of the electrode diameter. For mechanised applications as the tip angle
determines the shape of the arc and influences the penetration profile of the weld pool,
attention must be paid to consistency in grinding the tip and checking its condition
between welds.
For AC current, the electrode is either pure tungsten or tungsten with a small amount (up
to 0.5%) of zirconia to aid arc reignition and to reduce electrode erosion. The tip
normally assumes a spherical profile due to the heat generated in the electrode during the
electrode positive half cycle.

45

Gas shielding
A gas lens should be fitted within the torch nozzle, to ensure laminar gas flow. This will
improve gas protection for sensitive welding operations like welding vertical, corner and
edge joints and on curved surfaces.

Backing system
When welding high integrity components, a shielding gas is used to protect the underside
of the weld pool and weld bead from oxidation. To reduce the amount of gas consumed, a
localised gas shroud for sheet, dams or plugs for tubular components is used. As little as
5% air can result in a poor weld bead profile and may reduce corrosion resistance in
materials like stainless steel. With gas backing systems in pipe welding, pre-weld purge
time depends on the diameter and length of the pipe. The flow rate/purge time is set to
ensure at least five volume changes before welding.
Stick on tapes and ceramic backing bars are also used to protect and support the weld
bead. In manual stainless steel welding, a flux-cored wire instead of a solid wire can be
used in the root run. This protects the underbead from oxidation without the need for gas
backing.
Inserts
A pre-placed insert can be used to improve the uniformity of the root penetration. Its
main use is to prevent suck-back in an autogenous weld, especially in the overhead
position. The use of an insert does not make welding any easier and skill is still required
to avoid problems of incomplete root fusion and uneven root penetration.

Protective equipment
A slightly darker glass should be used in the head or hand shield than that used for MMA
welding.
Recommended shade number of filter for TIG welding:
Shade number Welding current A
9

less than 20

10

20 to 40

11

40 to 100

12

100 to 175

13

175 to 250

14

250 to 400

46

Equipment for Plasma Welding

Plasma welding derives its unique operating characteristics from the torch design.
As in TIG welding, the arc is formed between the end of
a small diameter tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
However, in the plasma torch, the electrode is
positioned behind a fine bore copper nozzle. By forcing
the arc to pass through the nozzle, the characteristic
columnar jet, or plasma, is formed.
As described in Job Knowledge for Welders, No 7,
three different operating modes can be produced by the
choice of the nozzle bore diameter, current level and
plasma gas flow rate:

Microplasma (0.1 to 15A) is equivalent to

microTIG but the columnar arc allows the
welder to operate with a much longer arc length.
The arc is stable at low welding current levels
producing a 'pencil-like' beam which is suitable
for welding very thin section material.

Medium current plasma (15 to 100A) similar

to conventional TIG, is also used for precision
welding operations and when a high level of weld quality is demanded.

Keyhole plasma (over 100A) produced by increasing the current level and the
plasma gas flow. It generates a very powerful arc plasma, similar to a laser beam.
During welding, the plasma arc slices through the metal producing a keyhole,
with the molten weld pool flowing around the keyhole to form the weld. Deep
penetration and high welding speeds can be achieved with this operating mode.

As the plasma arc is generated by the special torch arrangement and system controller,
the equipment can be obtained as an add-on unit to conventional TIG equipment to
provide additional pilot arc and separate plasma and shielding gases. Alternatively,
purpose-built plasma equipment is available. Despite similarities in plasma and TIG
equipment, there are several important differences in the following components:

power source
torch
backing system
protective equipment

47

Power source
The power source for plasma welding is almost exclusively DC and, as in TIG, the
drooping, or constant current, output characteristic will deliver essentially constant
current for a given power source setting. The power source is ideal for mechanised
welding as it maintains the current setting even when arc length varies and, in manual
welding, it can accommodate the natural variations of the welder.
The plasma process is normally operated with electrode negative polarity to minimise
heat produced in the electrode (approximately 1/3rd of the heat generated by the arc is
produced at the cathode with 2/3rds at the anode). Special torches are available, however,
for operating with electrode positive polarity which rely on efficient cooling to prevent
melting of the electrode. The positive electrode torch is used for welding aluminium
which requires the cathode to be on the material to remove the oxide film.
AC is not normally used in the plasma process because it is difficult to stabilise the AC
arc. Problems in reigniting the arc are associated with constriction by the nozzle, the long
electrode to workpiece distance and balling of the electrode caused by the alternate
periods of electrode positive polarity. The square wave AC (inverter, switched DC)
power source, with an efficiently cooled torch, makes the use of the AC plasma process
easier; rapid current switching promotes arc reignition and, by operating with very short
periods of electrode positive polarity, electrode heating is reduced so a pointed electrode
can be maintained.
The plasma system has a unique arc starting system in which HF is only used to ignite a
pilot arc held within the body of the torch. The pilot arc formed between the electrode
and copper nozzle is automatically transferred to the workpiece when it is required for
welding. This starting system is very reliable and eliminates the risk of electrical
interference through HF.

Torch
The torch for the plasma process is considerably more complex than the TIG torch and
attention must be paid, not only to initial set up, but also to inspection and maintenance
during production.
Nozzle
In the conventional torch arrangement, the electrode is positioned behind the water
cooled copper nozzle. As the power of the plasma arc is determined by the degree of
nozzle constriction, consideration must be given to the choice of bore diameter in relation
to the current level and plasma gas flow rate. For a 'soft' plasma, normally used for micro
and medium current operating modes, a relatively large diameter bore is recommended to
minimise nozzle erosion.

48

In high current keyhole plasma mode, the nozzle bore diameter, plasma gas flow rate and
current level are selected to produce a highly constricted arc which has sufficient power
to cut through the material. The plasma gas flow rate is crucial in generating the deeply
penetrating plasma arc and in preventing nozzle erosion; too low a gas flow rate for the
bore diameter and current level will result in double arcing in the torch and the nozzle
melting.
The suggested starting point for setting the plasma gas flow rate and the current level for
a range of the bore diameters and the various operating modes is given.

Electrode
The electrode is tungsten with an addition of between 2 and 5% thoria to aid arc
initiation. Normally, the electrode tip is ground to an angle of 15 degrees for microplasma
welding. The tip angle increases with current level and for high current, keyhole plasma
welding, an angle of 60 degrees to 90 degrees is recommended. For high current levels,
the tip is also blunted to approximately 1mm diameter. The tip angle is not usually
critical for manual welding. However, for mechanised applications, the condition of the
tip and the nozzle will determine the shape of the arc and penetration profile of the weld
pool penetration, so particular attention must be paid to grinding the tip. It is also
necessary to check periodically the condition of the tip and nozzle and, for critical
components, it is recommended the torch condition is checked between welds.
Electrode set-back
To ensure consistency, it is important to maintain a constant electrode position behind the
nozzle; guidance on electrode set-back and a special tool is provided by the torch
manufacturer. The maximum current rating of each nozzle has been established for the
maximum electrode set-back position and the maximum plasma gas flow rate. Lower
plasma gas flow rates can be used to soften the plasma arc with the maximum current
rating of the nozzle providing electrode set-back distance is reduced.

49

Plasma and shielding gas

The usual gas combination is argon for the plasma gas and argon-2 to 8% H2 for the
shielding gas. Irrespective of the material being welded, using argon for the plasma gas
produces the lowest rate of electrode and nozzle erosion. Argon - H2 gas mixture for
shielding produces a slightly reducing atmosphere and cleaner welds. Helium gives a
hotter arc; however, its use for the plasma gas reduces the current carrying capacity of the
nozzle and makes formation of the keyhole more difficult. Helium - argon mixtures, e.g.
75% helium - 25% argon, are used as the shielding gas for materials such as copper.
Plasma gas flow rate must be set accurately as it controls the penetration of the weld pool
but the shielding gas flow rate is not critical.
Backing system
The normal TIG range of backing bar designs or shielding gas techniques can be
employed when using micro and medium current techniques. When applying the keyhole
mode a grooved backing bar must be used, with or without gas shielding or total
shielding of the underside of the joint. Because the efflux plasma normally extends about
10mm below the back face of the joint, the groove must be deep enough to avoid
disturbance of the arc jet; if the efflux plasma hits the backing bar, arc instability will
disturb the weld pool, causing porosity.

Protective equipment
Protective equipment for plasma welding is as described for TIG in Job Knowledge for
Welders No 17. Regarding protection from arc light, a similar Shade number to TIG at
the same welding current level should be used in head or hand shield. The glass will be
slightly darker than that used for MMA welding at the same current level.
Welding Current, A
Shade Number
Micro Plasma

Plasma

0.5 to 1

1 to 2.5

2.5 to 5

5 to 10

10 to 15

10

15 to 30

11

30 to 60

less than 150

12

60 to 125

150 to 250

13

125 to 225

above 250

14

225 to 450

Recommended shade number of filter for

plasma welding:

50

Weldability of materials

Steels
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the parent metal,
the welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections are principally caused
by:

poor welder technique;

insufficient measures to accommodate the material
or welding process;
high stress in the component.

Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of fusion

and slag inclusions, which result from poor welder
techniques, are relatively well known. However, the welder
should be aware that the material itself may be susceptible
to formation of imperfections caused by the welding
process. In the materials section of the Job Knowledge for
Welders, guidelines are given on material weldability and precautions to be taken to
avoid defects.

Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following
types:

Steels
Stainless steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Cast iron

Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a wide
range of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in either the
weld metal or the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld, called the heat
affected zone (HAZ). As chemical composition of the weld metal determines the risk of
imperfections, the choice of filler metal may be crucial not only in achieving adequate
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance but also in producing a sound weld.
However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the adverse effect of the heat generated
during welding and can only be avoided by strict adherence to the welding procedure.

51

This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the weldability
of carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.

Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these materials can
be at risk from the following types of imperfection:

porosity;
solidification cracking;
hydrogen cracking;
reheat cracking.

Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using
modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise.
In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and
welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.

Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld pool.
The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as rust or
grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld), electrode or
filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes', caused by gross surface
contamination or welding with damp electrodes.
The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire is
beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool to
form slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be welded satisfactorily
with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool.
To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased
before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for
welding by that particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded processes, the
material surface demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or
machining, followed by final degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts.

Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having insufficient
strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal. Sulphur, phosphorus,
and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution increase the risk of weld metal
(solidification) cracking especially in thick section and highly restrained joints. When
welding high carbon and sulphur content steels, thin weld beads will be more susceptible
to solidification cracking. However, a weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be

52

susceptible. In this case, the centre of the weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high
concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking.
Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of consumable,
welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk, consumables with low
carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese and silicon contents are
preferred. High current density processes such as submerged-arc and CO 2 , are more
likely to induce cracking. The welding parameters must produce an adequate depth to
width ratio in butt welds, or throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also
increase the risk as the amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder
should ensure that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface
contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding.

Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ immediately
adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold (hydrogen)
cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level of hydrogen produced
by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon several contributory factors:

material composition (carbon equivalent);

section thickness;
arc energy (heat) input;
degree of restraint.

The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the process.
Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA) and the gas
shielded processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of hydrogen in the weld
pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness. Chemical
composition determines material hardenability, and the higher the carbon and alloy
content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness. Section thickness and arc energy
influences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness of the HAZ.
For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode
composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the material.
Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of hydrogen and reduces
HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure being formed; the recommended
levels of preheat for various practical situations are detailed in the appropriate standards
e.g. BS EN1011-2:2001. As cracking only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient,
maintaining the temperature of the weld area above the recommended level during
fabrication is especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking
can occur up to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'.
After welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold
time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld
area.

53

When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are taken
to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in the weld
metal. However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when welding alloyed or
quenched and tempered steels, more stringent precautions may be necessary.
The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen
electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical
precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning the
joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant amount of hydrogen can be
generated from contaminants on the surface of the components and filler wire so preheat
and arc energy requirements should be maintained even for tack welds.

Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section components,
usually of greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely cause of cracking is
embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or stress relief heat treatment.
As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input welding
procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive materials,
avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local points of stress
concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.

Weldability of steel groups

PD CR ISO 15608:2000 identifies a number of steels groups which have similar
metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these groups are:
Group 1. Low carbon unalloyed steels, no specific processing requirements,
specified minimum yield strength R eH 460N/mm 2 .
For thin section, unalloyed materials, these are normally readily weldable. However,
when welding thicker sections with a flux process, there is a risk of HAZ hydrogen
cracking, which will need increased hydrogen control of the consumables or the use of
preheat.
Group 2. Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steels with a
specified miniumum yield strength R eH > 360N/mm 2 .
For a given strength level, a thermomechanically processed (TMCP) steel will have a
lower alloy content than a normalised steel, and thus will be more readily weldable with
regard to avoidance of HAZ hydrogen cracking and the achievement of maximum
hardness limits. However, there is always some degree of softening in the HAZ after
welding TMCP steels, and a restriction on the heat input used, so as not to degrade the
properties of the joint zone (e.g. 2.5kJ/mm limits for 15mm plate).

54

Group 3. Quenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels (except
stainless steels), R eH > 360N/mm 2
These are weldable, but care must be taken to adhere to established procedures, as these
often have high carbon contents, and thus high hardenability, leading to a hard HAZ
susceptibility to cracking. As with TMCP steels, there may be a restriction on heat input
or preheat to avoid degradation of the steel properties.
Groups 4, 5 and 6. Chromium-molybdenum and chromium-molybdenum-vanadium
creep resisting steels.
These are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, but with appropriate preheat and low
hydrogen consumables, with temper bead techniques to minimise cracking, the steels are
fairly weldable. Postweld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ toughness in these
steels.
Group 7. Ferritic, martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels.
When using a filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to avoid
HAZ cracking. Postweld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ toughness.
Group 8. Austenitic stainless steels.
These steels do not generally need preheat, but in order to avoid problems with
solidification or liquation cracking upon welding, the consumables should be selected to
give weld metal with a low impurity content, or if appropriate, residual ferrite in the weld
metal.
Group 9. Nickel alloy steels, Ni 10%.
These have a similar weldability to Groups 4, 5 & 6.
Group 10. Austenitic ferritic stainless steels (duplex).
In welding these steels, maintaining phase balance in the weld metal and in the HAZ
requires careful selection of consumables, the absence of preheat and control of
maximum interpass temperature, along with minimum heat input levels, as slow cooling
encourages austenite formation in the HAZ.
Group 11. High carbon steels.
These steels will be less weldable owing to their increased carbon content with respect to
Group 1. It is likely that care over the choice of consumables and the use of high preheat
levels would be needed.

55

It is important to obtain advice before welding any steels that you do not have experience
in.

References
1. BS EN 1011-2:2001 'Welding - receommendations for welding of metallic
materials - part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels' British Standards Institution,
March 2001.
2. PD CR ISO 15608:2000 'Welding - guidelines for a metallic material grouping
system' British Standards Institution, June 2000.

Weldability of materials

Stainless steel
Stainless steels are chosen because of their
enhanced corrosion resistance, high temperature
oxidation resistance or their strength. The various
types of stainless steel are identified and guidance
given on welding processes and techniques which
can be employed in fabricating stainless steel
components without impairing the corrosion,
oxidation and mechanical properties of the
material or introducing defects into the weld.

Material types
The unique properties of the stainless steels are derived from the addition of alloying
elements, principally chromium and nickel, to steel. Typically, more than 10% chromium
is required to produce a stainless iron. The four grades of stainless steel have been
classified according to their material properties and welding requirements:

Austenitic
Ferritic
Martensitic
Austenitic-ferritic (duplex)

The alloy groups are designated largely according to their microstructure. The first three
consist of a single phase but the fourth group contains both ferrite and austenite in the
microstructure.
As nickel (plus carbon, manganese and nitrogen) promotes austenite and chromium (plus
silicon, molybdenum and niobium) encourages ferrite formation, the structure of welds in
commercially available stainless steels can be largely predicted on the basis of their

56

chemical composition. The predicted weld metal structure is shown in the Schaeffler
diagram in which austenite and ferrite promoting elements are plotted in terms of the
nickel and chromium equivalents.
Because of the different microstructures, the alloy groups have both different welding
characteristics and susceptibility to defects.

Austenitic stainless steel

Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26%
chromium (Cr) and 8-22% nickel (Ni). A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is
Type 304 which contains approximately 18%Cr and 10%Ni. These alloys can be readily
welded using any of the arc welding processes (TIG, MIG, MMA and SA). As they are
non-hardenable on cooling, they exhibit good toughness and there is no need for pre- or
post-weld heat treatment.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Although austenitic stainless steel is readily welded, weld metal and HAZ cracking can
occur. Weld metal solidification cracking is more likely in fully austenitic structures
which are more crack sensitive than those containing a small amount of ferrite. The
beneficial effect of ferrite has been attributed largely to its capacity to dissolve harmful
impurities which would otherwise form low melting point segregates and interdendritic
cracks.
As the presence of 5-10% ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice
of filler material composition is crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication
of the ferrite-austenite balance for different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler
diagram. For example, when welding Type 304 stainless steel, a Type 308 filler material
which has a slightly different alloy content, is used.

Ferritic stainless steel

Ferritic stainless steels have a Cr content typically within the range 11-28%. Commonly
used alloys include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12% Cr.
As these alloys can be considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable,
they can be readily fusion welded. However, a coarse grained HAZ will have poor
toughness.
Avoiding weld imperfections
The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness.
Excessive grain coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick
section material. When welding thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special
precautions are necessary.

57

In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the
grain coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal. Although
preheating will not reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain
the weld metal above the ductile-brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual
stresses. Preheat temperature should be within the range 50-250 deg.C depending on
material composition.

Martensitic stainless steel

The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have a moderate chromium content,
12-18% Cr, with low Ni but more importantly have a relatively high carbon content. The
principal difference compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless
steel is the potentially hard HAZ martensitic structure and the matching composition
weld metal. The material can be successfully welded providing precautions are taken to
avoid cracking in the HAZ, especially in thick section components and highly restrained
joints.
Avoiding weld imperfections
High hardness in the HAZ makes this type of stainless steel very prone to hydrogen
cracking. The risk of cracking generally increases with the carbon content. Precautions
which must be taken to minimise the risk, include:

using low hydrogen process (TIG or MIG) and ensure the flux or flux coated
consumable are dried (MMA and SAW) according to the manufacturer's
instructions;
preheating to around 200 to 300 deg.C. Actual temperature will depend on
welding procedure, chemical composition (especially Cr and C content), section
thickness and the amount of hydrogen entering the weld metal;
maintaining the recommended minimum interpass temperature.
carrying out post-weld heat treatment, e.g. at 650-750 deg.C. The time and
temperature will be determined by chemical composition.

Thin section, low carbon material, typically less than 3mm, can often be welded without
preheat, providing that a low hydrogen process is used, the joints have low restraint and
attention is paid to cleaning the joint area. Thicker section and higher carbon (> 0.1%)
material will probably need preheat and post-weld heat treatment. The post-weld heat
treatment should be carried out immediately after welding not only to temper (toughen)
the structure but also to enable the hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld metal and
HAZ.

Duplex stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of
austenite and ferrite. The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the
range 22-26% Cr, 4-7% Ni and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1-

58

0.3%) to stabilise the austenite. Modern duplex steels are readily weldable but the
procedure, especially maintaining the heat input range, must be strictly followed to obtain
the correct weld metal structure.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Although most welding processes can be used, low heat input welding procedures are
usually avoided. Preheat is not normally required and the maximum interpass temperature
must be controlled. Choice of filler is important as it is designed to produce a weld metal
structure with a ferrite-austenite balance to match the parent metal. To compensate for
nitrogen loss, the filler may be overalloyed with nitrogen or the shielding gas itself may
contain a small amount of nitrogen.

Weldability of materials

Aluminium alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are used in fabrications because of their low weight, good
corrosion resistance and weldability. Although normally low strength, some of the more
complex alloys can have mechanical properties equivalent to steels. The various types of
aluminium alloy are identified and guidance is given on fabricating components without
impairing corrosion and mechanical properties of the material or introducing
imperfections into the weld.

Material types
As pure aluminium is relatively soft, small
amounts of alloying elements are added to
produce a range of mechanical properties.
The alloys are grouped according to the
principal alloying elements, Specific
commercial alloys have a four-digit
designation according to the international
specifications for wrought alloys or the ISO
alpha - numeric system.
The alloys can be further classified according to the means by which the alloying
elements develop mechanical properties, non-heat-treatable or heat-treatable alloys.

Non-heat-treatable alloys
Material strength depends on the effect of work hardening and solid solution hardening of
alloy elements such as magnesium, and manganese; the alloying elements are mainly
found in the 1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx series of alloys. When welded, these alloys may lose
the effects of work hardening which results in softening of the HAZ adjacent to the weld.
59

Heat-treatable alloys
Material hardness and strength depend on alloy composition and heat treatment (solution
heat treatment and quenching followed by either natural or artificial ageing produces a
fine dispersion of the alloying constituents). Principal alloying elements are defined in
the 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series. Fusion welding redistributes the hardening constituents
in the HAZ which locally reduces material strength.
Most of the wrought grades in the 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx and medium strength 7xxx
(e.g. 7020) series can be fusion welded using TIG, MIG and oxyfuel processes. The 5xxx
series alloys, in particular, have excellent weldability. High strength alloys (e.g. 7010 and
7050) and most of the 2xxx series are not recommended for fusion welding because they
are prone to liquation and solidification cracking.
The technique of Friction Stir Welding is particularly suited to aluminium alloys. It is
capable of producing sound welds in many alloys, including those heat treatable alloys
which are prone to hot cracking during fusion welding.

Filler alloys
Filler metal composition is determined by:

weldability of the parent metal

minimum mechanical properties of the weld metal
corrosion resistance
anodic coating requirements

Nominally matching filler metals are often employed for non-heat-treatable alloys.
However, for alloy-lean materials and heat-treatable alloys, non-matching fillers are used
to prevent solidification cracking.
The choice of filler metal composition for the various weldable alloys is specified in BS
EN 1011 Pt 4:2000 for TIG and MIG welding; recommended filler metal compositions
for the more commonly used alloys are given in the Table.

60

Alloy
Designation

Chemical
Designation

Classification Filler

Application

EN AW-1080A

EN AW-Al 99.8(A)

NHT

R1080A

Chemical plant

EN AW-3103

EN AW-Al Mn1

NHT

R-3103

Buildings,
exchangers

EN AW-4043A

EN AW-Al Si5(A)

Filler wire/rod

EN AW-5083

EN
AW-Al NHT
Mg4.5Mn0.7

R5556A

Ships, rail wagons,

bridges

EN AW-5251

EN
AW-Al NHT
Mg2Mn0.3

R-5356

Road
marine

EN AW-5356

EN
AW-Al Mg5Cr(A)

Filler wire/rod

EN AW-5556A

EN AW-Al Mg5Mn

Filer wire/rod

EN AW-6061

EN
Mg1SiCu

AW-Al HT

R4043A
R-5356

Structural, pipes

EN AW-7020

EN
AW-Al HT
Zn4.5Mg1

R5556A

Structural, transport

heat

vehicles,

HT = Heat treatable, NHT = Non Heat treatable

Imperfections in welds
Aluminium and its alloys can be readily welded providing appropriate precautions are
taken. The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are:

porosity
cracking
poor weld bead profile

Porosity
Porosity is often regarded as an
inherent feature of MIG welds;
typical appearance of finely
distributed porosity in a TIG
weld is shown in the photograph.

61

The main cause of porosity is absorption of hydrogen in the weld pool which forms
discrete pores in the solidifying weld metal. The most common sources of hydrogen are
hydrocarbons and moisture from contaminants on the parent material and filler wire
surfaces, and water vapour from the shielding gas atmosphere. Even trace levels of
hydrogen may exceed the threshold concentration required to nucleate bubbles in the
weld pool, aluminium being one of the metals most susceptible to porosity.
To minimise the risk, rigorous cleaning of material surface and filler wire should be
carried out. Three cleaning techniques are suitable; mechanical cleaning, solvent
degreasing and chemical etch cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning
Wire brushing (stainless steel bristles), scraping or filing can be used to remove surface
oxide and contaminants. Degreasing should be carried out before mechanical cleaning.
Solvents
Dipping, spraying or wiping with organic solvents can be used to remove grease, oil, dirt
and loose particles.
Chemical etching
A solution of 5% sodium hydroxide can be used for batch cleaning but this should be
followed by rinsing in HNO 3 and water to remove reaction products on the surface.
In gas shielded welding, air entrainment should be avoided by making sure there is an
efficient gas shield and the arc is protected from draughts. Precautions should also be
taken to avoid water vapour pickup from gas lines and welding equipment; it is
recommended that the welding system is purged for about an hour before use.

Solidification cracks
Cracking occurs in aluminium alloys because of
high stresses generated across the weld due to
the high thermal expansion ( twice that of steel)
and the substantial contraction on solidification typically 5 % more than in equivalent steel
welds.
Solidification cracks form in the centre of the weld,, usually extending along the
centreline during solidification. Solidification cracks also occur in the weld crater at the
end of the welding operation. The main causes of solidification cracks are as follows:

incorrect filler wire/parent metal combination

incorrect weld geometry

62

welding under high restraint conditions

The cracking risk can be reduced by using a non-matching, crack-resistant filler (usually
from the 4xxx and 5xxx series alloys). The disadvantage is that the resulting weld metal
may have a lower strength than the parent metal and not respond to a subsequent heat
treatment. The weld bead must be thick enough to withstand contraction stresses. Also,
the degree of restraint on the weld can be minimised by using correct edge preparation,
accurate joint set up and correct weld sequence.

Liquation cracking
Liquation cracking occurs in the
HAZ, when low melting point
films are formed at the grain
boundaries.
These
cannot
withstand the contraction stresses
generated when the weld metal
solidifies and cools. Heat
treatable alloys, particularly 6xxx
and 7xxx series alloys, are more
susceptible to this type of
cracking.
The risk can be reduced by using a filler metal with a lower melting temperature than the
parent metal, for example the 6xxx series alloys are welded with a 4xxx filler metal.
However, 4xxx filler metal should not be used to weld high magnesium alloys (such as
5083) as excessive magnesium-silicide may form at the fusion boundary decreasing
ductility and increasing crack sensitivity.

Poor weld bead profile

Incorrect welding parameter settings or poor welder technique can introduce weld profile
imperfections such as lack of fusion, lack of penetration and undercut. The high thermal
conductivity of aluminium and the rapidly solidifying weld pool make these alloys
particularly susceptible to profile imperfections.

63

Weldability of materials

Nickel and nickel alloys

Nickel and nickel alloys are chosen because of their:

corrosion resistance
heat resistance and high temperature properties
low temperature properties

Types of nickel alloys are identified and guidance is given on welding processes and
techniques which can be used in fabricating nickel alloy components without impairing
their corrosion or mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.

Material types
The alloys can be grouped according to the principal alloying elements. Although there
are National and International designations for the alloys, trade names such as Inconel
and Hastelloy are more commonly used.
In terms of their weldability, these alloys can be classified according to the means by
which the alloying elements develop the mechanical properties, namely solid solution
alloys and precipitation hardened alloys. A distinguishing feature of precipitation
hardened alloys is that mechanical properties are developed by heat treatment (solution
treatment plus ageing) to produce a fine distribution of hard particles in a nickel rich
matrix.

64

Solid solution alloys

Solid solution alloys are Nickel 200, Monel alloy 400 series, Inconel alloy 600 series,
Incoloy alloy 800 series, Hastelloys and some Nimonic alloys (such as 75, and PE13).
These alloys are readily fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat
affected zone (HAZ) does not harden, heat treatment is not usually required after
welding.

Precipitation hardening alloys

Precipitation hardened alloys are the Monel alloy 500 series, Inconel alloy 700 series,
Incoloy alloy 900 series and most of the Nimonic alloys (such as 80,90,263 and PE16).
These alloys may susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.

Weldability
Most nickel alloys can be fusion welded using gas shielded processes like TIG or MIG.
Of the flux processes, MMA is frequently used but the SAW process is restricted to solid
solution alloys (Nickel 200, Inconel alloy 600 series and Monel alloy 400 series) and is
less widely used.
Solid solution alloys are normally welded in the annealed condition and precipitation
hardened alloys in the solution treated condition. Preheating is not necessary unless there
is a risk of porosity from moisture condensation. It is recommended that material
containing residual stresses be solution-treated before welding to relieve the stresses.
Post-weld heat treatment is not usually needed to restore corrosion resistance but thermal
treatment may be required for precipitation hardening or stress relieving purposes to
avoid stress corrosion cracking.

Filler alloys
Filler composition normally matches the parent metal. However, most fillers contain a
small mount of titanium, aluminium and/or niobium to help minimise the risk of porosity
and cracking.
Filler metals for gas shielded processes are covered in BS EN 18274:2004 and in the
USA by AWS A5.14. Recommended fillers for selected alloys are given in the table.

65

Table 1: Filler selection for nickel alloys

Filler designations
BS
EN
ISO
AWS A5.14
18274

Trade names

Comments

Ni 2061

ERNi-1

Nickel 61

Matching filler metal normally contains

3%Ti

Ni 4060

ERNiCu-7

Monel 400

Matching filler metal contains additions

of Mn, Ti and Al

Brightray S

Ni 6076

NC 80/20

Nimonic 75

Ni 6076

NC 80/20

Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals may be

used

Alloy 800

Ni 6625

ERNiCrMo-3

Inconel
625 Usually welded with Ni-Cr-X alloys, but
Thermanit 21/33 more nearly matching consumables are
available which contain higher C and
also Nb

Alloy 600

Ni 6082

ERNiCr-3

Inconel 82

Matching
addition

Alloy 718

Ni 7718

ERNiFeCr-2

Inconel 718

Matching filler metal can be used but

Inconel 625 is an alternative consumable
offering increased crack resistance

Alloy 625

Ni 6625

ERNiCrMo-3

Inconel 625

Matching filler metal is also used widely

(for cladding and dissimilar welds)

Hastelloy C-22

Ni 6022

ERNiCrMo-10

Hastelloy C-22

Ni 1066

ERNiMo-7

Hastelloy B-2

ERNiCrMo-2

Hastelloy
Waspaloy

Alloy
Pure nickel
Nickel 200
Nickel Copper
Monel 400
Nickel Chromium

Nickel-ChromiumIron

filler

metal

contains

Nb

Nickel-ChromiumMolybdenum

NickelMolybdenum
Hastelloy B-2

High Temperature Ni 6002

Alloys

Corrosion resistant
matching fillers

alloys

require

X, Mechanical properties required in joints

dictate whether matching precipitation
hardening fillers or solid solution alloys
such as Inconel 625 are used

Imperfections and degradation

Nickel and its alloys are readily welded but it is essential that the surface is cleaned
immediately before welding. The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface,
remove all surface oxide by machining, grinding or scratch brushing and finally degrease.

66

Common imperfections found on welding are:

porosity
oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
weld metal solidification cracking
microfissuring

Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as:

post-weld heat treatment cracking

stress corrosion cracking

Porosity
Porosity can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment and surface oxide or
by hydrogen from surface contamination. Careful cleaning of component surfaces and
using a filler material containing deoxidants (aluminium and titanium) will reduce the
risk.
When using argon in TIG and MIG welding, attention must be paid to shielding
efficiency of the weld pool including the use of a gas backing system. In TIG welding,
argon-H 2 gas mixtures which provide a slightly reducing atmosphere are particularly
effective.

Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion

As the oxide on the surface of nickel alloys has a much higher melting temperature than
the base metal, it may remain solid during welding. Oxide trapped in the weld pool will
form inclusions. In multi-run welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not
be consumed in the subsequent run and will cause lack of fusion imperfections.
Before welding, surface oxide, particularly if it has been formed at a high temperature,
must be removed by machining or abrasive grinding; it is not sufficient to wire brush the
surface as this serve only to polish the oxide. During welding, surface oxide and slag
must be removed between runs.

Weld metal solidification cracking

Weld metal or hot cracking results from contaminants concentrating at the centreline and
an unfavourable weld pool profile. Too high a welding speed produces a shallow weld
pool which encourages impurities to concentrate at the centreline and, on solidification,
generates sufficiently large transverse stresses to form cracks.
This risk can be reduced by careful cleaning of the joint area and avoiding high welding
speeds.

67

Microfissuring
Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are
susceptible to formation of liquation cracks in reheated
weld metal regions or parent metal HAZ. This type of
cracking is controlled by factors outside the control of
the welder such as grain size or impurity content. Some
alloys are more sensitive than others. For example, the
extensively studied Alloy 718 is now less sensitive than
some cast superalloys which are difficult to weld
without inducing liquation cracks.

Post-weld heat treatment cracking

This is also known as strain-age or reheat cracking. It is
likely to occur during post-weld ageing of precipitation
hardening alloys but can be minimised by pre-weld heat
treatment. Solution annealing is commonly used but
overageing gives the most resistant condition. Inconel 718 alloy was specifically
developed to be resistant to this type of cracking.

Stress corrosion cracking

Welding does not normally make most nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ
corrosion. However, when the material will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates
or HF acid, stress corrosion cracking is possible.
After welding, the component or weld area must be given a stress-relieving heat
treatment to prevent stress corrosion cracking.

Weldability of materials

Copper and copper alloys

Copper and copper alloys are chosen because of their corrosion resistance and electrical
and thermal conductivity.
The various types of copper alloys are identified and guidance is given on processes and
techniques which can be used in fabricating copper alloy components without impairing
their corrosion or mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.

Material types

68

The alloys are grouped according to the principal

alloying elements. Although there are UK standards (BS
2780-2875) for the alloy designations, the alloys are
more commonly known by the generic type:

C Pure copper
CH Copper with small alloy additions
CZ Brasses such as copper-zinc (Cu-Zn)
NS Nickel silvers such as copper-zinc-nickel
(Cu-Zn-Ni)
PB Bronzes such as copper-tin (Cu-Sn)
(phosphor
bronze
alloys
also
contain
phosphorus)
G Gunmetals such as copper-tin-zinc (Cu-Sn-Zn)
(some alloys may contain lead)
CA Aluminium bronze such as copper-aluminium (Cu-Al) (most alloys also
contain iron and many nickel)
CN Cupro-nickels such as copper-nickel (Cu-Ni)

A number of popular alloys are listed in the Table together with the recommended filler
metal (compositions of TIG and MIG filler wires are given in BS2901 Part 3).
Typical alloys and recommended filler for inert gas welding
Alloy group

Typical alloys

Recommended filler

Coppers

Tough pitch

C7, C8

Phosphorus deoxidised C7, C8

Brasses

Low zinc, up to 30% Zn C9, C13

High zinc, 40% Zn

Not Recommended

20% Zn / 15% Ni

C9, C13

45% Zn / 10% Ni

Not Recommended

Silicon Bronze

3% Si

C9

Phosphor Bronze

4.5% to 6% Sn / 0.4% P C10

Nickel Silvers

Aluminium Bronze < 7.8% Al

Gunmetal
Cupro - Nickel

C12, C12 Fe

> 7.8% Al

C13, C20

6% Al / 2% Si

C23

Low lead

C10, C9, C13

Leaded

Not Recommended

10%Ni

C16, C18

30% Ni

C18

69

In terms of weldability, alloys have quite different welding characteristics. Copper,

because of its high thermal conductivity, needs substantial preheat to counteract the very
high heat sink. However, some of the alloys which have a thermal conductivity similar to
low carbon steel, such as cupro-nickel alloys, can normally be fusion welded without a
preheat.

Copper
Copper is normally supplied in the form of

oxygen bearing, tough pitch copper

phosphorus deoxidised copper
oxygen-free copper

Tough pitch copper contains stringers of copper oxide (<0.1% oxygen as Cu 2 O) which
does not impair the mechanical properties of wrought material and has high electrical
conductivity. Oxygen-free and phosphorus deoxidised copper are more easily welded.
TIG and MIG are the preferred welding processes but oxyacetylene and MMA welding
can be used in the repair of tough pitch copper components. To counteract the high
thermal conductivity, helium and nitrogen-based gases, which have higher arc voltages,
can be used as an alternative to argon.
Avoiding weld imperfections

In fusion welding tough pitch copper, high oxygen content leads to embrittlement in the
heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised copper is
more weldable but residual oxygen can result in porosity in autogenous welds especially
in the presence of hydrogen. Porosity is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire
containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti).
Thin section material can be welded without preheat. However, over 5mm thickness all
grades need preheat to produce a fluid weld pool and avoid fusion defects . Thick section
components may need a preheat temperature as high as 600 deg.C.

Copper with small alloying additions

Low alloying additions of sulphur or tellurium can made to improve machining.
However, these grades are normally considered to be unweldable.

70

Small additions of chromium, zirconium or beryllium will produce precipitation hardened

alloys which, on heat treatment, have superior mechanical properties. Chromium and
beryllium copper may suffer from HAZ cracking unless heat treated before welding.
When welding beryllium copper, care should be taken to avoid inhaling the welding
fumes.

Brasses (copper-zinc alloys) and nickel silvers

When considering weldability, brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups,
low zinc (up to 20% Zn) and high zinc (30 to 40% Zn). Nickel silvers contain 20 to 45%
zinc and nickel to improve strength. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is
the volatilisation of the zinc which results in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal
porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered suitable for fusion welding using
the TIG and MIG processes.
Avoiding weld imperfections
To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon bronze (C9) or
an aluminium bronze (C13). High welding speeds will reduce pore coarseness.
TIG and MIG processes are used with argon or an argon-helium mixture but not nitrogen.
A preheat is normally used for low zinc (<20% Zn) to avoid fusion defects because of the
high thermal conductivity,. Although preheat is not needed in higher zinc content alloys,
slow cooling reduces cracking risk. Post weld heat treatment also helps reduce the risk of
stress corrosion cracking in areas where there is high restraint.

Bronzes (tin bronze, phosphor bronze, silicon bronze and gun metal)
Tin bronzes can contain between 1% and 10% tin. Phosphor bronze contains up to 0.4%
phosphorus. Gunmetal is essentially a tin bronze with up to 5% zinc and may additionally
have up to 5% lead. Silicon bronze contains typically 3% silicon and 1% manganese and
is probably the easiest of the bronzes to weld.
Avoiding weld imperfections
These are generally considered to be weldable, apart from phosphor bronze and leaded
gun metal, and a matching filler composition is normally employed. Autogenous welding
of phosphor bronzes is not recommended due to porosity, but the risk can be reduced by
using a filler wire with a higher level of deoxidants. Gun metal is not considered
weldable due to hot cracking in the weld metal and HAZ.

Aluminium bronze
There are essentially two types of aluminium bronzes; single phase alloys containing
between 5 and 10% aluminium, with a small amount of iron or nickel, and more complex,
two phase alloys containing up to 12% aluminium and about 5% of iron with specific

71

alloys also containing nickel and manganese and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes
are preferred for welding this group of alloys. In TIG welding, the presence of a
tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (argon), or DC with a helium shielding gas.
Because of its low thermal conductivity, a preheat is not normally required except when
welding thick section components.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is essential, both before and after each run, to
avoid porosity. Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ
cracking can occur under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary to use
matching filler metals to maintain corrosion resistance but a non-matching, two phase,
filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase alloys are more easily welded. For both
types, preheat and interpass temperatures should be restricted to prevent cracking.

Cupro-nickels
Cupro-nickel alloys contain between 5 and 30% nickel with specific alloys having
additions of iron and manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are commonly welded
grades. These alloys are single phase and generally considered to be readily weldable
using inert gas processes and, to a lesser extent, MMA. A matching filler is normally
used but 70/30 (C18) is often regarded as a 'universal' filler for these alloys. As the
thermal conductivity of cupro-nickel alloys is similar to low carbon steels, preheating is
not required.
Avoiding weld imperfections
As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous
welding is not recommended because of porosity. Filler
metal compositions contain typically 0.2 to 0.5%
titanium, to prevent weld metal porosity. Argon
shielding gas is normally used for both TIG and MIG
but in TIG welding, an argon-H2 mixture, with
appropriate filler, improves weld pool fluidity and
produces a cleaner weld bead. Gas backing (usually
argon) is recommended, especially in pipe welding, to
produce an oxide-free underbead.

72

Weldability of materials

Titanium and titanium alloys

Titanium and its alloys are chosen because of the following properties:

high strength to weight ratio;

corrosion resistance;
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures.

Titanium is a unique material, as strong as steel but half its weight with excellent
corrosion resistance. Traditional applications are in the aerospace and chemical
industries. More recently, especially as the cost of titanium has fallen significantly, the
alloys are finding greater use in other industry sectors, such as offshore.
The various types of titanium alloys are identified and guidance given on welding
processes and techniques employed in fabricating components without impairing their
corrosion, oxidation and mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.

Material types
Alloy groupings
There are basically three types of alloys distinguished by their microstructure:
Titanium - Commercially pure (98 to 99.5% Ti) or strengthened by small additions of
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and iron. The alloys are readily fusion weldable.
Alpha alloys - These are largely single-phase alloys containing up to 7% aluminium and
a small amount (< 0.3%) of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. The alloys are fusion welded in
the annealed condition.
Alpha-beta alloys - These have a characteristic two-phase microstructure formed by the
addition of up to 6% aluminium and varying amounts of beta forming constituents vanadium, chromium and molybdenum. The alloys are readily welded in the annealed
condition.
Alloys which contain a large amount of the beta phase, stabilised by elements such as
chromium, are not easily welded.
Commonly used alloys are listed in Table 1 with the appropriate ASTM grade, the
internationally recognised designation. In industry, the most widely welded titanium
alloys are the commercially pure grades and variants of the 6%Al and 4%V alloy.

73

Table 1: Commonly used titanium alloys and the recommended filler material
ASTM
Grade

Composition

UTS
Mpa

(min) Filler

Comments

Ti-0.15O 2

240

ERTi-1

Commercially pure

Ti-0.20O 2

340

ERTi-2

,,

Ti-0.35O 2

550

ERTi-4

,,

Ti-0.20O 2 -0.2Pd 340

ERTi-7

,,

Ti-3Al-2.5V

615

ERTi-9

Tube components

Ti-6Al-4V

900

ERTi-5

'Workhorse' alloy

23

Ti-6Al-4V ELI

900

ERTi5ELI

Low interstitials

25

Ti-6Al-4V0.06Pd

900

ERTi-25

Corrosion
grade

resistant

Filler alloys
Titanium and its alloys can be welded using a matching filler composition; compositions
are given in The American Welding Society specification AWS A5.16-2004.
Recommended filler wires for the commonly used titanium alloys are also given in Table
1.
When welding higher strength titanium alloys, fillers of a lower strength are sometimes
used to achieve adequate weld metal ductility. For example, an unalloyed filler ERTi-2
can be used to weld Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloys in order to balance weldability,
strength and formability requirements.

Weld imperfections
This material and its alloys are readily fusion welded providing suitable precautions are
taken. TIG and plasma processes, with argon or argon-helium shielding gas, are used for
welding thin section components, typically <10mm. Autogenous welding can be used for
a section thickness of <3mm with TIG, or <6mm with plasma. Pulsed MIG is preferred to
dip transfer MIG because of the lower spatter level.
The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are:

Weld metal porosity

Embrittlement
Contamination cracking

Normally, there is no solidification cracking or hydrogen cracking.

74

Weld metal porosity

Weld metal porosity is the most frequent weld defect. Porosity arises when gas bubbles
are trapped between dendrites during solidification. In titanium, hydrogen from moisture
in the arc environment or contamination on the filler and parent metal surface, is the most
likely cause of porosity.
It is essential that the joint and surrounding surface areas are cleaned by first degreasing
either by steam, solvent, alkaline or vapour degreasing. Any surface oxide should then be
removed by pickling (HF-HNO 3 solution), light grinding or scratch brushing with a
clean, stainless steel wire brush. On no account should an ordinary steel brush be used.
After wiping with a lint-free cloth, care should be taken not to touch the surface before
welding. When TIG welding thin section components, the joint area should be drymachined to produce a smooth surface finish.

Embrittlement
Embrittlement can be caused by
weld metal contamination by either
gas absorption or by dissolving
contaminants such as dust (iron
particles) on the surface. At
temperatures
above
500C,
titanium has a very high affinity
for oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.
The weld pool, heat affected zone
and cooling weld bead must be
protected from oxidation by an
inert gas shield (argon or helium).
When oxidation occurs, the thin layer of surface oxide generates an interference colour.
The colour can indicate whether the shielding was adequate or an unacceptable degree of
contamination has occurred. A silver or straw colour shows satisfactory gas shielding was
achieved but for certain service conditions, dark blue may be acceptable. Light blue, gray
and white show a higher, usually unacceptable, level of oxygen contamination.
For small components, an efficient gas shield can be achieved by welding in a totally
enclosed chamber, filled with the shielding gas. It is recommended that before welding,
the arc is struck on a scrap piece of titanium, termed 'titanium-getter', to remove oxygen
from the atmosphere; the oxygen level should be reduced to approximately 40ppm before
striking the arc on the scrap titanium and <20ppm before welding the actual component.
In tube welding, a fully enclosed head is equally effective in shielding the weld area and
is be preferable to orbital welding equipment in which the gas nozzle must be rotated
around the tube.

75

When welding out in the open, the torch is fitted with a

trailing shield to protect the hot weld bead whilst cooling.
The size and shape of the shield is determined by the joint
profile whilst its length will be influenced by welding
current and travel speed. It is essential in 'open air' welding
that the underside of the joint is protected from oxidation.
For straight runs, a grooved bar is used with argon gas
blown on to the joint. In tube and pipe welding, normal gas
purging techniques are appropriate.

Contamination cracking
If iron particles are present on the component surface, they dissolve in the weld metal
reducing corrosion resistance and, at a sufficiently high iron content, causing
embrittlement. Iron particles are equally detrimental in the HAZ where local melting of
the particles form pockets of titanium - iron eutectic. Microcracking may occur but it is
more likely that the iron-rich pockets will become preferential sites for corrosion.
Particular attention should be paid to separating titanium from steel fabrications,
preferably by designating a specially reserved clean area. Welders should guard against
embedding steel particles into the surface of the material by:

Avoiding steel fabrication operations near titanium components.

Covering components to avoid airborne dust particles settling on the surface
Not using tools, including wire brushes, previously used for steel
Scratch brushing the joint area immediately before welding
Not handling the cleaned component with dirty gloves.

To avoid corrosion cracking, and minimize the risk of embrittlement through iron
contamination, it is best practice to fabrication titanium in a specially reserved clean area.

Weldability of materials

Cast irons
Cast irons are iron based alloys containing more than 2% carbon, 1 to 3% silicon and up
to 1% manganese. As cast irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily cast into complex
shapes and readily machined, they are an important engineering and structural group of
materials. Unfortunately not all grades are weldable and special precautions are normally
required even with the so-called weldable grades.

76

Material types
Cast irons can be conveniently grouped according to their structure which influences their
mechanical properties and weldability; the main groups of general engineering cast irons
are shown in the first figure.

Grey cast irons

Grey cast irons contain 2.0 - 4.5% carbon and 1 - 3% silicon.
Their structure consists of branched and interconnected
graphite flakes in a matrix which is pearlite, ferrite or a
mixture of the two. The graphite flakes form planes of
weakness and so strength and toughness are inferior to those of
structural steels.

Nodular cast irons

The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly
improved if the graphite shape is modified to eliminate planes
of weakness. Such modification is possible if molten iron,
having a composition in the range 3.2 - 4.5% carbon and 1.8 2.8% silicon, is treated with magnesium or cerium additions
before casting. This produces castings with graphite in
spheroidal form instead of flakes, known as nodular,
spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile irons. Nodular irons are available with pearlite, ferrite
or pearlite-ferrite matrices which offer a combination of greater ductility and higher
tensile strength than grey cast irons.

White cast irons

By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the carbon is
retained in the form of iron carbide without graphite flakes. However, iron carbide, or
cementite, is extremely hard and brittle and these castings are used where high hardness
and wear resistance is needed.

Malleable irons
These are produced by heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons
which are decomposed to give carbon aggregates dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix.
As the compact shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to the same
extent as graphite flakes, a useful level of ductility is obtained. Malleable iron may be
divided into classes. Whiteheart, Blackheart and Pearlitic irons.

77

Whiteheart malleable irons

Whiteheart malleable castings are produced from high carbon white cast irons annealed
in a decarburising medium. Carbon is removed at the casting surface, the loss being only
compensated by the diffusion of carbon from the interior. Whiteheart castings are
inhomogenous with a decarburised surface skin and a higher carbon core.
Blackheart malleable irons
Blackheart malleable irons are produced by annealing low carbon (2.2 - 2.9%) white iron
castings without decarburisation. The resulting structure, of carbon in a ferrite matrix, is
homogenous with better mechanical properties than those of whiteheart irons.
Pearlitic malleable irons
These have a pearlite rather than ferritic matrix which gives them higher strength but
lower ductility than ferritic, blackheart irons.

Weldability
This depends on microstructure and mechanical properties. For example, grey cast iron is
inherently brittle and often cannot withstand stresses set up by a cooling weld. As the
lack of ductility is caused by the coarse graphite flakes, the graphite clusters in malleable
irons, and the nodular graphite in SG irons, give significantly higher ductility which
improves the weldability.
The weldability may be lessened by the formation of hard and brittle microstructures in
the heat affected zone (HAZ), consisting of iron carbides and martensite. As nodular and
malleable irons are less likely to form martensite, they are more readily weldable,
particularly if the ferrite content is high.
White cast iron which is very hard and contains iron carbides, is normally considered to
be unweldable.

Welding process
Braze welding is frequently employed to avoid cracking. Braze welding is often called
'Bronze welding' in the UK. Bronze welding is a varient of braze welding employing
copper-base fillers, it is regulated by BS 1724:1990. As oxides and other impurities are
not removed by melting, and mechanical cleaning will tend to smear the graphite across
the surface, surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned, for example, by means of a salt bath.
In fusion welding, the oxy-acetylene, MMA, MIG/FCA welding processes can all be
used. In general, low heat inputs conditions, extensive preheating and slow cooling are
normally a pre-requisite to avoid HAZ cracking.

78

Oxy-acetylene because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxy-acetylene

welding will require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is low but the
wide HAZ and slow cooling will produce a soft microstructure. Powder welding in which
filler powder is fed from a small hopper mounted on the oxy-acetylene torch, is a very
low heat input process and often used for buttering the surfaces before welding.
MMA widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast iron because the intense, high
temperature arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat levels. The
disadvantage of MMA is the greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution but
using electrode negative polarity will help to reduce the HAZ.
MIG and FCA MIG (dip transfer) and especially the FCA processes can be used to
achieve high deposition rates whilst limiting the amount of weld penetration.

Filler alloys
In oxy-acetylene welding, the consumable normally has slightly higher carbon and silicon
content to give a weld with matching mechanical properties. The most common MMA
filler rods are nickel, nickel - iron and nickel - copper alloys which can accommodate the
high carbon dilution from the parent metal and produces a ductile machinable weld
deposit.
In MIG welding, the electrode wires are usually nickel or Monel but copper alloys may
be used. Flux cored wires, nickel-iron and nickel-iron-manganese wires, are also
available for welding cast irons. Powders are based on nickel with additions of iron,
chromium and cobalt to give a range of hardnesses.

Weld imperfections
The potential problem of high carbon weld metal deposits is avoided by using a nickel or
nickel alloy consumable which produces finely divided graphite, lower porosity and a
readily machinable deposit. However, nickel deposits which are high in sulphur and
phosphorus from parent metal dilution, may result in
solidification cracking.
The formation of hard and brittle HAZ structures
make cast irons particularly prone to HAZ cracking
during post-weld cooling. HAZ cracking risk is
reduced by preheating and slow post-weld cooling. As
preheating will slow the cooling rate both in weld
deposit and HAZ, martensitic formation is suppressed
and the HAZ hardness is somewhat reduced.
Preheating can also dissipate shrinkage stresses and
reduce distortion, lessening the likelihood of weld
cracking and HAZ.

79

Table 1: Typical preheat levels for welding cast irons

Cast iron type

Preheat temperature degrees C

MMA

MIG

Gas (fusion) Gas (powder)

Ferritic flake

300

300

600

300

Ferritic nodular

RT-150 RT-150 600

200

Ferritic whiteheart malleable RT*

RT*

600

200

Pearlitic flake

300-330 300-330 600

350

Pearlitic nodular

200-330 200-330 600

300

Pearlitic malleable

300-330 300-330 600

300

RT
* 200 degrees C if high C core involved.

room

temperature

As cracking may also result from unequal expansion, especially likely during preheating
of complex castings or when preheating is localised on large components, preheat should
always be applied gradually. Also, the casting should always be allowed to cool slowly to
avoid thermal shock.
An alternative technique is 'quench' welding for large castings which would be difficult to
preheat. The weld is made by depositing a series of small stringer weld beads at a low
heat input to minimise the HAZ. These weld beads are hammer peened whilst hot to
relieve shrinkage stresses and the weld area is quenched with an air blast or damp cloth to
limit stress build up.

Repair of castings
Because of the possibility of casting defects and their inherent brittle nature, repairs to
cast iron components are frequently required. For small repairs, MMA, oxy-acetylene,
braze and powder welding processes can all be used. For larger areas, MMA or powder
technique can be used for buttering the edges of the joint followed by MMA or
MIG/FCA welding to fill the groove.

Remove defective area preferably by grinding or tungsten carbide burr. If air arc
or MMA gouging is used, the component must be preheated locally to typically
300 degrees C.
After gouging, the prepared area should be lightly ground to remove any hardened
material.
Preheat the casting to the temperature given in Table 1.
Butter the surface of the groove with MMA using a small diameter (2.4 or 3mm)
electrode; use a nickel or Monel rod to produce a soft, ductile 'buttered' layer;
alternatively use oxy-acetylene with a poder consumable.

80

Remove slag and peen each weld bead whilst still hot.
Fill the groove using nickel (3 or 4mm diameter) or nickel-iron electrodes for
greater strength.

Finally, to avoid cracking through residual stresses, the weld area should be covered to
ensure the casting will cool slowly to room temperature.

Health, safety and accident prevention

General information
The Health & Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974, places a duty on
the employer to provide premises, plant and systems of work
which are, so far as it is reasonably practical, safe and without
risk to health. It also charges employees to take reasonable
care for their own health and safety and for that of others.
In this article, the general hazards which may arise when
carrying out welding and related operations, are identified. In
subsequent articles, guidelines will be given on the principal
health and safety considerations for each welding process.

Regulations and codes of practice

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act, 1974, requires that the risk to workers of injury
or ill health due to work activities should be minimised and there are many national and
international Regulations, approved Codes of Practice and Standards covering the safe
operation of welding and cutting systems. Those of more direct interest to welders and
welding engineers are listed at the end of the article. In the UK, particular attention
should be given to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) publications.

Safe assembly
Although welding and cutting operations require special considerations, personnel should
be aware of the general health and safety requirements of related fabrication activities.
Safe places and systems of work include handling and housekeeping.

81

The wrong and right way to carry out arc welding processes

Safe control of arc welding

Arc processes produce fumes which contaminate the atmosphere surrounding the work.
Precautions must be taken to eliminate the risk of electric shock. Actions to ensure safe
practice and accident avoidance will be presented in a subsequent issue.

Personal protection
Fume
Firstly, can exposure can be prevented by eliminating the generation of welding fumes
altogether? If not, fume will have to be controlled at source, perhaps by local ventilation.
Respiratory equipment should not be used until all other possibilities have been
eliminated. In general, respiratory protective equipment is used only as an interim
measure but there will be circumstances where, in addition to ventilation measures,
personal protection may be necessary.

Arc radiation
The arc can generate three types of radiation; ultra-violet, visible and infra red (heat)
radiation which can be injurious in the following ways:

ultra-violet: damage to skin and eyes(inflammation of the cornea and cataracts)

82

visible light: dazzle eyes and impair vision

infra-red: damage skin and eyes

Radiation may be direct or reflected from shiny or other reflective surfaces.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Protect face and eyes using a suitable welding shield equipped with eye protection
filter
Protect the body by wearing suitable clothing
Protect persons in the vicinity of the arc by means of non-reflective curtains or
screens

Fire and explosion hazards

Fire
There is an inherent hazard associated with gas processes. Additionally, both flames and
arcs in welding and cutting may create a fire hazard. When fighting a fire, the appropriate
fire extinguisher for the type of material must be used. Class C fires, for example those
involving flammable gases such as acetylene, are best extinguished by cutting off the gas
supply. Water and foam extinguishers should not be used on fires near to live electrical
equipment.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

Remove flammable material from the welding area

Cover remaining flammable material with fire resistant material
Before welding, check that the appropriate fire fighting equipment is at hand
After welding, observe surrounding area of the work for an adequate period of
time (suggest about one hour)

Explosion
There is danger of explosion when welding a container which previously contained
explosive or flammable substances; explosive material can be trapped in grooves, seams,
riveted joints or behind scale.
Safe practice and accident avoidance
Before welding, the following actions should be carried out:

Remove explosive material by steaming or boiling out

If the explosive material cannot be completely removed, fill the container with
water, an inert gas or pass steam through it

83

Welding in confined spaces

Special care should be taken in case toxic fumes or gases build up. In gas shielded
welding operations, there may be a danger from asphyxiating because of oxygen
deficiency. A suitably qualified person should assess the risk, determine the steps
required to make the job safe and recommend precautions to be taken during the welding
operation itself.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

Ensure adequate ventilation and, if necessary, use personal protection

Ensure that any used vessel does not contain flammable, poisonous or explosive
material
Ensure gas cylinders are not taken into the enclosed space
Check equipment for gas leaks
Ensure trained personnel are in attendance to deal with any emergency
Check by rehearsal that the worker can be rescued, should an emergency arise
At the end of work periods, shut off all gas supply valves and withdraw hoses and
equipment

Awareness of welding environments

Noise
As a general guideline, wherever it is difficult to carry on a conversation, it is likely the
noise level is unacceptable. HSE recommendations are that when the noise reaches
85dB(A), employers are required to offer hearing protection to their employees. As
continuous exposure for 8 hours or more to a noise level at or above 90dB(A) is
injurious, hearing protection is mandatory when this level is reached. Higher levels can
be tolerated for short periods but impulsive or peak noise in excess of 140 dB should not,
where practicable, be exceeded.
As damaging noise levels can be generated from some welding processes and allied
activities, welders will usually need hearing protection. For example, hand grinding may
emit noise levels of the order 108dB(A).
Safe practice and accident avoidance
If noisy equipment or processes cannot be avoided, one or more of the following
alternatives may apply:

Insulate the noise source as far as possible by fitting silencers or sound proof
enclosures
Insulate the operator from the noise source by wearing suitable ear protection
Where practicable, do not exceed impulsive noise levels in excess of 140 dB

84

Vibration
Portable tools which produce excessive vibration, may cause damage to the hands, often
called 'white finger' (Raynaud's phenomenon). As the hazard is particularly acute with
tools such as chipping hammers which rely on impact, their use must be minimised.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

Avoid or limit the use of equipment with excessive vibration

Keep the hands warm
Avoid an excessively strong grip when holding the tool

Designation of hazardous areas

It may be necessary to restrict entry to the work area to authorised persons wearing
suitable protection. Warning signs will be required for the following hazards:

For welding and cutting processes, where the arc is exposed, the warning for eye
protection should refer to the hazard of arc radiation
'Ear Protection Areas' where 8 hours exposure to noise levels is at, or above, 90
dB(A).

Further information
The following are useful standards and codes of practice relating to health and safety in
welding and allied processes:

HSE publications
EH 55,1990, The control of exposure to fume from welding and allied processes
HS(G) 53, 1990, Respiratory protective equipment: a practical guide to users
HS(G) 56, 1990, Noise at work, noise assessment, information and control
HS(G) 118, 1995, Electrical safety in arc welding

British standards
BSEN 169: 1992 Personal eye protection equipment used in welding and similar
operations
BSEN 470-1:1995 Protective clothing for welders
The information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive, Newcastle upon Tyne.

85

Health, safety and accident prevention

Oxyacetylene welding, cutting and heating

Guidelines are given on the principal health and safety considerations for oxyacetylene
welding to ensure safe welding practices.

The oxyacetylene process

The oxyacetylene process produces a high temperature flame,
over 3000 degrees C, by the combustion of pure oxygen and
acetylene. It is the only gas mixture hot enough to melt steel;
other gases (propane, LPG or hydrogen) can be used for
lower melting point non-ferrous metals, for brazing and silver
soldering and as a preheating/piercing gas for cutting.

Safe storage
Gases are normally supplied under high pressure in steel cylinders; in the UK, the colour
coding for the cylinders is maroon for acetylene and black for oxygen. To prevent the
interchange of fittings between cylinders containing combustible and non-combustible
gases, oxygen cylinders have a right-hand and acetylene have a left-hand thread. All
cylinders are opened by turning the key or knob anticlockwise and closed by turning
them clockwise.
Oxygen will cause a fire to burn more fiercely and a mixture of oxygen and a fuel gas can
cause an explosion. It is, therefore, essential that the oxygen cylinders are separated from
the fuel gas cylinders and stored in an area free from combustible material.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Store the cylinders in a well-ventilated area, preferably in the open air

The storage area should be well away from sources of heat, sparks and fire risk
Cylinders should be stored upright and well secured
Oxygen cylinders should be stored at least 3m from fuel gas cylinders or
separated by a 30 minute fire resisting barrier
The store area should be designated 'No Smoking'.

Handling compressed gases

Cylinders are fitted with regulators to reduce the gas pressure in the cylinder to the
working pressure of the torch. The regulator has two gauges, a high pressure gauge for
the gas in the cylinder and a low pressure gauge for the gas being fed to the torch. The
gas flow rate is controlled by a pressure adjusting screw which sets the outlet gas

86

pressure. The BCGA Code of Practice CP7 recommends the gauges are checked annually
and replaced every 5 years.
Factors to be considered are that the gas system is suitable for the pressure rating and the
hoses are connected without any leaks. Valve threads should be cleaned before screwing
in the regulator. The valve of an acetylene cylinders can be opened slightly to blow out
the threads but the threads in oxygen cylinders are best cleaned using clean compressed
air (the threads on hydrogen cylinders must always be blown out using compressed air).
As oxygen can react violently with oils and grease, lubricating oils or sealant for the
threads must not be used.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Cylinders are very heavy and must be securely fastened at all times
Cylinder valves or valve guards should never be loosened
Check the regulator is rated for the pressure in the cylinder
When attaching the regulator to the cylinder the joints must be clean and sealant
must not be used
Before attaching a regulator, the pressure adjustment screw must be screwed out
to prevent unregulated flow of gas into the system when the cylinder valve is
opened

Using compressed gases

Gases are mixed in the hand-held torch or blowpipe in the correct proportions. Hoses
between regulator and torch should be colour coded; in the UK, red for acetylene and
blue for oxygen. Hoses should be kept as short as possible and users should check
periodically that they are not near hot or sharp objects which could damage the hose wall.
Acetylene cylinders must always be used upright.
When connecting the system, and at least at the start of each shift, hoses and torch must
be purged to remove any inflammable gas mixtures. It is essential the oxygen stream does
not come into contact with oil which can ignite spontaneously. Purging should also not be
carried out in confined spaces.
The torch should be lit with a friction lighter or stationary pilot flame to avoid burning
the hands; matches should not be used and the flame should not be reignited from hot
metal, especially when working in a confined space.
The cylinders should not become heated, for example by allowing the torch flame to heat
locally the cylinder wall. Similarly, arc welding too close to the cylinder could result in
an arc forming between the cylinder and workpiece/electrode.
Although very little UV is emitted, the welder must wear tinted goggles. The grade of
filter is determined by the intensity of the flame which depends on the thickness of metal
87

being welded; recommendations for filters according to the acetylene flow rate are given
in the table (BSEN 169:1992).
Grade of filter recommended according to the acetylene flow rate:

Work

flow rate of acetylene in l/hr

up to 70 - 200
70
200
800

- over
800

Welding and braze welding of heavy metals e.g. steels, 4

copper and their alloys

Welding with emittive fluxes (notably light alloys)

5a

6a

7a

4a

Safe practice and accident avoidance

When cleaning the cylinder threads, connecting the regulator and purging the
hoses, protect face and eyes by wearing the appropriate head shield
Use a suitable welding shield equipped with the appropriate ocular protection
filter
Wear non-combustible clothing
Ensure the cylinder is not heated by the flame or by stray arcs from adjacent
electrical equipment

Leak detection
Joints and hoses should be checked for leaks before any welding is attempted. Whilst
acetylene may be detected by its distinctive smell (usually at levels of less than 2%)
oxygen is odourless.
Leak detection is best carried out applying a weak (typically 0.5%) solution of a
detergent in water or a leak detecting solution from one of the gas supply companies. It is
applied to the joints using a brush and the escaping gas will form bubbles. On curing the
leak, the area should be cleaned to remove the residue from the leak detecting solution.
Leaks in hoses may be repaired but approved replacement hose and couplings must be
used in accordance with BSEN 560:1995 and BSEN 1256:1996.

Backfire and flashback

A backfire (a single cracking or 'popping' sound) is when the flame has ignited the gases
inside the nozzle and extinguished itself. This may happen when the torch is held too near
the workpiece.

88

A flashback (a shrill hissing sound) when the flame is burning inside the torch, is more
severe. The flame may pass back through the torch mixing chamber to the hose. The most
likely cause is incorrect gas pressures giving too low a gas velocity. Alternatively, a
situation may be created by a higher pressure gas (acetylene) feeding up a lower pressure
gas (oxygen) stream. This could occur if the oxygen cylinder is almost empty but other
potential causes would be hose leaks, loose connections, or failure to adequately purge
the hoses.
Non-return valves fitted to the hoses will detect and stop reverse gas flow preventing an
inflammable oxygen and acetylene mixture from forming in the hose. The flashback
arrestor is an automatic flame trap device designed not only to quench the flame but also
to prevent the flame from reaching the regulator.

Backfire or flashback procedure

After an unsustained backfire in which the flame is extinguished:

close the blowpipe control valves (fuel gas first)

check the nozzle is tight
check the pressures on regulators
re-light the torch using the recommended procedure

If the flame continues to burn:

close the oxygen valve at the torch (to prevent internal burning)
close the acetylene valve at the torch
close cylinder valves or gas supply point isolation valves for both oxygen and
acetylene
close outlets of adjustable pressure regulators by winding out the pressureadjusting screws
open both torch valves to vent the pressure in the equipment
close torch valves
check nozzle tightness and pressures on regulators
re-light the torch using the recommended procedure

If a flashback occurs in the hose and equipment, or fire in the hose, regulator connections
or gas supply outlet points:

isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies at the cylinder valves or gas supply outlet
points (only if this can be done safely)
if no risk of personal injury, control fire using first aid fire-fighting equipment
if the fire cannot be put out at once, call emergency fire services
after the equipment has cooled, examine the equipment and replace defective
components

89

When a backfire has been investigated and the fault rectified, the torch may be re-lit.
After a flashback, because the flame has extended to the regulator it is essential not only
to examine the torch, but the hoses and components must be checked and, if necessary,
replaced. The flashback arrestor should also be checked according to manufacturer's
instructions and, with some designs, it may be necessary to replace it. BCGA Code of
Practice CP7 recommends that non-return valves and flashback arrestors are replaced
every 5 years.

Health, safety and accident prevention

Electrical hazards - Power sources and

installation
Guidelines are given on the principal health and safety considerations to ensure safe
welding practices and prevent accidents. The hazards associated with the use of electrical
equipment are highlighted.

The arc welding circuit

MMA and TIG processes can be either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)
whilst MIG is only operated with DC. As arc processes need a large current (up to 500 A)
but at a relatively low arc voltage (10 to 40V), the high voltage mains supply (230 or
400V) must be reduced. In its basic form, the power source for generating AC comprises
a transformer to reduce the mains voltage and increase the current for welding. For
generating the DC arc, a rectifier is placed on the secondary side of the mains-fed
transformer or alternatively, a motor- or engine-driven generator can be used.
90

Welding installations
Typical arc welding installations for both single and multi-welder operations are
described in HSE guideline No 118, Electrical Safety in Arc Welding. When the welding
circuit is connected, the following guidelines should be adopted:

the connection between the power source and the workpiece should be as direct as
practicable
use insulated cables and connection devices of adequate
current-carrying capacity
extraneous conductive parts should not be used as part of
the welding return circuit unless part of the workpiece itself
the current return clamp should be as near to the welding
arc as possible

When attaching the welding current and current return cables, it is

essential that an efficient contact is achieved between the
connection device and the workpiece to prevent overheating and
arcing. For example, current and return clamps must be securely
attached to 'bright' metal i.e. any rust or primer coatings should be
locally removed.

Power source and earthing

The normal practice in the UK has been to provide a separate earth connection to the
workpiece, ( Circuit a) so that, in the unlikely event of an insulation breakdown between
primary and secondary circuits, the fuses will blow. However, the separate earth
connection increases the risk of stray currents which may damage other equipment and
conductors.
As modern power sources have been designed to have a much higher level of insulation (
double or reinforced insulation), a separate earth connection is not recommended (
Circuit b).
There is a potential problem in that both designs can often be found in the same welding
shop. The newer power source can be identified by the power source's Rating Plate,
which indicates it has been manufactured to recent standards e.g. EN 60 974-1 or IEC
974-1.
In very old designs, the welding circuit was sometimes connected internally to the power
source enclosure ( Circuit c). However, the danger is that even with the welding return
lead disconnected, and a separate earth connection, welding is possible with current

91

flowing through the earth. Because of the risk of damaging protective earth and other
connectors, this type of power source is considered to be obsolete and should not be used.

Manufacturer's rating plate

The following symbols are used on the manufacturer's Rating Plate to indicate the type of
protection:

Electrical hazards
Electric shock
In all manual arc welding operations, the principal risk is from electric shock, most likely
from contact with bare live parts of the welding circuit. The arc voltage is within the
range 10 to 40V, but, as the voltage required to strike the arc may be substantially higher,
power sources have an open circuit voltage (OCV), typically up to 80V. Although these
voltages appear low compared with the 230V domestic mains supply, work by the
International Electrotechnical Commission shows that only voltages below 50V AC or
120V DC are unlikely to be dangerous to healthy people in a dry working environment.
In other conditions such as restricted conducting locations or wet surroundings, potentials
of 80V AC have been the cause of fatal electric shocks.
Appropriate protective clothing such as gloves, boots and overalls will protect the welder
from electric shock.

92

Stray welding currents

A different kind of electrical hazard can arise from stray welding currents which return to
the welding transformer by paths other than the welding return lead. For example,
although the return is disconnected, welding is possible when the return current flows
through:

protective earth (PE) conductors of other electrical equipment, or the power

source itself
wire ropes, slings and chains
metal fittings and pipework
bearings in motors

Damage to the PE conductor in particular could mean the equipment is no longer being
earthed.
Stray currents may be substantial and comparable with the welding current level where
there is poor or faulty insulation of the return lead which may be short- circuited by other
conductors. When welding on building structures and pipework installations, the welding
return lead should be placed as close as possible to the point of welding. The exception is
where the metallic grid, support structure or metallic ship hull is used as part of the
welding return circuit.
There is an increased risk of stray currents when welding on structures which have an
inherent connection to earth such as ships or pipelines. There could be an unacceptable
indirect current return path with damage to conductors if, for example, the current return
lead is detached and the circuit becomes open. The recommendations for the electrical
distribution systems and earth connections in various situations are described in HS(G)
118.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Welding equipment should conform to the appropriate standards (as listed at the end of
the article); electrode holders that are insulated overall are recommended so no bare
metal can be inadvertently touched.
Welding leads and return leads should be insulated and thick enough to carry the current
safely; connectors should also be insulated to avoid inadvertent access to live conductors
and adequate for the current being carried.
The welding return lead should be connected as near as practicable to the welding arc;
metal rails, pipes and frames should not be used as part of the welding circuit unless they
are a part of the workpiece itself.

93

Check the workpiece earthing requirements. When using a double or reinforced

insulation power source, stray currents can be avoided by not earthing the workpiece or
the welding output circuit.
The welding leads, connection devices and electrode holder or torch should be checked at
regular intervals for 'fitness for use'; repair or replace damaged or worn components.

Publications and relevant standards

1. HS(G) 118 'Electrical Safety in Arc Welding', HSE Books, 1994
2. 'The Arc Welder at Work', Welding Manufacturer's Association
3. EN 60974-1: 1998, Safety Requirements for Arc Welding Equipment. Welding
Power Sources.
4. BS EN 60974-1: 1998, Arc Welding Equipment. Power Sources.
5. BS EN 470-1: 1995, 'Protective Clothing for Use in Welding and Allied
Processes'
6. BS EN 60974-7: 2000, Arc Welding Equipment. Torches.
7. CLC/TS 62081:2000 'Arc Welding Equipment - Installation and Use'
(IEC62081:1999)
8. BSEN 60974-6:2003 'Arc Welding Equipment - Limited duty manual metal arc
power sources'.
The information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive and Geoff Melton, Chairman, BSI WEE-6 Committee.

Health, safety and accident prevention

Arc welding
This article gives guidelines on health and safety considerations when arc welding to
ensure safe practice and prevent accidents. The hazards associated with this process are
highlighted.
The wrong and right ways to carry out arc welding processes are shown schematically in
the figure at the end of this page. Regarding safe welding practices, the principal hazards
are associated with electric shock and arc radiation.

Electric shock
As the principal danger is an electric shock from the live parts of the welding circuit (the
electrode and the workpiece), the following practices are recommended.

94

Checking the equipment

Installation of welding equipment should be carried out by suitably qualified staff who
must check that the equipment is suitable for the operation and connected in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendations. The welder is responsible for checking the
equipment (cable, electrode holder and coupling devices) daily for damage and reporting
defects. All external connections should be clean and tight and checked each time a
reconnection is made. The welding return clamp should be connected directly to the
workpiece, as close as possible to the point of welding or to the work bench on which the
workpiece is placed.

Changing electrodes
In MMA welding, the electrode holder should be isolated when changing the electrode.
Where a workpiece is earthed, if the electrode is changed without isolating the electrode
holder, the welder is relying on the insulation properties of the glove to avert shock from
the OCV which can be 80V between the electrode and earth. If the glove is wet, the
electrode a bad insulator or the welder in contact with a conductive surface, one or more
of these layers of insulation may be ineffective.

Working in the open air

When welding outside, the equipment should have the appropriate level of waterproofing;
see manufacturer's Rating Plate (Fig. 2, Job Knowledge for Welders, No 28 ) which
should display one of the following ingress protection (IP) codes for enclosures:

IP 23 protection against limited spraying

IP 24 protection against spraying from all directions

If there is a risk of heavy rain, a cover for the welder, equipment and workpiece should
be in place.

Multiple welder operations

When two or more welders with separate power sources are working on the same
workpiece, or electrically-connected workpieces, it is essential that they are segregated.
This will reduce the possibility of electric shock from simultaneous contact with any part
of the two different systems.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Welders should not wear jewellery (especially rings) or metallic watch straps
Appropriate clothing should be worn. Gloves, boots and overalls will provide
some protection from electric shock
The welder should check daily, and after each reconnection, that all external
connections are clean and tight
95

When changing the MMA electrode, the electrode holder should be isolated
When welding stops for a short time, the MMA electrode holder should not be put
on the face shield or flammable material as it may still be 'live' at 80V or hot
enough to cause damage
When two or more welders (with separate power sources) are operating on the
same workpiece, they should work out of reach of each other

Environments with increased hazard of electric shock

These are as follows:

locations where the welder has restricted freedom of movement, working in a

cramped position (kneeling or sitting) or in contact with conductive parts
areas which are fully or partially restricted by conductive elements with which the
welder is likely to make accidental contact
welding in wet, damp or humid conditions which reduces the skin resistance of
the body and insulating properties of accessories

Where electrically conductive parts have been insulated close to the welder, there is no
increased shock hazard.
The equipment should conform to BS 638 Part 10. In MMA welding DC is safer than AC
welding. However, if AC is used the OCV or no-load voltage should be limited, where
possible, by a voltage reduction device. This limits the OCV to less than 48V until the
electrode touches the workpiece. Suitable power sources may be marked with S on the
manufacturer's Rating Plate (see Fig. 2, Job Knowledge for Welders No 28 ) and it is also
often displayed on the front of the power source.

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Wear protective clothing including insulating safety boots

Stand or kneel on a mat of insulating material which should be kept dry
Only use an all-insulated electrode holder
Place the welding power source outside the working environment
Ensure qualified support staff are in close proximity outside the working space to
give first aid and switch off the electrical supply
When welding outside, check the power source protection rating is adequate for
the environment and do not weld in the rain without a suitable cover

High frequency
In TIG welding, high frequency (HF) is used to start the arc and to stabilise the AC arc.
HF consists of sparks of several thousand volts but because they last for only a few
microseconds and are at a very low current, will not give an electric shock. However, HF

96

can startle the welder who could injure himself. If HF is concentrated on the skin, for
example through a hole in the glove, it can cause small, deep burns.
HF generates electromagnetic (EM) emission, both airborne or transmitted along power
cables. Care must be taken to avoid interference in equipment control systems and
instruments in the vicinity of welding.
Guidance on installation and use of arc welding equipment to minimise the risk of EM
interference is given in BS EN 50199:1995. In practice, the welder is advised to keep
welding cables as short as possible, close together and near to the ground. Workpiece
earthing may be effective but should only be done if it does not increase the risk to users
or damage other electrical equipment through stray currents (see Job Knowledge for
Welders, No 28).

Arc radiation
The welder must be protected from light radiation emitted from the arc by a hand or head
shield and protective clothing. The shield is fitted with filter glass, dark enough to absorb
infrared and ultraviolet rays. Filter glasses conform to EN 169:1992 and are graded
according to a shade number. This specifies the amount of light allowed to pass through the lower the number, the lighter the filter. The shade number is selected according to
welding process and current level.
For a given current level, the same shade number can be used for MMA and MIG
welding on heavy metals such as steel. However, a higher shade number is needed for
MIG welding light metals such as aluminium, and for MAG welding.
Screens must be used to protect other workers in the vicinity.

Publications and relevant standards

HS(G) 107
Maintenance of portable and transportable electrical equipment
HS(G) 118
Electrical Safety in Arc Welding, HSE Books, 1995
The Arc Welder at Work
Welding Manufacturer's Association
BS EN 60 974-1990
Arc welding power sources, equipment and accessories, Part 10, Specification for
safety requirements of arc welding equipment: welding power sources
BS EN 169:1992
Personal eye protection equipment used in welding and similar operations
BS EN 60 529:1992
Specification for degree of protection provided by enclosures (IP codes)
BS EN 60 974-11:1995

97

Arc-welding equipment: electrode holders

BS EN 470-1:1995
Protective clothing for use in welding and allied processes-general requirements
BS EN 50199:1996
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-Product standard for arc welding
equipment

The contrast between good and bad practice in arc welding

Bad practice
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

No face protection
No arm protection
Exposed cloth
Exposed solvent
Bystander exposed to arc
Fire exit obstructed
Fire bucket unsuitable for
electrical
fires
should contain sand
8. Fume extraction not effective
9. No work earth (if required)
10. Cable damaged

Hazards

Good practice

arc
eye,
burn
burn
fire
fire/explosion, toxic
vapour
arc
eye
fire,
burns
electric
shock
fume
electric
shock
stray arc, burns,
electric shock

This information was prepared in collaboration with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety
Executive and Geoff Melton, Chairman, BSI WEE-6 Committee.

98

Health, safety and accident prevention

Health risks of welding

fume/gases
Guidelines are given on the principal health and
safety considerations to ensure safe welding
practices and prevent accidents. Health risks
associated with fume and gases generated during
welding are highlighted.

What is welding fume/gases?

Welding fume is a mixture of airborne fine particles. Toxic
gases may also be generated during welding and cutting.

Particulate fume
More than 90% of the particulate fume arises from
vaporisation of the consumable electrode, wire or rod as
material is transferred across the arc or flame. The range of welding particles size is
shown in relation to the more familiar types of dust and fume. The respirable fraction of
particles (especially less than 3m) are potentially the more harmful as they can penetrate
to the innermost parts of the lung.

The range of welding particles size in relation to the more familiar types of dust and fume

Gases
Gases encountered in welding may be:

Fuel gases which, on combustion, form carbon dioxide and, if the flame is
reducing, carbon monoxide
Shielding gases such as argon, helium and carbon dioxide, either alone or in
mixtures with oxygen or hydrogen
Carbon dioxide and monoxide produced by the action of heat on the welding flux
or slag
Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone produced by the action of heat or
ultraviolet radiation on the atmosphere surrounding the welding arc

99

Gases from the degradation of solvent vapours or surface contaminants on the

metal.

The degree of risk to the welder's health from fume/gases will depend on:

composition
concentration
the length of time the welder is exposed
the welder's susceptibility

Health hazards from particulate fume

The potential hazards from breathing in particulate fume are:

Irritation of the respiratory tract

Fine particles can cause dryness of the throat, tickling, coughing and if the concentration
is particularly high, tightness of the chest and difficulty in breathing.

Metal fume fever

Breathing in metal oxides such as zinc and copper can lead to an acute flu-like illness
called 'metal fume fever'. It most commonly occurs when welding galvanised steel;
symptoms usually begin several hours after exposure with a thirst, cough, headache
sweat, pain in the limbs and fever. Complete recovery usually occurs within 1 to 2 days
of removal from the exposure, without any lasting effects.

Longer term effects

The continued inhalation of welding fume over long periods of time can lead to the
deposition of iron particles in the lung, giving rise to a benign condition called siderosis.
There is evidence that welders have a slightly greater risk of developing lung cancer than
the general population. In certain welding situations, there is potential for the fume to
contain certain forms of chromium and/or nickel compounds - substances which have
been associated with lung cancer in processes other than welding. As yet, no direct link
has been clearly established. Nevertheless, as a sensible precaution and to minimise the
risk, special attention should be paid to controlling fumes which may contain them.

Additional hazards
A number of other specific substances known to be hazardous to health can be found in
welding fume such as barium and fluorides which do not originate from the metal. If the
metal contains a surface coating, there will also be a potential risk from any toxic
substances generated by thermal degradation of the coating.

100

Health hazards from gases

The potential hazards from breathing in gases during welding are:

Irritation of the respiratory tract

Ozone can cause delayed irritation of the respiratory tract which
may progress to bronchitis and occasionally pneumonia.
Nitrogen oxides can cause a dry irritating cough and chest tightness. Symptoms usually
occur after a delay of 4 to 8 hours. In severe cases, death can occur from pulmonary
oedema (fluid on the lungs) or pneumonia.

Asphyxiation
There may be a risk of asphyxiation due to replacement of air with gases produced when
welding in a workshop or area with inadequate ventilation. Special precautions are
needed when welding in confined spaces where there is the risk of the build up of inert
shielding gases.
Carbon monoxide, formed as a result of incomplete combustion of fuel gases, can also
cause asphyxiation by replacing the oxygen in the blood.

Establishing safe levels of fume in the workplace

The COSHH Regulations require that exposure is controlled below specific limits. The
limits, known as occupational exposure limits, are detailed in EH 40 which is revised
periodically. The majority of limits listed are for single substances. Only a few relate to
substances which are complex mixtures; welding fume is one of these. It has an
occupational exposure limit but account must also be taken of the exposure limits of the
individual constituents. So, in considering what would be safe exposure levels to welding
fume, not only should exposure be controlled to within the welding fume limit but also
the individual components must be controlled to within their own limits. The assessment
of exposure to fume from welding processes is covered in EH 54.
Substances may have a maximum exposure limit (MEL) or an occupation exposure
standard (OES).
A MEL is the maximum concentration of an airborne substance to which people may be
exposed under any circumstances. Exposure must be reduced as far as is reasonably
practicable and at least below any MEL.
An OES is the concentration of an airborne substance, for which (according to current
information) there is no evidence that it is likely to cause harm to a person's health , even

101

if they are exposed day after day. Control is thought to be adequate if exposure is reduced
to or below the standard.
The OESs and the MELs of some of the substances found in welding fume are listed in
Table 1; the absence of other substances from this list does not indicate that they are safe.
Occupational Exposure Limits
8hr TWA

15
STEL

min

Substances Assigned a Maximum Exposure Limit

0.002 mg/m

Beryllium

0.025 mg/m

Cadmium oxide fume (as Cd)

Chromium VI compounds (as Cr)

0.05 mg/m 3

Cobalt

0.1 mg/m 3

Nickel (insoluble compounds)

0.5 mg/m 3

Substances
Standard

Assigned

an

Occupational

Exposure

Welding fume

5 mg/m 3

Fluoride (as F)

2.5 mg/m 3

Iron oxide, fume (as Fe)

5 mg/m 3

10 mg/m 3

Zinc oxide, fume

5 mg/m 3

10 mg/m 3

Manganese, fume (as Mn)

0.5 mg/m 3

Ozone

0.2 ppm

Nitric Oxide

1 ppm

Nitrogen dioxide

1 ppm

Chromium III compounds (as Cr)

0.5 mg/m 3

Barium compounds, soluble (as Ba)

0.5 mg/m 3

Carbon monoxide

50 ppm

Copper fume

0.2 mg/m 3

300 ppm

102

If the fume contains only substances such as iron or aluminium which are of low toxicity,
an 8 hour (TWA) OES of 5mg/m3 applies; this figure is the average concentration of
particulate fume that should not be exceeded in an 8 hour day.

Publications and relevant standards

EH 40
Occupation Exposure Limits, HSE Books.
EH 54
Assessment of Exposure to Fume from Welding and Allied Processes, HSE
Books, 1990.
EH 55
The Control of Exposure to Fume from Welding, Brazing and Similar Processes,
HSE Books, 1990.
The article was prepared by Bill Lucas (E-mail: bill.lucas@twi.co.uk ) in collaboration
with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive.
Further information, such as technical data on fume limits, can be obtained from Graham
Carter (E-mail: graham.carter@twi.co.uk )

Health, safety and accident prevention

Health risks from fume and gases during welding

Factors affecting composition and quantity of fume and gases.
The quantity and composition of welding fume and gases are influenced
by the following:

type of process
welding consumable
presence of any material coatings
nature of MMA flux coating, or core of FCA consumable
welding parameters
shielding gas composition

The two most important are the welding process and the choice of consumable.

103

Welding processes
Gas welding
Gas welding fume contains pollutants formed by combustion of the fuel gas. When an
oxidising flame is used, these will be carbon dioxide with oxides of nitrogen but, for a
slightly reducing flame, carbon monoxide will also be present.
Safe practice and accident avoidance
Providing there is good ventilation, the levels of fume and gases generated when welding
mild steel are normally well below the occupational exposure limits (OELs). No special
precauations are required.

Manual metal arc (MMA)

An MMA rod has a suitable composition for the weld metal but the flux covering
provides gases for the arc, additional alloying elements and slag for protecting the weld
pool. The composition and quantity of the fume generated will depend on the process
variables, for example, type of consumable, polarity, voltage and current. The toxic
elements in the fume will be similar to those in the consumable although the proportions
are likely to be different.
Safe practice and accident avoidance
For normal welding operations, fume exposure will generally be over the welding fume
exposure limit of 5 mg/m3. As stainless steel fume, in particular, causes respiratory tract
sensitisation (the welder becomes more susceptible to occupational asthma), special
precautions should be taken to control exposure. Local fume extraction should be used to
remove fume at source.

Flux cored arc (FCA)

Continuously fed wire in self-shielded FCA welding contains a flux which produces a
large amount of gas for the arc and protection/deoxidisation of the weld pool. Selfshielded wires are normally used for welding outdoors. In gas-shielded wires, which are
only used in the welding shop, an additional shield (CO2 or argon-CO2) is needed to
protect the weld pool. As FCA is normally employed at high welding current levels and
higher duty cycle, more fume will be produced compared with MMA.
Safe practice and accident avoidance
Providing sensible precautions are taken, self-shielded FCA welding taking place outside
will not need any fume removal measures. For gas-shielded welding inside a building,
similar precautions to MMA welding should be used, such as local fume extraction.

104

Metal inert gas (MIG/MAG)

MIG uses a solid wire and a separate gas to form the arc and shield the weld pool. The
shielding gas is normally CO2 or a mixture of argon-O2-CO2 and argon can be partly
replaced with helium. As well as the effect of the welding parameters, the mode of metal
transfer has a significant effect on fume levels.
Dip transfer mode operates at a low welding current level and has a characteristic short
arc length. Fume levels are low. However, spray transfer mode which operates at much
higher current levels and at a greater arc length generates higher fume levels.
Pulsed transfer mode operates at similar low current levels to dip transfer but with a
longer arc length and generates intermediate fume levels depending upon the welding
parameters.
Special mention must be made of the presence of ozone which is generated by the effect
of ultraviolet radiation on the air immediately surrounding the gas shield as shown in the
diagram. Welding of stainless steel and aluminium, in particular, can produce a
significant level of ozone and exposures may exceed the recommended OEL.
Safe practice and accident avoidance
Use local fume extraction equipment to remove fume at source. As ozone can be
generated away from the arc, additional general ventilation may be needed. If the fume is
not adequately controlled by these methods, the welder must wear Respiratory Protective
Equipment (RPE).

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) and plasma

The arc is formed between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece with an inert gas. As
the filler metal is added directly to the weld pool, metal does not pass through the arc so
there is considerably less particulate fume emission. In open workshop conditions,
exposure to particulate fume will normally be below the OEL of 5 mg/m3.

Welding of stainless steel and aluminum may

generate unacceptable levels of ozone.
Ozone is generated by the effect of
ultraviolet radiationon the air immediately
surrounding the gas shield.

105

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Good ventilation does not require fume extraction but when welding stainless steel and
aluminium, local extraction to control ozone may be needed.

Submerged arc
Submerged arc welding uses a bed of granulated flux to cover the arc. As the arc is not
exposed, there is negligible emission of fume and gaseous pollutants.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

No special precautions are needed but it should be remembered that dust may be
produced when filling the hopper with flux.

Exposure to welding fume and gases

The effect of process, consumable and parent metal composition on exposure assessment
is summarised in the Table. The Indication of fume levels assumes that no control
systems are being used.
The generic term Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) is used and may apply to one or all
of the individual constituents of the fume. The Assessment indicators summarise
information published in EH 54 'Assessment of exposure to fume from welding and allied
processes.'
The Welding Manufacturers Association has produced a standard format for hazard data
sheets to enable manufacturers to comply with their legal obligations under the Health
and Safety at Work Act 1974 Section 6. The hazard sheet contains the following
information:

chemical analysis of substances present in the fume produced by the consumable

the appropriate OELs

For safe use of consumables, reference should always be made to the manufacturers' or
suppliers' hazard data sheets.
It should be noted that in addition to particulate fume, where appropriate, risk assessment
must also include composition of shielding gases which may be toxic or asphyxiant.
Gases are also produced by the action of heat on the welding flux or slag (carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide) and heat or ultraviolet radiation on the atmosphere surrounding the
welding arc (nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone).

106

Effect of process, consumable and parent metal

composition on the assessment of exposure
Process

Material

Indication
fume level

Gas welding

Mild steel

Below
OELSs
except in poorly
ventilated
or
confined space

Carbon
dioxide,
carbon
monoxide (reducing flame)
nitrogen dioxide

Manual metal
arc (MMA)

Mild steel and

low alloy steels

3 mg/m3 -30
mg/m3 in open
workshop
conditions,
depends
on
operator variables

Iron oxide flux particulates eg

fluorides

Stainless steel

of

3
mg/m3-30
3
mg/m in open
workshop

Generally
in
excess of OELs
Aluminium,
copper, nickel
alloys,
cast
iron,
hardfacing
TIG
and
plasma arc

Mild and low

alloy steels

Less than OELs

Stainless steel
alloys

Less than OELs

for
particulate
fume,
greater
th
OEL f

Nature of fume
assessment indicators

Consumable
particulates,
may contain up to 8%
chromium,
the
majority
present
as
hexavalent
chromium (CrVI)
Consumable
particulates,
ozone in aluminium welding

Particulate
fume
from
consumable - shielding gas
can constitute a hazard in
confined spaces by reducing
the available oxygen to a
level which will not support
life
Ozone, shielding gases in
confined spaces

107

gases
Metal
inert
gas/metal
active
gas
(MIG/MAG

Mild and low

alloy steels

Generally
excess
of
mg/m3

in
5

Stainless steel
Greater
OELs
Aluminium
and aluminium
alloys

Flux-cored arc

than

Greater
than
OELs for gases
and fume

Particulate iron oxide, ozone,

shield gases. High fume
levels are obtained with CO2
shielding than with argon
Particulate
fume
from
consumable, ozone and shield
gases. Process related values
will apply to particulate fume
Particulate aluminium oxide
fume. Ozone levels can be
very high particularly with
aluminium/silicon
alloys
some distance from the arc

Mild and low

alloy steels

Greater than 10
mg/m3

Particulate iron oxide and

flux
materials,
some
consumables may give rise to
soluble barium in fume

Stainless steel

Greater than 10
mg/m3

Consumable
and
flux
particulates, chromium VI
likely to be present

Publications and relevant standards

EH 40 (updated annually)
Occupation Exposure Limits, HSE Books.
EH 54
Assessment of exposure to fume from welding and allied processes, HSE Books,
1990.
EH 55
The control of exposure to fume from welding, brazing and similar processes,
HSE Books, 1990.
Welding Manufacturers Association, Leaflet 236, Hazards from welding fume.
This article was prepared by Bill Lucas, E-mail: bill.lucas@twi.co.uk in collaboration
with Roger Sykes, Health & Safety Executive.

108

Further information and technical data on fume limits can be obtained from Graham
Carter at TWI, E-mail: graham.carter@twi.co.uk
Note: When assessing fume risk, the suppliers' data sheets and hazard information must
be fully consulted.

Health, safety and accident prevention

Control of welding fume

Exposure to fume
For many gas and arc welding processes, the fume concentration in
the immediate vicinity of the weld is well above its exposure limit.
The amount of fume generated is determined primarily by welding
process, consumable and welding procedure. However, the
following aspects are likely to influence the degree to which the
welder is exposed to fume:

welding position
location and type of workplace
exposure duration

Thus, welders using the same process may be exposed to different levels of fume. The
risks for each job should, therefore, be assessed individually.

Welding position
The welding position (flat, vertical, horizontal or overhead) and proximity of the welder
to the fume plume affect exposure. As the welder naturally bends over the workpiece, the
flat position induces the highest level of fume in the breathing zone. The welder should
adopt a working position which ensures that his head is away from the plume.

Location and type of workplace

Welding in a large workshop, or outdoors, prevents build-up of fume and gases.
However, in a small workshop, fume will not be readily dispersed and the welder may be
subjected to a higher than average exposure. Working in confined spaces, in particular,
requires an efficient, monitored, ventilation system so exposure is controlled and there is
no depletion of oxygen in the working atmosphere.

109

Exposure duration
Long and short term Occupational Exposure Limits (OELS) given in Job Knowledge for
Welders No. 31 relate to the average concentration over an eight hour period. Exposure
will be intermittent, mainly during the arcing period. There should be relatively little
exposure between arcing periods but this may be influenced by the presence of other
welders, effectiveness of control measures and general ventilation. Furthermore, as the
work pattern (arcing time and down time) vary from day to day, average exposure may
often only be assessed by frequent sampling.

Control of welding fume

If welding fume cannot be eliminated, control measures should be adopted as follows:

choice or modification of the welding process

improvement in working practices
ventilation
use of respiratory protection equipment (RPE)

RPE should not be considered until the effectiveness of all other techniques has been
explored.

Choice or modification of the welding process

Process choice is usually made on the basis of weld quality, economics and equipment
availability. Nevertheless, if other processes can be used, it should be borne in mind that
some processes, such as submerged-arc and TIG, generates significantly less particulate
fume than MMA, MIG and FCAW. Consumable manufacturers also supply information
on fume composition which can be used in selecting welding rods for a particular job.

Improvement in working practices

A substantial improvement can often be made by placing the workpiece so the welder can
avoid the plume which rises above the weld.
In large scale fabrications, the welding sequence should be organised to minimise the
work carried out in enclosed or confined spaces.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

adopt position and techniques to keep head out of welding plume

avoid welding in enclosed and confined spaces

110

Ventilation

The strategy for using ventilation to control fume is shown above.

General ventilation may be adequate if welding is of short duration and intermittent.
The most efficient way of controlling exposure to welding fume is its removal at source.
There are several methods of removing fume close to the weld:

111

Extracted benches

Extracted booth

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV)

112

On-gun extraction

As LEV and on-gun extraction systems are never 100% efficient, especially when
welding awkward structures, general ventilation may also be necessary to control the
background level of fume.
As each type of extraction equipment has limitations, it is important to select the right
equipment for each job. It is also essential that welders are adequately trained to use the
equipment and adopt good working practices. Supervision is needed to ensure the
equipment is being used effectively and to minimise background fume level in the
workshop.
Safe practice and accident avoidance

check that the equipment is working correctly and is regularly maintained, for
example, cleaning and replacing filters according to manufacturer's
recommendations
place the extraction hood or nozzle to capture the fume without disturbing the gas
shield
when welding large structures, reposition the hood at appropriate intervals to
ensure fume continues to be effectively extracted

Respiratory protection equipment (RPE)

Where fume needs to be controlled, LEV should always be used to achieve as much
control as possible. If LEV is not possible, or there is still unacceptable exposure, RPE is
needed. RPE should always be the least preferred means of control because it only
protects the wearer. Other methods are all aimed at preventing exposure whereas RPE is
essentially curative. There are two types of RPE:

respirators - workshop air cleaned before being inhaled

air-supplied - air supply is separate from workshop atmosphere

Selection of suitable RPE will require the advice of an expert who can make the selection
based on fume concentration, presence of toxic gases and whether there is a oxygen
deficient atmosphere.

113

Safe practice and accident avoidance

Consult expert in choice of respirator

Each welder to be personally fitted with an RPE to ensure that it provides
adequate protection
Personnel to be trained in use of an RPE and its maintenance and cleaning
Management to ensure systems exist for control of equipment and training

Distortion

Types and causes

This article covers several key issues on distortion in arc welded fabrications, especially
basic
types
of
and
factors
affecting
the
degree
of
distortion.

Dishing of the steel plate between longitudinal stiffeners can be seen clearly on the bow
of this ship (Courtesy MOD).

What causes distortion?

Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material,
non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and contraction of
the heated material. Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold
parent metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal
(heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling
when the contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted
by the bulk of the cold parent metal.
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume
change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature.
For example, when welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by
approximately 3% on solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat
114

affected zone (HAZ) will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the
melting point of steel to room temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of
the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation
causes a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure.

What are the main types of distortion?

Distortion occurs in six main forms:

Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Bowing and dishing
Buckling
Twisting

The principal features of the more common forms of distortion for butt and fillet welds
are shown.

Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal
shrinkage.
Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion in addition to
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage.
For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and
transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the

115

first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can
be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion.
Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular
distortion of the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control
distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of
the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the plate.
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not coincident
with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the
section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal
and transverse shrinkage of the cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also
produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards between the stiffeners, because
of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds (see main photograph).
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates,
resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling.
Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it
will probably 'snap' through and dish out in the opposite direction.
Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints This is
caused by unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the
number of tack welds to prevent shear deformation often reduces the amount of twisting.

How much shall I allow for weld shrinkage?

It is almost impossible to predict accurately the amount of shrinking. Nevertheless, a 'rule
of thumb' has been composed based on the size of the weld deposit. When welding steel,
the following allowances should be made to cover shrinkage at the assembly stage.

Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 600 V joint, depending on number of runs

Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld

Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage.

116

What are the factors affecting distortion?

If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. However,
because the material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding cold metal,
stresses are generated higher than the material yield stress causing permanent distortion.
The principal factors affecting the type and degree of distortion, are:

Parent material properties

Amount of restraint
Joint design
Part fit-up
Welding procedure

Parent material properties

Parent material properties which influence distortion are coefficient of thermal expansion
and specific heat per unit volume. As distortion is determined by expansion and
contraction of the material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a
significant role in determining the stresses generated during welding and, hence, the
degree of distortion. For example, as stainless steel has a higher coefficient of expansion
than plain carbon steel, it is more likely to suffer from distortion.

Restraint
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding
stresses. So, methods of restraint, such as 'strong-backs' in butt welds, can prevent
movement and reduce distortion. As restraint produces higher levels of residual stress in
the material, there is a greater risk of cracking in weld metal and HAZ especially in
crack-sensitive materials.

Joint design
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt joints by
adopting a joint type which balances the thermal stresses through the plate thickness. For
example, a double-sided in preference to a single-sided weld. Double-sided fillet welds
should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member, especially if the two welds
are deposited at the same time.

Part fit-up
Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint
gap can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld metal
needed to fill the joint. The joints should be adequately tacked to prevent relative
movement between the parts during welding.

117

Welding procedure
This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its
effect on the heat input. As welding procedure is usually
selected for reasons of quality and productivity, the welder
has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a general rule,
weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding
sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally
induced stresses around the neutral axis of the component.
The article was prepared by Bill Lucas in collaboration with Geert Verhaeghe and Rick
Leggatt. E-mail: bill.lucas@twi.co.uk

Distortion
design

prevention

by

Strongbacks on girder flange to prevent cross bowing. Courtesy

John Allen

General guidelines are given below as 'best practice' for limiting

distortion when considering the design of arc welded structures.

Design principles
At the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented, or at least restricted, by
considering:

elimination of welding
weld placement
reducing the volume of weld metal
reducing the number of runs
use of balanced welding

Elimination of welding
As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design requires that
not only the amount of welding is kept to a minimum, but also the smallest amount of
weld metal is deposited. Welding can often be eliminated at the design stage by forming
the plate or using a standard rolled section, as shown in Fig 1.

118

Fig. 1 Elimination of welds by: a) forming the plate; b) use of rolled or extruded
section

If possible, the design should use intermittent

welds rather than a continuous run, to reduce the
amount of welding. For example, in attaching
stiffening plates, a substantial reduction in the
amount of welding can often be achieved whilst
maintaining
adequate
strength.

Weld placement
Placing and balancing of welds are important in designing for minimum distortion. The
closer a weld is positioned to the neutral axis of a fabrication, the lower the leverage
effect of the shrinkage forces and the final distortion. Examples of poor and good designs
are shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2 Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the neutral axis

As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be minimised by
designing the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an individual weld are balanced by
placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral axis. Whenever possible, welding
should be carried out alternately on opposite sides, instead of completing one side first. In
large structures, if distortion is occurring preferentially on one side, it may be possible to
take corrective actions, for example, by increasing welding on the other side to control
the overall distortion.

Reducing the volume of weld metal

To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld metal should
be limited to the design requirements.
For a single-sided joint, the cross-section of the weld should be kept as small as possible
to reduce the level of angular distortion, as illustrated in Fig 3.

119

Fig. 3 Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage by: a)
reducing the volume of weld metal; b) using single pass weld

Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld can be
made satisfactorily. To facilitate access, it may be possible to specify a larger root gap
and smaller preparation angle. By cutting down the difference in the amount of weld
metal at the root and the face of the weld, the degree of angular distortion will be
correspondingly reduced. Butt joints made in a single pass using deep penetration have
little angular distortion, especially if a closed butt joint can be welded (Fig 3). For
example, thin section material can be welded using plasma and laser welding processes
and thick section can be welded, in the vertical position, using electrogas and electroslag
processes. Although angular distortion can be eliminated, there will still be longitudinal
and transverse shrinkage.
In thick section material, as the cross sectional area of a double-V joint preparation is
often only half that of a single-V preparation, the volume of weld metal to be deposited
can be substantially reduced. The double-V joint preparation also permits balanced
welding about the middle of the joint to eliminate angular distortion.
As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld metal, both poor joint fit-up and
over-welding will increase the amount of distortion. Angular distortion in fillet welds is
particularly affected by over-welding. As design strength is based on throat thickness,
over-welding to produce a convex weld bead does not increase the allowable design
strength but it will increase the shrinkage and distortion.

Reducing the number of runs

There are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given volume of weld
metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large number of small passes.
Experience shows that for a single-sided butt joint, or a single-side fillet weld, a large
single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than if the weld is made with a number
of small runs. Generally, in an unrestrained joint, the degree of angular distortion is
approximately proportional to the number of passes.
Completing the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in more
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage than a weld completed in a larger number of small
passes. In a multi-pass weld, previously deposited weld metal provides restraint, so the
angular distortion per pass decreases as the weld is built up. Large deposits also increase
the risk of elastic buckling particularly in thin section plate.

Use of balanced welding

Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a multi-pass
butt weld by arranging the welding sequence to ensure that angular distortion is
continually being corrected and not allowed to accumulate during welding. Comparative

120

amounts of angular distortion from balanced welding and welding one side of the joint
first are shown schematically in Fig 4. The balanced welding technique can also be
applied to fillet joints.

Fig. 4 Balanced welding to reduce the amount of

angular distortion

If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not

possible, or if one side has to be completed first, an
asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more
weld metal being deposited on the second side. The
greater contraction resulting from depositing the weld
metal on the second side will help counteract the
distortion on the first side.

Best practice
The following design principles can control distortion:

eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded sections
minimise the amount of weld metal
do not over weld
use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass
place welds about the neutral axis
balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double-V joint in
preference to a single-V joint

Adopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits. For example, for a
design fillet leg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length will result in the deposition
of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of depositing weld metal and the
increase risk of distortion, it is costly to remove this extra weld metal later. However,
designing for distortion control may incur additional fabrication costs. For example, the
use of a double-V joint preparation is an excellent way to reduce weld volume and
control distortion, but extra costs may be incurred in production through manipulation of
the workpiece for the welder to access the reverse side.

121

Distortion - Prevention by
pre-setting, pre-bending or
use of restraint
Assembly arrangement for main side plate fabrication
of the Stalwart carrier. (Courtesy of Roland Andrews)

General guidelines are provided as 'best practice' for

limiting distortion by adopting suitable assembly techniques.
In the 'Job knowledge for welders, Distortion - prevention by design', it was shown that
distortion could often be prevented at the design stage, for example, by placing the welds
about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding and depositing the weld metal
using a balanced welding technique. In designs where this is not possible, distortion may
be prevented by one of the following methods:

pre-setting of parts
pre-bending of parts
use of restraint

The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the component or
assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need to limit residual stresses.
Fig. 1 Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment
after welding
a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion
b) Pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion
c) Tapered gap to prevent closure

Pre-setting of parts
The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding
(see Fig 1). In practice, the parts are pre-set by a predetermined amount so that distortion occurring during
welding is used to achieve overall alignment and dimensional
control.
The main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no expensive
equipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure.

122

Unfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to

accommodate shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For example, when
MMA or MIG welding butt joints, the joint gap will normally close ahead of welding;
when submerged arc welding; the joint may open up during welding. When carrying out
trial welds, it is also essential that the test structure is reasonably representative of the full
size structure in order to generate the level of distortion likely to occur in practice. For
these reasons, pre-setting is a technique more suitable for simple components or
assemblies.
Fig. 2 Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to accommodate angular
distortion in thin plates

Pre-bending of parts
Pre-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is a technique used to pre-stress
the assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown in Fig 2, pre-bending by
means of strongbacks and wedges can be used to pre-set a seam before welding to
compensate for angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will allow the
parts to move back into alignment.
The main photograph shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to pre-bend the
fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion introduced though out-ofbalance welding.

Use of restraint
Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is the more
widely practised technique. The basic principle is that the parts are placed in position and
held under restraint to minimise any movement during welding. When removing the
component from the restraining equipment, a relatively small amount of movement will
occur due to locked-in stresses. This can be cured by either applying a small amount of
pre-set or stress relieving before removing the restraint.
When welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the correct position
until completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication sequence used to
minimise distortion.

123

Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld which may
cause cracking. When welding susceptible materials, a suitable welding sequence and the
use of preheating will reduce this risk.
Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold the parts
during welding.

Welding jigs and fixtures

Jigs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and to ensure that dimensional accuracy is
maintained whilst welding. They can be of a relatively simple construction, as shown in
Fig 3a, but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication can be
removed easily after welding.

Flexible clamps
A flexible clamp (Fig 3b) can be effective not only in applying restraint but also in
setting up and maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that is too
wide).
A disadvantage is that as the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred into the
joint when the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across the joint can be
quite high.
Fig. 3 Restraint techniques to prevent distortion

a) Welding jig

b) Flexible clamps

c) Strongbacks with wedges

d) Fully welded strongbacks

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Strongbacks (and wedges)

Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint especially for site work. Wedged
strongbacks, Fig.3c, will prevent angular distortion in plate and help to prevent peaking
in welding cylindrical shells. As these types of strongback will allow transverse
shrinkage, the risk of cracking will be greatly reduced compared with fully welded
strongbacks.
Fully welded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) Fig 3d, will minimise both
angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant stresses can be generated
across the weld which will increase any tendency for cracking, care should be taken in
the use of this type of strongback.

Best practice
Adopting the following assembly techniques will help to control distortion:

Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress
Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve
alignment and dimensional control with minimum residual
stress.
Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures,
flexible clamps, strongbacks and tack welding but consider the
risk of cracking which can be quite significant, especially for
fully welded strongbacks.
Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds
for restraint techniques which may need preheat to avoid
forming imperfections in the component surface.

Distortion - Prevention by fabrication

techniques
Distortion caused by welding a plate at the centre of a thin plate before welding into
a bridge girder section. Courtesy John Allen

125

Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure but
assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The principal
assembly techniques are:

tack welding
back-to-back assembly
stiffening

Tack welding
Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to
resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of
tack welds, their length and the distance between them. With too few, there is the risk of
the joint progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or
MIG, the joint edges may even overlap. It should be noted that when using the
submerged arc process, the joint might open up if not adequately tacked.
The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along the length
of the joint. Three alternative tack welding sequences are shown in Fig 1:

tack weld straight through to the end of the joint (Fig 1a). It is necessary to clamp
the plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking
tack weld one end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rest of
the joint (Fig 1b)
tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping (Fig 1c).

Fig. 1 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to

prevent transverse shrinkage
a) tack weld straight through to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by
the back-step technique

Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for example closing
a joint gap which is (or has become) too wide.
When tack welding, it is important that tacks which are to be fused into the main weld,
are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified welders. The
126

procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the main
weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the
component surface.

Back-to-back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back, welding of both
components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined assembly (Fig 2a).
It is recommended that the assembly is stress relieved before separating the components.
If stress relieving is not done, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the
components (Fig 2b) so when the wedges are removed, the parts will move back to the
correct shape or alignment.

Fig. 2 Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when

welding two identical components
a) assemblies tacked together before welding
b) use of wedges for components that distort on
separation after welding

Stiffening

Fig. 3 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent

bowing in butt welded thin plate joints

Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams

often results in bowing, especially when
fabricating
thin
plate
structures.
Longitudinal stiffeners in the form of flats or
angles, welded along each side of the seam
(Fig 3) are effective in preventing
longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is
important: they must be placed at a sufficient
distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding, unless located on the
reverse
side
of
a
joint
welded
from
one
side.

127

Welding procedure
A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality
requirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the welding process,
technique and sequence do influence the distortion level.

Welding process
General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are:

deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible

use the least number of runs to fill the joint

Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may increase
longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling.
In manual welding, MIG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to MMA. Weld
metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode (MMA), or the highest
current level (MIG), without causing lack-of-fusion imperfections. As heating is much
slower and more diffuse, gas welding normally produces more angular distortion than the
arc processes.
Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and high welding speeds have
the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is more consistent,
simple techniques such as presetting are more effective in controlling angular distortion.

Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:

keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size

use balanced welding about the neutral axis
keep the time between runs to a minimum

Fig. 4 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the

number of runs in the fillet weld

In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt

joints will be a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the
number of runs for a given cross section. Angular distortion
(measured in degrees) as a function of the number of runs for a
10mm leg length fillet weld is shown in Fig 4.

128

If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for example on
double sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In butt joints, the run
order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be used to correct angular distortion as
it develops.
Fig. 5 Use of welding direction to control distortion
a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding

Welding sequence
The sequence, or direction, of welding is important
and should be towards the free end of the joint. For
long welds, the whole of the weld is not completed in
one direction. Short runs, for example using the backstep or skip welding technique, are very effective in
distortion control (Fig 5).

Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the opposite
direction to the general progression (Fig.5a).
Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced,
sequence along the seam (Fig 5b). Weld lengths and the spaces between them are
generally equal to the natural run-out length of one electrode. The direction of
deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not necessary for the welding
direction to be opposite to the direction of general progression.

Best practice
The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:

using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap

identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the
neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds
of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to
deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas
welding and mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; back-step
or skip welding techniques should be used.

129

Distortion - corrective techniques

Local heating of the flange edges to produce curved beams for a bridge structure

Every effort should be made to avoid distortion at the

design stage and by using suitable fabrication procedures.
As it is not always possible to avoid distortion during
fabrication, several well-established corrective techniques
can be employed. However, reworking to correct distortion
should not be undertaken lightly as it is costly and needs
considerable skill to avoid damaging the component.
In this issue, general guidelines are provided on 'best
practice' for correcting distortion using mechanical or
thermal techniques.

Mechanical techniques
The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and pressing. Hammering may cause
surface damage and work hardening.
In cases of bowing or angular distortion, the complete component can often be
straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering. Packing pieces are
inserted between the component and the platens of the press. It is important to impose
sufficient deformation to give over-correction so that the normal elastic spring-back will
allow the component to assume its correct shape.
Fig. 1 Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint

Pressing to correct bowing in a flanged plate is illustrated in

Fig. 1. In long components, distortion is removed
progressively in a series of incremental pressings; each one
acting over a short length. In the case of the flanged plate, the
load should act on the flange to prevent local damage to the
web at the load points. As incremental point loading will only
produce an approximately straight component, it is better to
use a former to achieve a straight component or to produce a
smooth curvature.

130

Best practice for mechanical straightening

The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove distortion:

Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-back will
return the component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent
buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe
practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area

Thermal techniques
The basic principle behind thermal techniques is to create
sufficiently high local stresses so that, on cooling, the component
is pulled back into shape.
Fig. 2 Localized heating to correct distortion

This is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where plastic

deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength material tries to expand against the
surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. On cooling to room temperature the heated
area will attempt to shrink to a smaller size than before heating. The stresses generated
thereby will pull the component into the required shape. (See Fig. 2)
Local heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effective means of correcting welding
distortion. Shrinkage level is determined by size, number, location and temperature of the
heated zones. Thickness and plate size determines the area of the heated zone. Number
and placement of heating zones are largely a question of experience. For new jobs, tests
will often be needed to quantify the level of shrinkage.
Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in thermal correction of
distortion.

131

Spot heating
Fig. 3 Spot heating for correcting buckling

Spot heating (Fig. 3), is used to remove buckling, for

example when a relatively thin sheet has been welded to
a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot heating on
the convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can
be arranged symmetrically, starting at the centre of the
buckle and working outwards.

Line heating
Fig. 4 Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld

Heating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for

example, in fillet welds (Fig. 4). The component is heated along the
line of the welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the
induced stresses will pull the flange flat.

Wedge-shaped heating
To correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be
necessary to heat whole areas in addition to employing line
heating. The pattern aims at shrinking one part of the
fabrication to pull the material back into shape.
Fig. 5 Use of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate

Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating

zone should be used, (Fig. 5) from base to apex and the
temperature profile should be uniform through the plate
thickness. For thicker section material, it may be necessary to
use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
As a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate (Fig. 5) wedge dimensions should be:
1. Length of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width
2. Width of wedge (base) - one sixth of its length (base to apex)

132

The degree of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m length of plate.

Wedge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of situations, (Fig. 6):
1. Standard rolled section which needs correction in two planes,(Fig. 6a)
2. Buckle at edge of plate as an alternative to rolling (Fi.g 6b)
3. Box section fabrication which is distorted out of plane (Fig. 6c)
Fig. 6 Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
a) standard rolled b)
steel
section

buckled

edge

of

plate c)

box

fabrication

General precautions
The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are the risk of overshrinking too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too
high a temperature. As a general rule, when correcting distortion in steels the
temperature of the area should be restricted to approximately to 60 - 650C - dull
red heat.
If the heating is interrupted, or the heat lost, the operator must allow the metal to
cool and then begin again.

Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating

The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove
distortion:

use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures

other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating
technique
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component

133

limit the temperature to 60 to 650C (dull red heat)

in steels to prevent metallurgical damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of
the wedge, penetrate evenly through the plate
thickness and maintain an even temperature

Standards - application
standards, codes of practice and quality
levels
Production at Dennis vehicle manufacturers

Application standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or component will
have an acceptable level of quality and be fit for the intended purpose.
In this document, the requirements for standards on welding procedure and welder
approval are explained together with the quality levels for imperfections. It should be
noted that the term approval is used in European standards in the context of both testing
and documentation. The equivalent term in the ASME standard is qualification.

Application standards and codes

There are essentially three types of standards which can be referenced in fabrication:

Application and design

Specification and approval of welding procedures
Approval of welders

There are also specific standards covering material specifications, consumables, welding
equipment and health and safety. British Standards are used to specify the requirements,
for example, in approving a welding procedure, they are not a legal requirement but may
be cited by the Regulatory Authority as a means of satisfying the law. Health and Safety
guidance documents and codes of practice may also recommend standards.
Codes of practice differ from standards in that they are intended to give recommendations
and guidance, for example, on the validation of power sources for welding. It is not
intended that should be used as a mandatory, or contractual, document.

134

Most fabricators will be working to one of the following:

Company or industry specific standards

National BS (British Standard)
European BS EN (British Standard European Standard)
US AWS (American Welding Society) and ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers)
International ISO (International Standards Organisation)

Examples of application codes and standards and related welding procedure and welder
approval standards are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Examples of application codes and standards and related welding procedure
and welder approval standards
Welding standard
Application

Application
code/standard

Procedure approval Welder approval

Pressure Vessels

PD
ASME VIII

5500 BS
EN
ASME IX

Process Pipework

BS
BS
ANSI/ASME
ANSI/ASME
BS 2971

Structural
Fabrication

AWS
AWS
BS
EN
BS 8118

D1.1
D1.1 AWS
D1.2
D1.2 AWS
1011 BS EN 288 (Part 3)
BS EN 288 (Part 4)

AWS
AWS
BS
EN
BS
EN
BS 4872

D1.1
D1.2
287
287

Storage Tanks

BS
BS
API 620/650

EN
2654 BS EN 288 (Parts 3 & BS
BS
EN
2594 4)
BS EN 288 (Parts 3 & ASME IX
4)
ASME IX

287
287

2633
4677
B311
B31.3

288 BS
EN
ASME IX

287

BS EN 288 (Part 3) BS EN 287 (Part

BS EN 288 (Part 4) 1)
ASME
IX BS EN 287 (Part
ASME
IX 2)
IX
BS EN 288 (Part 3) ASME
ASME
IX
(if required)
BS 4872/BS EN
287

Note 1: Reference should be made to the application codes/standards for any additional
requirements to those specified in BS EN 287, BS EN 288 and ASME IX.

135

Note 2: Some BS Standards have not been revised to include the new BS EN standards:
BS EN 287 and BS EN 288 should be substituted, as appropriate, for BS 4871 and BS
4870, respectively, which have been with drawn.

In European countries, national standards are being replaced by EN standards. However,

when there is no equivalent EN standard, the National standard can be used. For example,
BS EN 287 replaces BS 4871 but BS 4872 remains as a valid standard.

Approval of welding procedures and welders

An application standard or code of practice will include requirements or guidelines on
material, design of joint, welding process, welding procedure, welder qualification and
inspection or may invoke other standards for example for welding procedure and welder
approval tests. The manufacturer will normally be required to approve the welding
procedure and welder qualification. The difference between a welding procedure
approval and a welder qualification test is as follows:

The welding procedure approval test is carried out by a competent welder and the
quality of the weld is assessed using non-destructive and mechanical testing
techniques. The intention is to demonstrate that the proposed welding procedure
will produce a welded joint which will satisfy the specified requirements of weld
quality and mechanical properties.
The welder approval test examines a welder's skill and ability in producing a
satisfactory test weld. The test may be performed with or without a qualified
welding procedure (note, without an approved welding procedure the welding
parameters must be recorded).

The requirements for approvals are determined by the relevant application standard or as
a condition of contract (Table 1).
EN 287 and ASME IX would be appropriate for welders on high quality work such as
pressure vessels, pressure vessel piping and off-shore structures and other products where
the consequences of failure, stress levels and complexity mean that a high level of welded
joint integrity is essential. In less demanding situations, such as small to medium building
frames and general light structural and non- structural work, an approved welding
procedure may not be necessary. However, to ensure an adequate level of skill, it is
recommended that the welder be approved to a less stringent standard e.g. BS 4872.
'Coded welder' is often used to denote an approved welder but the term is not recognised
in any of the standards. However, it is used in the workplace to describe those welders
whose skill and technical competence have been approved to the requirements of an
appropriate standard.

136

Quality Acceptance Levels for Welding Procedure and Welder Approval

Tests
When welding to application standards and codes, consideration must be given to the
imperfection acceptance criteria which must be satisfied. Some standards contain an
appropriate section relating to the acceptance levels while others make use of a separate
standard. For example, in welding procedure and welder approval tests to EN 288 Pt3 and
EN 287 Pt1, respectively, reference is made to BS EN ISO 5817. It is important to note
that the application standard may specify more stringent imperfection acceptance levels
and/or require additional tests to be carried out as part of the welding procedure approval
test. For example, for joints which must operate at high temperatures, elevated
temperature tensile test may be required whereas for low temperature applications,
impact or CTOD tests may be specified.
Guidance on permissible levels of imperfections in arc welded joints in steel are given in
BS EN ISO 5817. Production quality, but not fitness-for-purpose, is defined in terms of
three levels of quality for imperfections:

Moderate - Level D
Intermediate- Level C
Stringent - Level B

The standard applies to most arc welding processes and covers imperfections such as
cracks, porosity, inclusions, poor bead geometry, lack of penetration and misalignment.
As the quality levels are related to the types of welded joint and not to a particular
component, they can be applied to most applications for procedure and welder approval.
The quality levels which are the most appropriate for production joints will be
determined by the relevant application standard which may cover design considerations,
mode of stressing (e.g. static, dynamic), service conditions (e.g. temperature,
environment) and consequences of failure.
When working to the European Standards, the welding procedure, or the welder, will be
qualified if the imperfections in the test piece are within the specified limits of Level B
except for excess weld metal, excess convexity, excess throat thickness and excess
penetration type imperfections when Level C will apply.
Guidance levels for aluminium joints are given in BS EN 30042.
For the American standards ASME IX and AWS D1.1, the acceptance levels are
contained in the standard. Application codes may specify more stringent imperfection
acceptance levels and/or additional tests.

137

Relevant Standards

American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code, AWS D1.1

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX: Welding Qualifications
BS 4872 Approval Testing of Welders when Welding Procedure Approval is not
Required
BS EN 287:1998 Approval Testing of welders for fusion welding
BS EN 288: Specification and approval of welding procedures for metallic
materials
BS EN ISO 5817:2003 Welding - fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium
and their alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1:1998 Welding and allied processes - Classification of
geometric imperfections in metallic materials
BS EN 30042:1994 Arc-welded joints in aluminium and its weldable alloys.
Guidance on quality levels for imperfections.

Standards - Approval of welding

procedures, welders and welding
operators
For a given application, the main way of ensuring
adequate weld quality is to specify the procedure and the
skill level of the welding operator. Here, the alternative
routes for welding procedure approval are described
together with the requirements for welder or welding
operator approval.

Routes to welding procedure approval

AC TIG welding of aluminium

cryogenic
pressure
vessel
Courtesy of Air Products PLC

The key document is the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) which details the
welding variables to be used to ensure a welded joint will achieve the specified levels of
weld quality and mechanical properties.

The WPS is supported by a number of documents (eg a record of how the weld was
made, NDE, mechanical test results) which together comprise a welding approval record
termed the WPAR (EN288) or PQR (ASME).
In both the European and ASME standards, there are a number of 'essential variables'
specified which, if changed, may affect either weld quality or mechanical properties.

138

Therefore, a change in any of the essentials will invalidate the welding procedure and
will require a new approval test to be carried out. The essential variables are detailed in
the relevant specification but include material type, welding process, thickness range and
sometimes welding position.

The route followed to produce a WPS in EN 288

and the responsibilities of the manufacturer and the
Examiner/Examining Body are shown in Fig. 1.
The most common method of gaining approval is
to carry out an approval test as described in EN
288 Pt3 (steels) and Pt4 (aluminium and its alloys).
The manufacturer initially drafts a preliminary
welding procedure (pWPS) which is used by one
of the manufacturer's competent welders to prove
that it is capable of producing a welded joint to the
specified levels of weld quality and mechanical
properties. The welding procedure approval record
(WPAR) is a record of this weld. If the WPAR is
approved by the Examiner, it is used to finalise one
or more WPSs which is the basis for the Work
Instructions given to the welder.
It is noteworthy that the welder carrying out a
satisfactory welding procedure approval test is
Fig. 1. Stages in welding and welder
approved for the appropriate range of approval
given in the relevant standard (EN 287, ASME IX approval
or AWS D1.1).

EN 288 also permits the following options for procedure approval:

Welding procedure test

Approved welding consumable
Previous welding experience
Standard welding procedure
Pre-production welding test

The conventional procedure test (as specified in Parts 3 or 4) does not always need to be
carried out to gain approval. But alternative methods have certain limits of application
regarding, for example, welding processes, materials and consumables as specified in the
appropriate application standard or contract agreement.
The welding procedure test method of approval is often a mandatory requirement of the
Application Standard. If not, the contracting parties can agree to use one of the alternative

139

methods. For example, a welding procedure specification can be approved in accordance

with the requirements of Part 6 (previous experience) on condition that the manufacturer
can prove, with appropriate documentation, that the type of joint has previously been
welded satisfactorily.
The American standard, ASME IX requires a welding procedure test (PQR) but AWS
D1.1 will allow the use of pre-qualified procedures within the limits detailed in the
specification.

Welder approval
The welder approval test is carried out to demonstrate that the welder has the necessary
skill to produce a satisfactory weld under the conditions used in production as detailed in
the approved WPS or Work Instruction. As a general rule, the test piece approves the
welder not only for the conditions used in the test but also for all joints which are
considered easier to weld.
As the welder's approval test is carried out on a test piece which is representative of the
joint to be welded, it is independent of the type of construction. The precise conditions,
called 'essential variables', must be specified in the approval test eg material type,
welding process, joint type, dimensions and welding position. The extent of approval is
not necessarily restricted to the conditions used for the test but covers a group of similar
materials or a range of situations which are considered easier to weld.
It is important to note that a number of Amendments and Corrigenda have now been
issued which affect the range of approval (see list of Relevant Standards).
In EN 287, the certificate of approval testing is issued under the sole responsibility of the
Examiner / Examining Body. The welder approval certificate remains valid subject to the
requirements of the application standard. In EN 287, it can be extended at six monthly
intervals by the employer for up to two years provided the welder has been successfully
welding similar joints. After two years, prolongation of the welder's qualification will
need approval of the Examiner who will require proof that his or her performance has
been of the required standard during the period of validity. As the Examiner will
normally examine the company's records on the welder's work and tests as proof that he
has maintained his skill, it is essential that work records are maintained by the company.
It should also be noted that EN 287 requires records of tests ie half yearly documentation
about X-ray or ultrasonic inspections or test reports on fracture tests must be maintained
with the welder's approval certificate (tests on production welds will satisfy this
requirement). Failure to comply will necessitate a retest.
American standards have similar requirements although the extent of approval of the
welding variables are different to those of EN 287.

Welding operator approval

140

When required by the contract or application standard, the welding operators responsible
for setting up and/or adjustment of fully mechanised and automatic equipment must be
approved but the personnel operating the equipment do not need approval. In clarifying
the term 'welding operator', personnel who are using the equipment (loading and
unloading robotic equipment or operating a resistance welding machine) do not require
approval.
As specified in EN 1418, approval of operators of equipment for fusion welding and
resistance weld equipment setters can be based on:

welding a procedure test

pre-production welding test or production test
production sample testing or a function test.

It should be noted that the methods must be supplemented by a functional test appropriate
to the welding unit. However, a test of knowledge relating to welding technology which
is the equivalent of 'Job knowledge for welders' in EN 287 is recommended but not
mandatory.
Prolongation of the welding operator approval is generally in accordance with the
requirements of EN 287. The welding operator's approval remains valid for two years
providing the employer/welding co-ordinator confirms that there has been a reasonable
continuity of welding work (period of interruption no longer than six months) and there is
no reason to question the welding operator's knowledge.
The validity of approval may be prolonged for further periods of two years by the
examiner / examining body providing there is proof of production welds of the required
quality, and appropriate test records maintained with the operator's certificate.
When working to ASME IX, operators for both mechanised and automatic welding
equipment require approval. The essential variables are different to those in welder
approval.

Relevant Standards
EN 287: Part 1. Steels
(Amendment 9665, August 1997)
(Amendment 9804, January 1998)
(Corrigenda No 1, April 1998)
Part 2.Aluminium and alloys
(Amendment No 9733, November 1997)
(Corrigenda No 1 June, 1998)

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EN 288: Part 3. Steels

(Amendment No 9736, November 1997)
(Corrigenda No 1, June 1998)
EN 1418 : 1998 Welding personnel - Approval testing of welding operators for fusion
welding and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic welding of
metallic materials

Weld defects / imperfections - incomplete

root fusion or penetration The SS Schenectady, an all welded
The characteristic features and principal causes of
incomplete root fusion are described. General guidelines on
'best practice' are given so welders can minimise the risk of
introducing imperfections during fabrication.

tanker, broke in two whilst lying in

dock in 1943. Principal causes of
this failure were poor design and
bad workmanship

Fabrication and service defects and

imperfections
As the presence of imperfections in a welded joint may not
render the component defective in the sense of being
unsuitable for the intended application, the preferred term is
imperfection rather than defect. For this reason, production
quality for a component is defined in terms of a quality level in which the limits for the
imperfections are clearly defined, for example Level B, C or D in accordance with the
requirements of BS EN ISO 5817. For the American standards ASME X1 and AWS
D1.1, the acceptance levels are contained in the standards.
The application code will specify the quality levels which must be achieved for the
various joints.
Imperfections can be broadly classified into those produced on fabrication of the
component or structure and those formed as result of adverse conditions during service.
The principal types of imperfections are:
fabrication:

lack of fusion
cracks
porosity
inclusions
incorrect weld shape and size

142

service:

brittle fracture
stress corrosion cracking
fatigue failure

Welding procedure and welder technique will have a direct effect on fabrication
imperfections. Incorrect procedure or poor technique may produce imperfections leading
to premature failure in service.

Incomplete root fusion or penetration

Identification
Incomplete root fusion is when the weld fails to fuse one side of the joint in the root.
Incomplete root penetration occurs when both sides of the joint are unfused. Typical
imperfections can arise in the following situations:

an excessively thick root face in a butt weld (Fig. 1a)

too small a root gap (Fig. 1b)
misplaced welds (Fig. 1c)
failure to remove sufficient metal in cutting back to sound metal in a double sided
weld (Fig. 1d)
incomplete root fusion when using too low an arc energy (heat) input (Fig. 1e)
too small a bevel angle,
too large an electrode in MMA welding (Fig 2)

Fig. 1 Causes of incomplete root

fusion

a)

b)

c)

d)

a) Excessively thick root face

b) Too small a root gap
c)
Misplaced
welds
d) Power input too low
e) Arc (heat) input too low
e)

143

Fig. 2 Effect of electrode size on root

fusion

a)

a) Large diameter electrode

b) Small diameter electrode
b)

Causes
These types of imperfection are more likely in consumable electrode processes (MIG,
MMA and submerged arc welding) where the weld metal is 'automatically' deposited as
the arc consumes the electrode wire or rod. The welder has limited control of weld pool
penetration independent of depositing weld metal. Thus, the non consumable electrode
TIG process in which the welder controls the amount of filler material independent of
penetration is less prone to this type of defect.
In MMA welding, the risk of incomplete root fusion can be reduced by using the correct
welding parameters and electrode size to give adequate arc energy input and deep
penetration. Electrode size is also important in that it should be small enough to give
adequate access to the root, especially when using a small bevel angle (Fig 2). It is
common practice to use a 3.25mm diameter electrode for the root so the welder can
manipulate the electrode for penetration and control of the weld pool. However, for the
fill passes where penetration requirements are less critical, a 4 or 5mm diameter electrode
is used to achieve higher deposition rates.
In MIG welding, the correct welding parameters for the material thickness, and a short
arc length, should give adequate weld bead penetration. Too low a current level for the
size of root face will give inadequate weld penetration. Too high a level, causing the
welder to move too quickly, will result in the weld pool bridging the root without
achieving adequate penetration.
It is also essential that the correct root face size and bevel angles are used and that the
joint gap is set accurately. To prevent the gap from closing, adequate tacking will be
required.

Best practice in prevention

The following techniques can be used to prevent lack of root fusion:

In TIG welding, do not use too large a root face and ensure the welding current is
sufficient for the weld pool to penetrate fully the root

144

In MMA welding, use the correct current level and not too large an electrode size
for the root
In MIG welding, use a sufficiently high welding current level but adjust the arc
voltage to keep a short arc length
When using a joint configuration with a joint gap, make sure it is of adequate size
and does not close up during welding
Do not use too high a current level causing the weld pool to bridge the gap
without fully penetrating the root.

Acceptance standards
The limits for lack of penetration are specified in BS EN ISO 5817 for the three quality
levels.
Lack of root penetration is not permitted for Quality Level B (stringent) and Level C
(intermediate). For Quality Level (moderate) short lack of penetration imperfections are
permitted.
Incomplete root penetration is not permitted in the manufacture of pressure vessels but is
allowable in the manufacture of pipework depending on material and wall thickness.

Remedial actions
If the root cannot be directly inspected, for example using a penetrant or magnetic
particle inspection technique, detection is by radiography or ultrasonic inspection.
Remedial action will normally require removal by gouging or grinding to sound metal,
followed by re-welding in conformity with the original procedure.

Relevant standards
BS EN ISO 5817:2003 Welding - fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their
alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections.
BS EN 30042: 1994 Arc welded joints in aluminium and its weldable alloys - Guidance
on quality levels for imperfections.
This information was prepared by Bill Lucas with help from Gene Mathers. Copies of
other articles in the Job knowledge for welders series can be found under Practical
Joining Knowledge or by using the search engine.

145

Weld defects/imperfections in welds - lack

of sidewall and inter-run fusion
This article describes the characteristic features and principal causes Demagnetising a pipe
of lack of sidewall and inter-run fusion. General guidelines on best
practice are given so that welders can minimise the risk of
imperfections during fabrication.

Identification
Lack of fusion imperfections can occur when the weld metal fails

to fuse completely with the sidewall of the joint (Fig. 1)

to penetrate adequately the previous weld bead (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Lack of side wall fusion

Fig. 2. Lack of inter-run fusion

Causes
The principal causes are too narrow a joint preparation, incorrect welding parameter
settings, poor welder technique and magnetic arc blow. Insufficient cleaning of oily or
scaled surfaces can also contribute to lack of fusion. These types of imperfection are
more likely to happen when welding in the vertical position.

Joint preparation
Too narrow a joint preparation often causes the arc to be attracted to one of the side walls
causing lack of side wall fusion on the other side of the joint or inadequate penetration
146

into the previously deposited weld bead. Too great an arc length may also increase the
risk of preferential melting along one side of the joint and cause shallow penetration. In
addition, a narrow joint preparation may prevent adequate access into the joint. For
example, this happens in MMA welding when using a large diameter electrode, or in
MIG welding where an allowance should be made for the size of the nozzle.

Welding parameters
It is important to use a sufficiently high current for the arc to penetrate into the joint
sidewall. Consequently, too high a welding speed for the welding current will increase
the risk of these imperfections. However, too high a current or too low a welding speed
will cause weld pool flooding ahead of the arc resulting in poor or non-uniform
penetration.

Welder technique
Poor welder technique such as incorrect angle or manipulation of the electrode/welding
gun, will prevent adequate fusion of the joint sidewall. Weaving, especially dwelling at
the joint sidewall, will enable the weld pool to wash into the parent metal, greatly
improving sidewall fusion. It should be noted that the amount of weaving may be
restricted by the welding procedure specification limiting the arc energy input,
particularly when welding alloy or high notch toughness steels.

Magnetic arc blow

When welding ferromagnetic steels lack of fusion imperfections can be caused through
uncontrolled deflection of the arc, usually termed arc blow. Arc deflection can be caused
by distortion of the magnetic field produced by the arc current (Fig. 3), through:

residual magnetism in the material through using magnets for handling

earth's magnetic field, for example in pipeline welding
position of the current return

The effect of welding past the current return cable which is bolted to the centre of the
place is shown in Fig. 4. The interaction of the magnetic field surrounding the arc and
that generated by the current flow in the plate to the current return cable is sufficient to
deflect the weld bead. Distortion of the arc current magnetic field can be minimised by
positioning the current return so that welding is always towards or away from the clamp
and, in MMA welding, by using AC instead of DC. Often the only effective means is to
demagnetise the steel before welding.

147

Fig. 3. Interaction of magnetic forces

causing arc deflection

Fig. 4. Weld bead deflection in DC

MMA welding caused by welding past
the current return connection

Best practice in prevention

The following fabrication techniques can be used to prevent formation of lack of sidewall
fusion imperfections:

use a sufficiently wide joint preparation

select welding parameters (high current level, short arc length, not too high a
welding speed) to promote penetration into the joint side wall without causing
flooding
ensure the electrode/gun angle and manipulation technique will give adequate side
wall fusion
use weaving and dwell to improve side wall fusion providing there are no heat
input restrictions
if arc blow occurs, reposition the current return, use AC (in MMA welding) or
demagnetise the steel

Acceptance standards
The limits for incomplete fusion imperfections in arc welded joints in steel are specified
in BS EN ISO 5817 for the three quality levels (see Table). These types of imperfection
are not permitted for Quality Level B (stringent) and C (intermediate). For Quality level
D (moderate) they are only permitted providing they are intermittent and not surface
breaking.
For arc welded joints in aluminium, long imperfections are not permitted for all three
quality levels. However, for quality levels C and D, short imperfections are permitted but
the total length of the imperfections is limited depending on the butt weld or the fillet
weld throat thickness.

148

Acceptance limits for specific codes and application standards

Application

Code/Standard

Steel

BS
EN
5817:2003

Acceptance limit

ISO

Level
B
and
C
not
permitted.
Level D short imperfections permitted but not
surface breaking.

Aluminium

BS EN 30042:1994

Levels
B,
C,
Long
imperfections
not
Levels
C
and
Short imperfections permitted.

D.
permitted.
D.

Pressure
vessels

PD5500:2003

Not permitted

Storage tanks

BS2654:1989

Not permitted

Pipework

BS2633:1987

'l'
not
greater
than
(depending on wall thickness)

15mm

Line pipe

API 1104:1999

'l'
not
greater
than
(less when weld length <300mm)

25mm

Detection and remedial action

If the imperfections are surface breaking, they can be detected using a penetrant or
magnetic particle inspection technique. For sub-surface imperfections, detection is by
radiography or ultrasonic inspection. Ultrasonic inspection is normally more effective
than radiography in detecting lack of inter-run fusion imperfections.
Remedial action will normally require their removal by localised gouging, or grinding,
followed by re-welding as specified in the agreed procedure.
If lack of fusion is a persistent problem, and is not caused by magnetic arc blow, the
welding procedures should be amended or the welders retrained.

149

Defects/imperfections in welds - porosity

The characteristic features and principal causes of porosity imperfections are described.
Best practice guidelines are given so welders can minimise porosity risk during
fabrication.

Identification
Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused
by the freezing in of gas released from the weld pool as it
solidifies. The porosity can take several forms:

distributed
surface breaking pores
wormhole
crater pipes

Cause and prevention

Distributed porosity and surface pores
Distributed porosity (Fig. 1) is normally found as fine pores throughout the weld bead.
Surface breaking pores (Fig. 2) usually indicate a large amount of distributed porosity

Fig. 1. Uniformly distributed porosity

Fig. 2. Surface breaking pores (T fillet weld in

primed plate)

150

Cause
Porosity is caused by the absorption of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the molten weld
pool which is then released on solidification to become trapped in the weld metal.

Nitrogen and oxygen absorption in the weld pool usually originates from poor gas
shielding. As little as 1% air entrainment in the shielding gas will cause distributed
porosity and greater than 1.5% results in gross surface breaking pores. Leaks in the gas
line, too high a gas flow rate, draughts and excessive turbulence in the weld pool are
frequent causes of porosity.
Hydrogen can originate from a number of sources including moisture from inadequately
dried electrodes, fluxes or the workpiece surface. Grease and oil on the surface of the
workpiece or filler wire are also common sources of hydrogen.
Surface coatings like primer paints and surface treatments such as zinc coatings, may
generate copious amounts of fume during welding. The risk of trapping the evolved gas
will be greater in T joints than butt joints especially when fillet welding on both sides
(see Fig 2). Special mention should be made of the so-called weldable (low zinc) primers.
It should not be necessary to remove the primers but if the primer thickness exceeds the
manufacturer's recommendation, porosity is likely to result especially when using
welding processes other than MMA.

Prevention
The gas source should be identified and removed as follows:
Air entrainment

- seal any air leak

- avoid weld pool turbulence
- use filler with adequate level of deoxidants
- reduce excessively high gas flow
- avoid draughts
Hydrogen
- dry the electrode and flux
- clean and degrease the workpiece surface
Surface coatings
- clean the joint edges immediately before welding
- check that the weldable primer is below the recommended maximum thickness

151

Wormholes
Characteristically, wormholes are elongated pores (Fig. 3)
which produce a herring bone appearance on the radiograph. Elongated pores or wormholes
Cause
Wormholes are indicative of a large amount of gas being
formed which is then trapped in the solidifying weld metal.
Excessive gas will be formed from gross surface
contamination or very thick paint or primer coatings.
Entrapment is more likely in crevices such as the gap beneath
the vertical member of a horizontal-vertical, T joint which is
fillet welded on both sides.

When welding T joints in primed plates it is essential that the coating thickness on the
edge of the vertical member is not above the manufacturer's recommended maximum,
typically 20m, through over-spraying.

Prevention
Eliminating the gas and cavities prevents wormholes.
Gas generation

- clean the workpiece surfaces

- remove any coatings from the joint area
- check the primer thickness is below the manufacturer's maximum
Joint geometry
- avoid a joint geometry which creates a cavity

Crater pipe
A crater pipe forms during the final solidified weld pool and is often associated with
some gas porosity.
Cause
This imperfection results from shrinkage on weld pool solidification. Consequently,
conditions which exaggerate the liquid to solid volume change will promote its
formation. Switching off the welding current will result in the rapid solidification of a
large weld pool.

In TIG welding, autogenous techniques, or stopping the wire before switching off the
welding current, will cause crater formation and the pipe imperfection.

152

Prevention
Crater pipe imperfection can be prevented by removing the stop or by welder technique.
Removal of stop

- use run-off tag in butt joints

- grind out the stop before continuing with the next electrode or depositing the
subsequent weld run
Welder technique
- progressively reduce the welding current to reduce the weld pool size
- add filler (TIG) to compensate for the weld pool shrinkage

Porosity susceptibility of materials

Gases likely to cause porosity in the commonly used range of materials are listed in the
Table.
Principal gases causing porosity and recommended cleaning methods
Material

Gas

C-Mn steel

Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Grind to remove scale coatings

Oxygen

Stainless steel

Hydrogen

Aluminium
alloys

and Hydrogen

Cleaning

Degrease + wire brush + degrease

Chemical clean + wire brush +
degrease + scrape

Copper and alloys

Hydrogen, Nitrogen

Degrease + wire brush + degrease

Nickel and alloys

Nitrogen

Degrease + wire brush + degrease

Detection and remedial action

If the imperfections are surface breaking, they can be detected using a penetrant or
magnetic particle inspection technique. For sub surface imperfections, detection is by
radiography or ultrasonic inspection. Radiography is normally more effective in detecting
and characterising porosity imperfections. However, detection of small pores is difficult
especially in thick sections.
Remedial action normally needs removal by localised gouging or grinding but if the
porosity is widespread, the entire weld should be removed. The joint should be reprepared and re-welded as specified in the agreed procedure.

153

Defects/imperfections in welds - slag

inclusions

Prevention of slag inclusions by

grinding between runs

The characteristic features and principal causes of slag imperfections are described.

Identification
Slag is normally seen as elongated lines either Fig. 1. Radiograph of a butt weld showing two
continuous or discontinuous along the length of slag lines in the weld root
the weld. This is readily identified in a
radiograph, Fig 1. Slag inclusions are usually
associated with the flux processes, ie MMA,
FCA and submerged arc, but they can also
occur in MIG welding.

Causes
As slag is the residue of the flux coating, it is principally a deoxidation product from the
reaction between the flux, air and surface oxide. The slag becomes trapped in the weld
when two adjacent weld beads are deposited with inadequate overlap and a void is
formed. When the next layer is deposited, the entrapped slag is not melted out. Slag may
also become entrapped in cavities in multi-pass welds through excessive undercut in the
weld toe or the uneven surface profile of the preceding weld runs, Fig 2.

154

As they both have an effect on the ease of slag removal, the risk of slag imperfections is
influenced by

Type of flux
Welder technique

The type and configuration of the joint, welding position and access restrictions all have
an influence on the risk of slag imperfections.
Fig. 2. The influence of welder technique on the risk of slag inclusions when welding
with a basic MMA (7018) electrode

a) Poor (convex) weld bead profile

resulted in pockets of slag being
trapped between the weld runs

b) Smooth weld bead profile allows

the slag to be readily removed
between runs

Type of flux
One of the main functions of the flux coating in welding is to produce a slag which will
flow freely over the surface of the weld pool to protect it from oxidation. As the slag
affects the handling characteristics of the MMA electrode, its surface tension and
freezing rate can be equally important properties. For welding in the flat and
horizontal/vertical positions, a relatively viscous slag is preferred as it will produce a
smooth weld bead profile, is less likely to be trapped and, on solidifying, is normally
more easily removed. For vertical welding, the slag must be more fluid to flow out to the

155

weld pool surface but have a higher surface tension to provide support to the weld pool
and be fast freezing.
The composition of the flux coating also plays an important role in the risk of slag
inclusions through its effect on the weld bead shape and the ease with which the slag can
be removed. A weld pool with low oxygen content will have a high surface tension
producing a convex weld bead with poor parent metal wetting. Thus, an oxidising flux,
containing for example iron oxide, produces a low surface tension weld pool with a more
concave weld bead profile, and promotes wetting into the parent metal. High silicate flux
produces a glass-like slag, often self detaching. Fluxes with a lime content produce an
adherent slag which is difficult to remove.
The ease of slag removal for the principal flux types are:

Rutile or acid fluxes - large amounts of titanium oxide (rutile) with some silicates.
The oxygen level of the weld pool is high enough to give flat or slightly convex
weld bead. The fluidity of the slag is determined by the calcium fluoride content.
Fluoride-free coatings designed for welding in the flat position produce smooth
bead profiles and an easily removed slag. The more fluid fluoride slag designed
for positional welding is less easily removed.

Basic fluxes - the high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluospar) in the flux reduces the oxygen content of the weld pool and
therefore its surface tension. The slag is more fluid than that produced with the
rutile coating. Fast freezing also assists welding in the vertical and overhead
positions but the slag coating is more difficult to remove.

Consequently, the risk of slag inclusions is significantly greater with basic fluxes due to
the inherent convex weld bead profile and the difficulty in removing the slag from the
weld toes especially in multi-pass welds.

Welder technique
Welding technique has an important role to play in preventing slag inclusions. Electrode
manipulation should ensure adequate shape and degree of overlap of the weld beads to
avoid forming pockets which can trap the slag. Thus, the correct size of electrode for the
joint preparation, the correct angle to the workpiece for good penetration and a smooth
weld bead profile are all essential to prevent slag entrainment.
In multi-pass vertical welding, especially with basic electrodes, care must be taken to
fuse out any remaining minor slag pockets and minimise undercut. When using a weave,
a slight dwell at the extreme edges of the weave will assist sidewall fusion and produce a
flatter weld bead profile.
Too high a current together with a high welding speed will also cause sidewall
undercutting which makes slag removal difficult.

156

It is crucial to remove all slag before depositing the next run. This can be done between
runs by grinding, light chipping or wire brushing. Cleaning tools must be identified for
different materials eg steels or stainless steels, and segregated.
When welding with difficult electrodes, in narrow vee butt joints or when the slag is
trapped through undercutting, it may be necessary to grind the surface of the weld
between layers to ensure complete slag removal.

Best practice
The following techniques can be used to prevent slag inclusions:

Use welding techniques to produce smooth weld beads and adequate inter-run
fusion to avoid forming pockets to trap the slag
Use the correct current and travel speed to avoid undercutting the sidewall which
will make the slag difficult to remove
Remove slag between runs paying particular attention to removing any slag
trapped in crevices
Use grinding when welding difficult butt joints otherwise wire brushing or light
chipping may be sufficient to remove the slag.

Acceptance standards
Slag and flux inclusions are linear defects but because they do not have sharp edges
compared with cracks, they may be permitted by specific standards and codes. The limits
in steel are specified in BE EN ISO 5817: 2003 for the three quality levels. Long slag
imperfections are not permitted in both butt and fillet welds for Quality Level B
(stringent) and C (moderate). For Quality Level D, butt welds can have imperfections
providing their size is less than half the nominal weld thickness. Short slag related
imperfections are permitted in all three quality levels with limits placed on their size
relative to the butt weld thickness or nominal fillet weld throat thickness.

Defects - solidification cracking

Weld repair on a cast iron exhaust manifold

157

A crack may be defined as a local discontinuity produced by a fracture which can arise
from the stresses generated on cooling or acting on the structure. It is the most serious
type of imperfection found in a weld and should be removed. Cracks not only reduce the
strength of the weld through the reduction in the cross section thickness but also can
readily propagate through stress concentration at the tip, especially under impact loading
or during service at low temperature.

Identification
Visual appearance
Solidification cracks are normally readily distinguished from other types of cracks due to
the following characteristic factors:

they occur only in the weld metal

they normally appear as straight lines along the centreline of the weld bead, as
shown in Fig. 1, but may occasionally appear as transverse cracking depending on
the solidification structure
solidification cracks in the final crater may have a branching appearance
as the cracks are 'open', they are easily visible with the naked eye

Fig. 1 Solidification crack along

the centre line of the weld

On breaking open the weld, the crack surface in steel and nickel alloys may have a blue
oxidised appearance, showing that they were formed while the weld metal was still hot.

Metallography
The cracks form at the solidification boundaries and are characteristically inter dendritic.
The morphology reflects the weld solidification structure and there may be evidence of
segregation associated with the solidification boundary.

158

Causes
The overriding cause of solidification cracking is that the weld bead in the final stage of
solidification has insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as
the weld pool solidifies. Factors which increase the risk include:

insufficient weld bead size or shape

welding under high restraint
material properties such as a high impurity content or a relatively large amount of
shrinkage on solidification.

Joint design can have a significant influence on the level of residual stresses. Large gaps
between component parts will increase the strain on the solidifying weld metal, especially
if the depth of penetration is small. Therefore, weld beads with a small depth-to-width
ratio, such as formed in bridging a large gap with a wide, thin bead, will be more
susceptible to solidification cracking, as shown in Fig. 2. In this case, the centre of the
weld which is the last part to solidify, is a narrow zone with negligible cracking
resistance.

Fig. 2 Weld bead penetration too small

Segregation of impurities to the centre of the weld also encourages cracking.

Concentration of impurities ahead of the solidifying front weld forms a liquid film of low
freezing point which, on solidification, produces a weak zone. As solidification proceeds,
the zone is likely to crack as the stresses through normal thermal contraction build up. If
liquid from the weld pool can feed into an incipent crack, it can be prevented. For this
reason, an elliptically shaped weld pool is preferable to a tear drop shape, and fast
welding speeds, which result in a large separation between the weld pool and cracking
locations, increase the risk of cracking. Welding with contaminants such as cutting oils
on the surface of the parent metal will also increase the build up of impurities in the weld
pool and the risk of cracking.

159

As the compositions of the plate and the filler determine the weld metal composition they
will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the susceptibility of the material to
cracking.
Steels

Cracking is associated with impurities, particularly sulphur and phosphorus, and is

promoted by carbon whereas manganese and silicon can help to reduce the risk. To
minimise the risk of cracking, fillers with low carbon and impurity levels and a relatively
high manganese content are preferred. As a general rule, for carbon-manganese steels, the
total sulphur and phosphorus content should be no greater than 0.06%.
Weld metal composition is dominated by the consumable and as the filler is normally
cleaner than the metal being welded, cracking is less likely with low dilution processes
such as MMA and MIG. Plate composition assumes greater importance in high dilution
situations such as when welding the root in butt welds, using an autogenous welding
technique like TIG, or a high dilution process such as submerged arc welding.
In submerged arc welds, as described in BS 5135 (Appendix F), the cracking risk may be
assessed by calculating the Units of Crack Susceptibility (UCS) from the weld metal
chemical composition (weight %):
UCS = 230C* + 190S + 75P + 45Nb - 12.3Si - 5.4Mn - 1
C* = carbon content or 0.08 whichever is higher
Although arbitrary units, a value of <10 indicates high cracking resistance whereas >30
indicates a low resistance. Within this range, the risk will be higher in a weld run with a
high depth to width ratio, made at high welding speeds or where the fit-up is poor. For
fillet welds, runs having a depth to width ratio of about one, UCS values of 20 and above
will indicate a risk of cracking. For a butt weld, values of about 25 UCS are critical. If the
depth to width ratio is decreased from 1 to 0.8, the allowable UCS is increased by about
nine. However, very low depth to width ratios, such as obtained when penetration into the
root is not achieved, also promote cracking.
Aluminium

The high thermal expansion (approximately twice that of steel) and substantial
contraction on solidification (typically 5% more than in an equivalent steel weld) means
that aluminium alloys are more prone to cracking. The risk can be reduced by using a
crack resistant filler (usually from the 4xxx and 5xxx series alloys) but the disadvantage
is that the resulting weld metal is likely to have non-matching properties such as a lower
strength than the parent metal.

160

Austenitic Stainless Steel

A fully austenitic stainless steel weld is more prone to cracking than one containing
between 5-10% of ferrite. The beneficial effect of ferrite has been attributed to its
capacity to dissolve harmful impurities which would otherwise form low melting point
segregates and consequently interdendritic cracks. Therefore the choice of filler material
is important to suppress cracking so a type 308 filler is used to weld type 304 stainless
steel.

Best practice in avoiding solidification cracking

Apart from the choice of material and filler, the principal techniques for minimising the
risk of welding solidification cracking are:

Control joint fit-up to reduce gaps.

Before welding, clean off all contaminants from the material
Ensure that the welding sequence will not lead to a build-up of thermally induced
stresses.
Select welding parameters and technique to produce a weld bead with an adequate
depth to width ratio, or with sufficient throat thickness (fillet weld), to ensure the
weld bead has sufficient resistance to the solidification stresses (recommend a
depth to width ratio of at least 0.5:1).
Avoid producing too large a depth to width ratio which will encourage
segregation and excessive transverse strains in restrained joints. As a general rule,
weld beads whose depth to weld ratio exceeds 2:1 will be prone to solidification
cracking.
Avoid high welding speeds (at high current levels) which increase the amount of
segregation and the stress level across the weld bead.
At the run stop, ensure adequate filling of the crater to avoid an unfavourable
concave shape.

Acceptance standards
As solidification cracks are linear imperfections with sharp edges, they are not permitted
for welds meeting the quality levels B, C and D in accordance with the requirements of
BS EN 25817 (ISO 5817). Crater cracks are permitted for quality level D.

Detection and remedial action

Surface breaking solidification cracks can be readily detected using visual examination,
liquid penetrant or magnetic particle testing techniques. Internal cracks require ultrasonic
or radiographic examination techniques.
Most codes will specify that all cracks should be removed. A cracked component should
be repaired by removing the cracks with a safety margin of approximately 5mm beyond

161

the visible ends of the crack. The excavation is then re-welded using a filler which will
not produce a crack sensitive deposit.

Jk 45 has to download properly

Defects - hydrogen cracks in steels identification

Preheating
cracking

to

avoid

hydrogen

Hydrogen cracking may also be called cold cracking or delayed cracking. The principal
distinguishing feature of this type of crack is that it occurs in ferritic steels, most often
immediately on welding or after a short time after welding.
In this issue, the characteristic features and principal causes of hydrogen cracks are
described.

Identification
Visual appearance
Hydrogen cracks can be usually be distinguished due to the following characteristics:

In C-Mn steels, the crack will normally originate in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
but may extend into the weld metal (Fig 1).

162

Cracks can also occur in the weld bead, normally transverse to the welding
direction at an angle of 45 to the weld surface. They are essentially straight,
follow a jagged path but may be non-branching.
In low alloy steels, the cracks can be transverse to the weld, perpendicular to the
weld surface, but are non-branching and essentially planar.

Fig. 1 Hydrogen cracks originating in the

HAZ (note, the type of cracks shown would
not be expected to form in the same
weldment)

On breaking open the weld (prior to any heat treatment), the surface of the cracks will
normally not be oxidised, even if they are surface breaking, indicating they were formed
when the weld was at or near ambient temperature. A slight blue tinge may be seen from
the effects of preheating or welding heat.

Metallography
Cracks which originate in the HAZ are usually associated with the coarse grain region,
(Fig 2). The cracks can be intergranular, transgranular or a mixture. Intergranular cracks
are more likely to occur in the harder HAZ structures formed in low alloy and high
carbon steels. Transgranular cracking is more often found in C-Mn steel structures.
In fillet welds, cracks in the HAZ are usually associated with the weld root and parallel to
the weld. In butt welds, the HAZ cracks are normally oriented parallel to the weld bead.

163

Fig. 2 Crack along the coarse

grain structure in the HAZ

Causes
There are three factors which combine to cause cracking:

hydrogen generated by the welding process

a hard brittle structure which is susceptible to cracking
tensile stresses acting on the welded joint

Cracking usually occurs at temperatures at or near normal ambient. It is caused by the

diffusion of hydrogen to the highly stressed, hardened part of the weldment.
In C-Mn steels, because there is a greater risk of forming a brittle microstructure in the
HAZ, most of the hydrogen cracks are to be found in the parent metal. With the correct
choice of electrodes, the weld metal will have a lower carbon content than the parent
metal and, hence, a lower carbon equivalent (CE). However, transverse weld metal cracks
can occur especially when welding thick section components.
In low alloy steels, as the weld metal structure is more susceptible than the HAZ,
cracking may be found in the weld bead.
The main factors which influence risk of cracking are:

weld metal hydrogen

parent material composition
parent material thickness
stresses acting on the weld
heat input

164

Weld metal hydrogen content

The principal source of hydrogen is the moisture contained in the flux, i.e. the coating of
MMA electrodes, the flux in cored wires and the flux used in submerged arc welding.
The amount of hydrogen generated is influenced by the electrode type. Basic electrodes
normally generate less hydrogen than rutile and cellulosic electrodes.
It is important to note that there can be other significant sources of hydrogen, e.g.
moisture from the atmosphere or from the material where processing or service history
has left the steel with a significant level of hydrogen. Hydrogen may also be derived from
the surface of the material or the consumable.
Sources of hydrogen will include:

oil, grease and dirt

rust
paint and coatings
cleaning fluids

Parent metal composition

This will have a major influence on hardenability and, with high cooling rates, the risk of
forming a hard brittle structure in the HAZ. The hardenability of a material is usually
expressed in terms of its carbon content or, when other elements are taken into account,
its carbon equivalent (CE) value.

The higher the CE value, the greater the risk of hydrogen cracking. Generally, steels with
a CE value of <0.4 are not susceptible to HAZ hydrogen cracking, as long as low
hydrogen welding consumables or processes are used.
Parent material thickness

Material thickness will influence the cooling rate and therefore the hardness level,
microstructure produced in the HAZ and the level of hydrogen retained in the weld.
The 'combined thickness' of the joint, ie the sum of the thicknesses of material meeting at
the joint line, will determine, together with the joint geometry, the cooling rate of the

165

HAZ and its hardness. Consequently, as shown in Fig. 3, a fillet weld will have a greater
risk than a butt weld in the same material thickness.

Fig.3 Combined thickness measurements

for butt and fillet joints

Stresses acting on the weld

The stresses generated across the welded joint as it contracts will be greatly influenced by
external restraint, material thickness, joint geometry and fit-up. Areas of stress
concentration are more likely to initiate a crack at the toe and root of the weld.
Poor fit-up in fillet welds markedly increases the risk of cracking. The degree of restraint
acting on a joint will generally increase as welding progresses due to the increase in
stiffness of the fabrication.
Heat input

The heat input to the material from the welding process, together with the material
thickness and preheat temperature, will determine the thermal cycle and the resulting
microstructure and hardness of both the HAZ and weld metal.
A high heat input will reduce the hardness level, and therefore reduce the risk of HAZ
cracking. However, as the diffusion distance for the escape of hydrogen from a weld bead
increases with increasing heat input, the risk of weld metal cracking is increased.

Heat input per unit length is calculated by multiplying the arc energy by an arc efficiency
factor according to the following formula:

166

V = arc voltage (V)

A = welding current (A)
S = welding speed (mm/min)
k = thermal efficiency factor
In calculating heat input, the arc efficiency must be taken into consideration. The arc
efficiency factors given in EN 1011-1: 2001 for the principal arc welding processes, are:

Submerged
(single wire)
MMA

arc 1.0
0.8

MIG/MAG and flux cored wire 0.8

TIG and plasma

0.6

In MMA welding, heat input is normally controlled by means of the run-out length from
each electrode, which is proportional to the heat input. As the run-out length is the length
of weld deposited from one electrode, it will depend upon the welding technique, e.g.
weave width /dwell.

Defects - hydrogen cracks in steels prevention and best practice

Preheating of a jacket structure to prevent

hydrogen cracking

Techniques and practical guidance on the avoidance of hydrogen cracks are described.

167

Preheating, interpass and post heating to prevent

hydrogen cracking
There are three factors which combine to cause cracking in arc welding:

hydrogen generated by the welding process

a hard brittle structure which is susceptible to cracking
tensile stresses acting on the welded joint

Cracking generally occurs when the temperature has reached normal ambient. In practice,
for a given situation (material composition, material thickness, joint type, electrode
composition and heat input), the risk of hydrogen cracking is reduced by heating the
joint.

Preheat
Preheat, which slows the cooling rate, allows some hydrogen to diffuse away, and
prevents a hard, crack-sensitive structure being formed. The recommended levels of
preheat for carbon and carbon manganese steel are detailed in EN 1011-2: 2001 (which
incorporates the nomograms from BS 5135). The preheat level may be as high as 200C
for example, when welding thick section steels with a high carbon equivalent (CE) value.

Interpass and post heating

As cracking rarely occurs at temperatures above ambient, maintaining the temperature of
the weldment during fabrication is equally important. For susceptible steels, it is usually
appropriate to maintain the preheat temperature for a given period, typically between 2 to
3 hours, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld area. In crack sensitive
situations such as welding higher CE steels or under high restraint conditions, the
temperature and heating period should be increased, typically 250-300C for three to four
hours.
Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) may be used immediately on completion of welding,
i.e. without allowing the preheat temperature to fall. However, in practice, as inspection
can only be carried out at ambient temperature, there is the risk that 'rejectable,' defects
will only be found after PWHT. Also, for highly hardenable steels, a second heat
treatment may be required to temper the hard microstructure present after the first
PWHT.
Under certain conditions, more stringent procedures are needed to avoid cracking than
those derived from the nomograms for estimating preheat in Fig. C2 of EN 1011-2.
Section C.2.9 of this standard mentions the following conditions:
a. high restraint, including welds in section thicknesses above approximately 50mm,
and root runs in double bevel joints

168

b. thick sections ( approximately 50mm)

c. low carbon equivalent steels (CMn steels with C 0.1% and CE approximately
0.42)
d. 'clean' or low sulphur steels (S approximately 0.008%), as a low sulphur and low
oxygen content will increase the hardenability of a steel.
e. alloyed weld metal where preheat levels to avoid HAZ cracking may be
insufficient to protect the weld metal. Low hydrogen processes and consumables
should be used. Schemes for predicting the preheat requirements to avoid weld
metal cracking generally require the weld metal diffusible hydrogen level and the
weld metal tensile strength as input.

Use of austenitic and nickel alloy weld metal to prevent

cracking
In situations where preheating is impractical, or does not prevent cracking, it will be
necessary to use an austenitic consumable. Austenitic stainless steel and nickel electrodes
will produce a weld metal which at ambient temperature, has a higher solubility for
hydrogen than ferritic steel. Thus, any hydrogen formed during welding becomes locked
in the weld metal, with very little diffusing to the HAZ on cooling to ambient.
A commonly used austenitic MMA electrode is 23Cr:12Ni, e.g. from EN 1600: 1987.
However, as nickel alloys have a lower coefficient of thermal expansion than stainless
steel, nickel austenitic electrodes are preferred when welding highly restrained joints, to
reduce the shrinkage strain. Figure 1 is a general guide on the levels of preheat when
using austenitic electrodes. When welding steels with up to 0.2%C, a preheat would not
normally be required. However, above 0.4%C a minimum temperature of 150C will be
needed to prevent HAZ cracking. The influence of hydrogen level and the degree of
restraint are also illustrated in the figure.

169

Fig.1
Guide
to
preheat
temperature
when
using
austenitic MMA electrodes at 12kJ/mm
a) low restraint (e.g. material
thickness
<30mm)
b) high restraint (e.g. material
thickness >30mm)

Best practice in avoiding hydrogen cracking

Reduction in weld metal hydrogen
The most effective means of avoiding hydrogen cracking is to reduce the amount of
hydrogen generated by the consumable, ie by using a low hydrogen process or low
hydrogen electrodes.
Welding processes can be classified as high, medium, low, very low and ultra low,
depending on the amount of weld metal hydrogen produced. The weld metal diffusible
hydrogen levels (ml/100g of deposited metal), and the hydrogen scale designations of EN
1011-2: 2001 are as follows:

High

>15

Scale A

Medium

10

Scale B

Low

Scale C

Very low

3 - 5 Scale D

Ultra-low

Scale E

Figure 2 illustrates the relative amounts of weld metal hydrogen produced by the major
welding processes. MMA, in particular, has the potential to generate a wide range of
hydrogen levels. Thus, to achieve the lower values, it is essential that basic electrodes are
used and they are baked in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. For the
MIG process, cleaner wires will be required to achieve very low hydrogen levels.

170

Fig.2
General
relationships
between potential hydrogen and
weld metal hydrogen levels for arc
welding processes

General guidelines
The following general guidelines are recommended for the various types of steel but
requirements for specific steels should be checked according to EN 1011-2: 2001 Mild steel (CE <0.4)
- readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen processes or
electrodes are used
- preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high restraint and
with higher levels of hydrogen being generated
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)
- thin sections can be welded without preheat, but thicker sections will require low
preheat levels, and low hydrogen processes or electrodes should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE >0.5)
- preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating and slow
cooling required.
More detailed guidance on the avoidance of hydrogen cracking is described in EN
1011-2: 2000.

171

Practical Techniques
The following practical techniques are recommended to avoid hydrogen cracking:

clean the joint faces and remove contaminants such as paint, cutting oils, grease
use a low hydrogen process, if possible
dry the electrodes (MMA) or the flux (submerged arc) in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations
reduce stresses on the weld by avoiding large root gaps and high restraint
if preheating is specified in the welding procedure, it should also be applied when
tacking or using temporary attachments
preheat the joint to a distance of at least 75mm from the joint line, ensuring
uniform heating through the thickness of the material
measure the preheat temperature on the face opposite that being heated. Where
this is impractical, allow time for the equalisation of temperature after removing
the preheating before the temperature is measured
adhere to the heat input requirements
maintain heat for approximately two to four hours after welding, depending on
crack sensitivity
In situations where adequate preheating is impracticable, or cracking cannot be
avoided, austenitic electrodes may be used

Acceptance standards
As hydrogen cracks are linear imperfections which have sharp edges, they are not
permitted for welds meeting the quality levels B, C and D in accordance with the
requirements of EN ISO 5817.

Detection and remedial action

As hydrogen cracks are often very fine and may be sub-surface, they can be difficult to
detect. Surface-breaking hydrogen cracks can be readily detected using visual
examination, liquid penetrant or magnetic particle testing techniques. Internal cracks
require ultrasonic or radiographic examination techniques. Ultrasonic examination is
preferred as radiography is restricted to detecting relatively wide cracks parallel to the
beam.
Most codes will specify that all cracks should be removed. A cracked component should
be repaired by removing the cracks with a safety margin of approximately 5mm beyond
the visible ends of the crack. The excavation is then re-welded.
To make sure that cracking does not re-occur, welding should be carried out with the
correct procedure, ie preheat and an adequate heat input level for the material type and
thickness. However, as the level of restraint will be greater and the interpass time shorter

172

when welding within an excavation compared to welding the original joint, it is

recommended that a higher level of preheat is used (typically by 50C).

References
BS 5135:1984 Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steels (now superceded
by EN 1011: 2001)
EN 1011-1: 2001 Welding - Recommendations for Welding of Metallic Materials
Part
1General
Guidance
for
Arc
Welding
Part 2- Arc Welding of Ferritic Steels
EN ISO 13916: 1997 Welding - Guidance on the Measurement of Preheating
Temperature, Interpass Temperature and Preheat Maintenance Temperature
EN ISO 5817: 2003 Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel , nickel, titanium and their
alloys (Beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections

Defects - lamellar tearing

BP Forties
platform
lamellar
tears were
produced
when
attempting
the repair
of lack of
root
penetration
in a brace
weld

Lamellar tearing can occur beneath the weld especially in rolled steel plate which has
poor through-thickness ductility. The characteristic features, principal causes and best
practice in minimising the risk of lamellar tearing are described.

173

Identification
Visual appearance
The principal distinguishing feature of lamellar tearing is that it occurs in T-butt and fillet
welds normally observed in the parent metal parallel to the weld fusion boundary and the
plate surface , (Fig 1). The cracks can appear at the toe or root of the weld but are always
associated with points of high stress concentration.

Fracture face
The surface of the fracture is fibrous and 'woody' with long parallel sections which are
indicative of low parent metal ductility in the through-thickness direction, (Fig 2).

Fig. 1. Lamellar tearing in T butt

weld

Fig. 2. Appearance of fracture

face of lamellar tear

174

Metallography
As lamellar tearing is associated with a high concentration of elongated inclusions
oriented parallel to the surface of the plate, tearing will be transgranular with a stepped
appearance.

Causes
It is generally recognised that there are three conditions which must be satisfied for
lamellar tearing to occur:
1. Transverse strain - the shrinkage strains on welding must act in the short direction
of the plate ie through the plate thickness
2. Weld orientation - the fusion boundary will be roughly parallel to the plane of the
inclusions
3. Material susceptibility - the plate must have poor ductility in the throughthickness direction
Thus, the risk of lamellar tearing will be greater if the stresses generated on welding act
in the through-thickness direction. The risk will also increase the higher the level of weld
metal hydrogen

Factors to be considered to reduce the risk of tearing

The choice of material, joint design, welding process, consumables, preheating and
buttering can all help reduce the risk of tearing.

Material
Tearing is only encountered in rolled steel plate and not forgings and castings. There is
no one grade of steel that is more prone to lamellar tearing but steels with a low Short
Transverse Reduction in Area (STRA) will be susceptible. As a general rule, steels with
STRA over 20% are essentially resistant to tearing whereas steels with below 10 to 15%
STRA should only be used in lightly restrained joints (Fig. 3).
Steels with a higher strength have a greater risk especially when the thickness is greater
than 25mm. Aluminium treated steels with low sulphur contents (<0.005%) will have a
low risk.
Steel suppliers can provide plate which has been through-thickness tested with a
guaranteed STRA value of over 20%.

175

Fig. 3. Relationship between the STRA and

sulphur content for 12.5 to 50mm thick plate

Joint Design
Lamellar tearing occurs in joints producing high through-thickness strain, eg T joints or
corner joints. In T or cruciform joints, full penetration butt welds will be particularly
susceptible. The cruciform structures in which the susceptible plate cannot bend during
welding will also greatly increase the risk of tearing.
In butt joints, as the stresses on welding do not act through the thickness of the plate,
there is little risk of lamellar tearing.
As angular distortion can increase the strain in the weld root and or toe, tearing may also
occur in thick section joints where the bending restraint is high.
Several examples of good practice in the design of welded joints are illustrated in Fig. 4.

As tearing is more likely to occur in full penetration T butt joints, if possible, use
two fillet welds, Fig. 4a.

Double-sided welds are less susceptible than large single-sided welds and
balanced welding to reduce the stresses will further reduce the risk of tearing
especially in the root, Fig. 4b

Large single-side fillet welds should be replaced with smaller double-sided fillet
welds, Fig. 4c

Redesigning the joint configuration so that the fusion boundary is more normal to
the susceptible plate surface will be particularly effective in reducing the risk, Fig.
4d

176

Fig. 4 Recommended joint configurations to reduce the risk of lamellar tearing

Fig. 4a

Fig. 4b

Fig. 4c

Fig. 4d

Weld size
Lamellar tearing is more likely to occur in large welds typically when the leg length in
fillet and T butt joints is greater than 20mm. As restraint will contribute to the problem,
thinner section plate which is less susceptible to tearing, may still be at risk in high
restraint situations.

177

Welding process
As the material and joint design are the primary causes of tearing, the choice of welding
process has only a relatively small influence on the risk. However, higher heat input
processes which generate lower stresses through the larger HAZ and deeper weld
penetration can be beneficial.
As weld metal hydrogen will increase the risk of tearing, a low hydrogen process should
be used when welding susceptible steels.

Consumable
Where possible, the choice of a lower strength consumable can often reduce the risk by
accommodating more of the strain in the weld metal. A smaller diameter electrode which
can be used to produce a smaller leg length, has been used to prevent tearing.
A low hydrogen consumable will reduce the risk by reducing the level of weld metal
diffusible hydrogen. The consumables must be dried in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations.

Preheating
Preheating will have a beneficial effect in reducing the level of weld metal diffusible
hydrogen. However, it should be noted that in a restrained joint, excessive preheating
could have a detrimental effect by increasing the level the level of restraint produced by
the contraction across the weld on cooling.
Preheating should, therefore, be used to reduce the hydrogen level but it should be
applied so that it will not increase the amount of contraction across the weld.

Buttering
Buttering the surface of the susceptible plate with a low strength weld metal has been
widely employed. As shown for the example of a T butt weld (Fig. 5) the surface of the
plate may be grooved so that the buttered layer will extend 15 to 25mm beyond each
weld toe and be about 5 to 10mm thick.

178

Fig. 5. Buttering with low strength weld metal

a) general deposit on the surface of the

susceptible plate

b) in-situ buttering

In-situ buttering ie where the low strength weld metal is deposited first on the susceptible
plate before filling the joint, has also been successfully applied. However, before
adopting this technique, design calculations should be carried out to ensure that the
overall weld strength will be acceptable.

Acceptance standards
As lamellar tears are linear imperfections which have sharp edges, they are not permitted
for welds meeting the quality levels B, C and D in accordance with the requirements of
BS EN 25817 (ISO 5817).

Detection and remedial action

If surface-breaking, lamellar tears can be readily detected using visual examination,
liquid penetrant or magnetic particle testing techniques. Internal cracks require ultrasonic
examination techniques but there may be problems in distinguishing lamellar tears from
inclusion bands. The orientation of the tears normally makes them almost impossible to
detect by radiography.

179

Defects/imperfections in welds - reheat

cracking
Location of reheat cracks in a nuclear pressure vessel steel

The characteristic features and principal causes of reheat cracking are described. General
guidelines on best practice are given so that welders can minimise the risk of reheat
cracking in welded fabrications.

Identification
Visual appearance
Reheat cracking may occur in low alloy steels containing alloying additions of
chromium, vanadium and molybdenum when the welded component is being subjected to
post weld heat treatment, such as stress relief heat treatment, or has been subjected to
high temperature service (typically 350 to 550C).
Cracking is almost exclusively found in the coarse grained regions of the heat affected
zone (HAZ) beneath the weld, or cladding, and in the coarse grained regions within the
weld metal. The cracks can often be seen visually, usually associated with areas of stress
concentration such as the weld toe.
Cracking may be in the form of coarse macro-cracks or colonies of micro-cracks.
A macro-crack will appear as a 'rough' crack, often with branching, following the coarse
grain region, ( Fig. 1a). Cracking is always intergranular along the prior austenite grain
boundaries ( Fig. 1b). Macro-cracks in the weld metal can be oriented either longitudinal

180

or transverse to the direction of welding. Cracks in the HAZ, however, are always
parallel to the direction of welding.

Fig.1a.
Cracking
associated with the
coarse grained heat
affected zone

Fig.1b. Intergranular
morphology of reheat
cracks

Micro-cracking can also be found both in the HAZ and within the weld metal. Microcracks in multipass welds will be found associated with the grain coarsened regions
which have not been refined by subsequent passes.

Causes
The principal cause is that when heat treating susceptible steels, the grain interior
becomes strengthened by carbide precipitation, forcing the relaxation of residual stresses
by creep deformation at the grain boundaries.

181

The presence of impurities which segregate to the grain boundaries and promote temper
embrittlement, e.g. sulphur, arsenic, tin and phosphorus, will increase the susceptibility to
reheat cracking.
The joint design can increase the risk of cracking. For example, joints likely to contain
stress concentration, such as partial penetration welds, are more liable to initiate cracks.
The welding procedure also has an influence. Large weld beads are undesirable, as they
produce a coarse grained HAZ which is less likely to be refined by the subsequent pass,
and therefore will be more susceptible to reheat cracking.

Best practice in prevention

The risk of reheat cracking can be reduced through the choice of steel, specifying the
maximum impurity level and by adopting a more tolerant welding procedure / technique.

Steel choice
If possible, avoid welding steels known to be susceptible to reheat cracking. For example,
A 508 Class 2 is known to be particularly susceptible to reheat cracking, whereas
cracking associated with welding and cladding in A508 Class 3 is largely unknown. The
two steels have similar mechanical properties, but A508 Class 3 has a lower Cr content
and a higher manganese content.
Similarly, in the higher strength, creep resistant steels, an approximate ranking of their
crack susceptibility is as follows:

5 Cr 1Mo

lower risk

2.25Cr 1 Mo
0.5Mo B
0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V higher risk
Thus, in selecting a creep resistant, chromium molybdenum steel, 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V
steel is known to be susceptible to reheat cracking but the 2.25Cr 1Mo which has a
similar creep resistance, is significantly less susceptible.
Unfortunately, although some knowledge has been gained on the susceptibility of certain
steels, the risk of cracking cannot be reliably predicted from the chemical composition.
Various indices, including
G1, P SR and Rs, have been used to indicate the

182

susceptibility of steel to reheat cracking. Steels which have a value of G1 of less than
2, P SR less than zero or Rs less than 0.03, are less susceptible to reheat cracking

G1 = 10C + Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V - 2

P SR

= Cr +Cu + 2Mo + 10V +7Nb + 5Ti - 2

Rs

= 0.12Cu +0.19S +0.10As + P +1.18Sn + 1.49Sb

Irrespective of the steel type, it is important to purchase steels specified to have low
levels of impurity elements (antimony, arsenic, tin, sulphur and phosphorus).

Welding procedure and technique

The welding procedure can be used to minimise the risk of reheat cracking by

Producing the maximum refinement of the coarse grain HAZ

Limiting the degree of austenite grain growth
Eliminating stress concentrations

The procedure should aim to refine the coarse grained HAZ by subsequent passes. In butt
welds, maximum refinement can be achieved by using a steep sided joint preparation
with a low angle of attack to minimise penetration into the sidewall, ( Fig 2a). In
comparison, a larger angle V preparation produces a wider HAZ, limiting the amount of
refinement achieved by subsequent passes, ( Fig 2b). Narrow joint preparations, however,
are more difficult to weld, due to the increased risk of lack of sidewall fusion.

Fig.2a. Welding in the flat

position - high degree of HAZ
refinement

183

Fig.2b.
Welding
in
the
horizontal/vertical position - low
degree of HAZ refinement

Refinement of the HAZ can be promoted by first buttering the surface of the susceptible
plate with a thin weld metal layer using a small diameter (3.2mm) electrode. The joint is
then completed using a larger diameter (4 - 4.8mm) electrode which is intended to
generate sufficient heat to refine any remaining coarse grained HAZ under the buttered
layer.
The degree of austenite grain growth can be restricted by using a low heat input.
However, precautionary measures may be necessary to avoid the risk of hydrogen
assisted cracking and lack-of-fusion defects. For example, reducing the heat input will
almost certainly require a higher preheat temperature to avoid hydrogen assisted
cracking.
The joint design and welding technique adopted should ensure that the weld is free from
localised stress concentrations which can arise from the presence of notches. Stress
concentrations may be produced in the following situations:

welding with a backing bar

a partial penetration weld leaving a root imperfection
internal weld imperfections such as lack of sidewall fusion
the weld has a poor surface profile, especially sharp weld toes

The weld toes of the capping pass are particularly vulnerable, as the coarse grained HAZ
may not have been refined by subsequent passes. In susceptible steel, the last pass should
never be deposited on the parent material, but always on the weld metal, so that it will
refine the HAZ.
Grinding the weld toes with the preheat maintained has been successfully used to reduce
the risk of cracking in 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V steels.

184

Oxyfuel cutting - process and fuel gases

Mechanised oxyacetylene cutting system

The oxyfuel process is the most widely applied industrial thermal cutting process because
it can cut thicknesses from 0.5mm to 2,500mm, the equipment is low cost and can be
used manually or mechanised. There are several fuel gas and nozzle design options that
can significantly enhance performance in terms of cut quality and cutting speed.

Process fundamentals
The cutting process is illustrated in Fig. 1. Basically, a mixture of oxygen and the fuel
gas is used to preheat the metal to its 'ignition' temperature which, for steel, is 700C 900C (bright red heat) but well below its melting point. A jet of pure oxygen is then
directed into the preheated area instigating a vigorous exothermic chemical reaction
between the oxygen and the metal to form iron oxide or slag. The oxygen jet blows away
the slag enabling the jet to pierce through the material and continue to cut through the
material.

185

Fig.1. Diagram of oxyacetylene

cutting process

There are four basic requirements for oxy-fuel cutting:

the ignition temperature of the material must be lower than its melting point
otherwise the material would melt and flow away before cutting could take place
the oxide melting point must be lower than that of the surrounding material so that
it can be mechanically blown away by the oxygen jet
the oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and the metal must be sufficient to
maintain the ignition temperature
a minimum of gaseous reaction products should be produced so as not to dilute
the cutting oxygen

As stainless steel, cast iron and non-ferrous metals form refractory oxides ie the oxide
melting point is higher than the material, powder must be injected into the flame to form
a low melting point, fluid slag.

Purity of oxygen
The cutting speed and cut edge quality are primarily determined by the purity of the
oxygen stream. Thus, nozzle design plays a significant role in protecting the oxygen
stream from air entrainment.
The purity of oxygen should be at least 99.5%. A decrease in purity of 1% will typically
reduce the cutting speed by 25% and increase the gas consumption by 25%.

186

Choice of fuel gas

Fuel gas combustion occurs in two distinct zones. In the inner cone or primary flame, the
fuel gas combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen which for
acetylene, the reaction is given by
2C 2 H 2 + 2O 2

4CO + 2H 2

Combustion also continues in the secondary or outer zone of the flame with oxygen being
supplied from the air.
4CO+2H 2 +3O 2

4CO 2 +2H 2 O

Thus, fuel gases are characterised by their

flame temperature - the hottest part of the flame is at the tip of the primary flame
(inner cone)
fuel gas to oxygen ratio - the amount of fuel gas required for combustion but this
will vary according to whether the flame is neutral, oxidising or reducing
heat of combustion - heat of combustion is greater in the outer part of the flame

The five most commonly used fuel gases are acetylene, propane, MAPP
(methylacetylene-propadiene), propylene and natural gas. The properties of the gases are
given in the Table. The relative performance of the fuel gases in terms of pierce time,
cutting speed and cut edge quality, is determined by the flame temperature and heat
distribution within the inner and out flame cones.

Acetylene
Acetylene produces the highest flame temperature of all the fuel gases. The maximum
flame temperature for acetylene (in oxygen) is approximately 3,160C compared with a
maximum temperature of 2,810C with propane. The hotter flame produces more rapid
piercing of the materials with the pierce time being typically one third that produced with
propane.
The higher flame speed (7.4m/s compared with 3.3m/s for propane) and the higher
calorific value of the primary flame (inner cone) (18,890kJ/m 3 compared with 10,433
kJ/m 3 for propane) produce a more intense flame at the surface of the metal reducing the
width of the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and the degree of distortion.

Propane
Propane produces a lower flame temperature than acetylene (the maximum flame
temperature in oxygen is 2,828C compared with 3,160C for acetylene). It has a greater
total heat of combustion than acetylene but the heat is generated mostly in the outer cone
187

( see Table). The characteristic appearance of the flames for acetylene and propane are
shown in Figs.2 and 3 where the propane flame appears to be less focused. Consequently,
piercing is much slower but as the burning and slag formation are effected by the oxygen
jet, cutting speeds are about the same as for acetylene.
Propane has a greater stoichiometric oxygen requirement than acetylene; for the
maximum flame temperature in oxygen, the ratio of the volume of oxygen to fuel gas are
1.2 to 1 for acetylene and 4.3 to 1 for propane.

Fig.2. Ocyacetylene
gas jet and nozzle
design

Fig.3. Propane gas jet

and nozzle design

188

MAPP
MAPP gas is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, principally, methylacetylene and
propadiene. It produces a relatively hot flame (2,976C) with a high heat release in the
primary flame (inner cone) (15,445kJ/m 3 ), less than for acetylene (18,890kJm 3 ) but
much higher than for propane (10,433kJm 3 ). The secondary flame (outer cone) also
gives off a high heat release, similar to propane and natural gas. The combination of a
lower flame temperature, more distributed heat source and larger gas flows compared
with acetylene results in a substantially slower pierce time.
As MAPP gas can be used at a higher pressure than acetylene, it can be used for
underwater cutting in deep water as it is less likely to dissociate into its components of
carbon and hydrogen which are explosive.

Propylene
Propylene is a liquid petroleum gas (LPG) product and has a similar flame temperature to
MAPP (2896C compared to 2,976C for MAPP); it is hotter than propane, but not as hot
as acetylene. It gives off a high heat release in the outer cone (72,000kJ/m 3 ) but, like
propane, it has the disadvantage of having a high stoichiometric fuel gas requirement
(oxygen to oxygen ratio of approximately 3.7 to 1 by volume).

Natural Gas
Natural gas has the lowest flame temperature similar to propane and the lowest total heat
value of the commonly used fuel gases, eg for the inner flame 1,490kJ/m 3 compared with
18,890kJ/m 3 for acetylene. Consequently, natural gas is the slowest for piercing.
Table : Fuel Gas Characteristics
Fuel Gas

Maximum Flame Oxygen to fuel gas Heat distribution

Temperature C Ratio (vol)
kJ/m3

Primary Secondary
Acetylene

3,160

1.2:1

18,890

35,882

Propane

2,810

4.3:1

10,433

85,325

MAPP

2,927

3.3:1

15,445

56,431

Propylene

2,872

3.7:1

16,000

72,000

Hydrogen

2,834

0.42:1

1.8:1

1,490

35,770

Natural Gas 2,770

189

Cutting processes - application of oxyfuel

cutting
Oxyfuel is one of the most widely used cutting processes
with the following benefits:

Rough-cut gear
oxyacetylene
Low cost equipment
Basic equipment suitable for cutting, gouging and
other jobs such as welding and heating
Portable, suitable for site work
Manual and mechanised operations
Mild and low alloy steels (but not aluminium or
stainless steel)
Wide range of thickness (typically from 1mm to
1000mm)

wheel

It is therefore not surprising that the process can be used

for a diverse range of applications from manual rough
severing and scrap cutting to precision contour cutting in
fully automated systems. Here, the process application is
described including the choice of fuel gas and nozzle
design to maximise performance. Best practice to ensure
adequate quality of the cut surface is also included.

Choice of fuel gas

Basically, a mixture of oxygen and a fuel gas (acetylene, propane, MAPP propylene or
methane) is used to preheat the metal to its 'ignition' temperature which is well below its
melting point. A jet of pure oxygen is then directed into the preheated area which burns
through the spot and the resulting molten metal and slag are removed by the high velocity
oxygen stream. The cutting speed is primarily determined by the oxygen jet but as the
outer fuel gas/oxygen flame determines the rate of preheating, the choice of fuel gas has a
significant influence on the time taken to initiate the cutting operation. This is especially
important if the designed cut begins by piercing.
The choice of fuel gas is largely made on cost, performance, ease of use and whether it is
a manual or mechanised operation. However, in making the choice it should be noted that
in a typical application the cost is made up of approximately:

50% overheads
30% handling labour
18% cutting labour
1-2% gas
190

cut

by

Consideration should, therefore, be given to the choice of fuel gas type and nozzle design
to speed up the initiation of the cutting operation. Labour costs can be reduced by
decreasing the pierce time and/or increasing the cutting speed. Typical flame
temperatures and fuel gas to oxygen ratios are shown in Fig. 1. Generally, fuel gases
which generate a higher flame temperature and require a lower oxygen to fuel gas ratio,
will speed up the cutting operation.

Fig. 1. Flame temperature and the fuel gas to

oxygen ratio

Acetylene
Acetylene produces the highest flame temperature of all the fuel gases and generates a
highly focused flame. As the pierce time is approximately one third that achieved with
propane, it should be used when the pierce time is a significant proportion of the total
cutting time, for example, short cuts and multi-pierce cutting operations
The high temperature, highly focused flame makes the oxyacetylene process ideal for
cutting thin sheets with minimum distortion and for bevel cutting. However, the high cost
and low heat generation make it less suitable for general heating of large plates.

Propane
Propane is low cost and has the advantage of being available in bulk supplies. The flame
temperature is lower than for acetylene (the maximum flame temperature in oxygen is
2810C compared with 3160C for acetylene) which makes piercing much slower.

191

However, it can tolerate a greater nozzle to workpiece distance which reduces the risk of
molten metal splashing back onto the nozzle and causing a 'backfire'.
For similar nozzle designs, cutting speeds for oxypropane and oxyacetylene are similar.
Advantages claimed for propane are smooth cut edge, less slag adhesion and lower plate
edge hardening because of the lower flame temperature. The heat affected zone is much
wider than for oxyacetylene.

MAPP
MAPP gas, which is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, principally, methylacetylene and
propadiene, produces a relatively hot flame (2927C). However, the lower calorific value
of the inner cone compared with acetylene gives a slightly slower pierce time.
The gas is seen as an alternative to acetylene with greater tolerance to torch distance
variation because of the more uniformly distributed heat between the inner and the outer
cones.
Only acetylene, hydrogen and MAPP have sufficiently high flame temperature for
underwater cutting. But as acetylene has a limited outlet pressure, MAPP is the only gas
other than hydrogen that can be used for cutting in deep water.

Propylene
Propylene is a liquid petroleum gas (LPG) product and has a similar flame temperature to
MAPP (2896C compared to 2976C for MAPP). It gives off a high heat release in the
outer cone (72,000 kJ/m3) but, like propane, it has the disadvantage of having a high
stoichiometric oxygen requirement (oxygen to fuel gas ratio of approximately 3.7 to 1 by
volume).

Methane
Methane has the lowest flame temperature similar to propane and the lowest total heat
value of the commonly used fuel gases. Consequently, natural gas is the slowest for
piercing.

Cutting torch
The cutting torch design can be either nozzle mix or injector. In the nozzle mix torch, the
fuel gas and pre-heat oxygen are mixed in the nozzle. In the injector torch, the pre-heat
gases mix either in the body of the torch, within the gas delivery tubes, or within the head
of the torch. Injector torches have the advantage of being able to use the higher pressure
of oxygen to pull the fuel into the torch. This allows the torch to be used at low fuel gas
pressures or with large pressure drops such as those experienced through long hose
lengths.

192

Nozzle
The primary functions of the nozzle are to provide:

a method of preheating the metal to its ignition temperature

a jet of oxygen to react with the material to be cut and at a flow rate sufficient to
blow away the slag

Each torch should be fitted with the appropriate nozzle for the type of fuel gas. Nozzles
can be of a one- or two-piece design. The nozzle type will depend on:

fuel gas
manual or machine operation
manufacturer's preference

Acetylene nozzles are usually one-piece but two-piece nozzles similar to those for other
fuel gases are produced for machine cutting.
The diameter of the cutting oxygen hole is selected according to the material thickness.
There are two types of nozzle; standard and high speed. The standard nozzle usually has a
parallel sided, central bore for the oxygen jet, which is surrounded by an annulus or a ring
of smaller diameter ports for the pre-heating gas mixture, Fig. 2. There are many designs
and arrangements of the preheating ports that focus the flame for heating and to protect
the oxygen jet from air entrainment.

Fig. 2. Standard nozzle with central bore

for oxygen jet and a ring of ports for the
pre-heating gas mixture

High-speed nozzles are capable of being used with higher oxygen pressures, up to 10 bar.
The essential difference is that the cutting oxygen is forced through a convergent /
divergent orifice which speeds up the gas flow rate to near supersonic levels. High-speed
nozzles are primarily used in mechanised equipment to exploit the higher speeds for
cutting long lengths.

193

Best practice
Cutting conditions are normally set to produce an acceptable cut surface finish for the
application but at the highest cutting speed. It is, therefore, essential that consideration is
given to the following settings for the material thickness and the cutting speed:
nozzle distance - too high or too low will disturb oxygen flow
preheat flame - too high a flow can cause top edge melting
cutting oxygen - too low a flow can cause poor slag removal - too high a flow can result
in poor cut finish

The typical appearances of a good and poor quality cut surface for manual cutting are
shown in Fig.3. The principal features are described together with their cause and
remedial measures necessary to produce the ideal square edge, smooth surface cut.

Fig. 3. Best practice guide for hand cutting

Surface Appearance

Features

Cause

Ideal Cut Profile

Square
edge,
smooth cut
surface,
underside
free
of
slag, small
drag lines
Cutting Too Fast

Coarse
drag lines
at angle to
surface
with
excessive
amount of
slag
sticking to
bottom
edge
of
plate

Oxygen jet
trailing
with
insufficient
oxygen
reaching
bottom of
the cut

194

Too high nozzle to plate

distance

Uneven
cut surface
with heavy
melting of
top edge,
coarse
drag lines
at bottom
cut surface

Preheat is
not focused
on
plate
surface,
oxygen jet
easily
disturbed

Too High Oxygen Flow

Excessive
slag
adhering
to cut face,
local
gouging,
excessive
top edge
melting

Turbulence
between the
preheat
flame and
the cutting
jet

Cutting processes - plasma arc cutting process and equipment considerations

The plasma arc process has always been seen as an alternative to the oxy-fuel process. In
this part of the series the process fundamentals are described with emphasis being placed
on the operating features and the advantages of the many process variants.
Photo courtesy: Goodwin Plasma

Process fundamentals
The plasma arc cutting process is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
basic principle is that the arc formed between the electrode
and the workpiece is constricted by a fine bore, copper
nozzle. This increases the temperature and velocity of the
plasma emanating from the nozzle. The temperature of the
plasma is in excess of 20 000C and the velocity can
approach the speed of sound. When used for cutting, the
plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply penetrating
plasma jet cuts through the mremoved in the efflux plasma.

195

Fig.1. The plasma arc cutting process

The process differs from the oxy-fuel process in that the plasma process operates by
using the arc to melt the metal whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidises the
metal and the heat from the exothermic reaction melts the metal. Thus, unlike the oxyfuel process, the plasma process can be applied to cutting metals which form refractory
oxides such as stainless steel, aluminium, cast iron and non-ferrous alloys.

Power source
The power source required for the plasma arc process must have a drooping characteristic
and a high voltage. Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically 50 to
60V, the open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can be up to 400V DC.
On initiation, the pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch between the electrode
and the nozzle. For cutting, the arc must be transferred to the workpiece in the so-called
'transferred' arc mode. The electrode has a negative polarity and the workpiece a positive
polarity so that the majority of the arc energy (approximately two thirds) is used for
cutting.

Gas composition
In the conventional system using a tungsten electrode, the plasma is inert, formed using
either argon, argon-H2 or nitrogen. However, as described in Process variants, oxidising
gases, such as air or oxygen, can be used but the electrode must be copper with hafnium.
The plasma gas flow is critical and must be set according to the current level and the
nozzle bore diameter. If the gas flow is too low for the current level, or the current level

196

too high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break down forming two arcs in series,
electrode to nozzle and nozzle to workpiece. The effect of 'double arcing' is usually
catastrophic with the nozzle melting.

Cut quality
The quality of the plasma cut edge is similar to that achieved with the oxy-fuel process.
However, as the plasma process cuts by melting, a characteristic feature is the greater
degree of melting towards the top of the metal resulting in top edge rounding, poor edge
squareness or a bevel on the cut edge. As these limitations are associated with the degree
of constriction of the arc, several torch designs are available to improve arc constriction
to produce more uniform heating at the top and bottom of the cut.

Process variants
The process variants, Figs. 2a to 2e, have principally been designed to improve cut
quality and arc stability, reduce the noise and fume or to increase cutting speed.

Dual gas
The process operates basically in the same manner as the conventional system but a
secondary gas shield is introduced around the nozzle, Fig. 2a. The beneficial effects of
the secondary gas are increased arc constriction and more effective 'blowing away' of the
dross. The plasma forming gas is normally argon, argon-H2 or nitrogen and the
secondary gas is selected according to the metal being cut.
Steel

air, oxygen, nitrogen

Fig.2a. dual gas

Stainless steel
nitrogen, argon-H2, CO2
Aluminium
argon-H2, nitrogen / CO2
The advantages compared with conventional plasma are:

Reduced risk of 'double arcing'

Higher cutting speeds
Reduction in top edge rounding

197

Water injection

Fig.2b. water injection

Nitrogen is normally used as the plasma gas. Water is injected

radially into the plasma arc, Fig. 2b, to induce a greater degree
of constriction. The temperature is also considerably
increased, to as high as 30,000C.
The advantages compared with conventional plasma are:

Improvement in cut quality and squareness of cut

Increased cutting speeds
Less risk of 'double arcing'
Reduction in nozzle erosion

Water shroud
The plasma can be operated either with a water shroud, Fig. Fig.2c. water shrouded
2c, or even with the workpiece submerged some 50 to 75mm
below the surface of the water. Compared with conventional
plasma, the water acts as a barrier to provide the following
advantages:

Fume reduction
Reduction in noise levels
Improved nozzle life

In a typical example of noise levels at high current levels of

115dB for conventional plasma, a water shroud was effective
in reducing the noise level to about 96dB and cutting under
water down to 52 to 85dB.
As the water shroud does not increase the degree of constriction, squareness of the cut
edge and the cutting speed are not noticeably improved.

198

Air plasma

Fig.2d. air plasma

The inert or unreactive plasma forming gas (argon or

nitrogen) can be replaced with air but this requires a special
electrode of hafnium or zirconium mounted in a copper
holder, Fig. 2d. The air can also replace water for cooling
the torch. The advantage of an air plasma torch is that it uses
air instead of expensive gases.
It should be noted that although the electrode and nozzle are
the only consumables, hafnium tipped electrodes can be
expensive
compared
with
tungsten
electrodes.

High tolerance plasma

In an attempt to improve cut quality and to compete with the Fig.2e. high tolerance
superior cut quality of laser systems, High Tolerance Plasma
Arc cutting (HTPAC) systems are available which operate
with a highly constricted plasma. Focusing of the plasma is
effected by forcing the oxygen generated plasma to swirl as
it enters the plasma orifice and a secondary flow of gas is
injected downstream of the plasma nozzle, Fig. 2e. Some
systems have a separate magnetic field surrounding the arc.
This stabilises the plasma jet by maintaining the rotation
induced by the swirling gas. The advantages of HTPAC
systems are:

Cut quality lies between a conventional plasma arc

cut and laser beam cut
Narrow kerf width
Less distortion due to smaller heat affected zone

HTPAC is a mechanised technique requiring precision, high-speed equipment. The main

disadvantages are that the maximum thickness is limited to about 6mm and the cutting
speed is generally lower than conventional plasma processes and approximately 60 to
80% the speed of laser cutting.

199

Cutting processes - laser cutting

Coined from the words Light Amplification by
Cut section of ellipse in flat plate
Stimulated Emission of Radiation lasers have been a
byword for efficiency and quality in materials
processing since their advent in the sixties.
They offered an entirely new form of energy which in
turn lent itself to uses in manufacturing, medicine and
communications. Able to heat, melt and even vaporise
material lasers are seen as the ideal medium for
combining intense but controllable energy.
By far the most popular use of the laser, particularly
the carbon dioxide laser, is for cutting.

Laser cutting
It is largely a thermal process in which a focused laser beam is used to melt material in a
localised area. A co-axial gas jet is used to eject the molten material from the cut and
leave a clean edge.
A continuous cut is produced by moving the laser beam or workpiece under CNC control
The process also lends itself to automation with offline CAD/CAM systems controlling
either 3-axis flat bed systems or 6-axis robots for three dimensional laser cutting.
The improvements in accuracy, edge squareness and heat input control means that other
profiling techniques such as plasma cutting and oxy-fuel cutting are being replaced by
laser cutting.

Cutting characteristics

Cuts carbon manganese steels up to

20mm
Cuts stainless steel up to 12mm
Cuts aluminium up to 10mm
Cuts brass and titanium
Cuts thermoplastics, wood and many
non-metals

Benefits

High quality cut - no finishing

Ultra flexible - simple or complex
parts
Non contact - no surface
blemishing
Quick set up - small batches
Low heat input - small HAZ, low
distortion
Lends itself to nearly all materials

200

What's the relationship between the lens used and the

thickness of cut?
The laser cutting process involves focusing a laser beam, usually with a lens, to a small
spot which has sufficient power density to produce a laser cut.
The lens is defined by its focal length, which is the distance from the lens to the focused
spot. However, the critical factors which determine the selection of the lens are the
focused spot diameter, d, and the depth of focus, L.
The depth of focus is the effective distance over which satisfactory cutting can be
achieved. It can be defined as the distance over which the focused spot size does not
increase beyond 5%.
For a given beam diameter, as the focal length becomes shorter the focused spot diameter
and the depth of focus also both become smaller. The size of the actual spot is also
dependent on the raw beam diameter, D. As this increases, for a given lens, the focused
spot size decreases.
To allow comparison between lasers with different beam diameters we therefore use a
factor called the focus f-number, which is the focal length, F, divided by the incoming
raw beam diameter, D.
As we are generally unable to alter the raw beam diameter we select the correct lens to
give us a focus beam of the required type.
The requirements for cutting are high power density, and therefore small focused spot
size but with a long depth of focus, and therefore the ability to process thicker materials
with a reasonable tolerance to focus position variation.
These two requirements are in conflict with each other and therefore a compromise must
be made. The only other consideration is that the shorter the focal length, the closer the
lens is to the workpiece, and therefore more likely to be damaged by spatter from the
cutting process.
For typical CO2 laser cutting systems focal lengths can be selected in the range from 21/2
inches up to 10 inches, which are equivalent to f-numbers between two and ten,
depending on the beam diameter.
In practice a 5 inch lens could cut up to around half inch thick steel before a longer lens
would be required to provide a greater depth of focus. However on thin sheet material,
for example 1mm, a shorter focal length may offer significantly higher cutting speeds, or
allow more intricate detail to be produced.

201

In fact it would be possible to optimise focal length for each material thickness, but this
would involve additional set up time when changing from one job to the next, which
would have to be balanced against the increased speed. In reality lens changing is
avoided and a compromise cutting speed used, unless a specific job has special
requirements .

Just how flexible are they?

Most laser cutting machines are 3-axis systems, that is X-Y, two dimensional positioning
control with a Z-axis height control.
There are however a number of ways of achieving the X-Y movement, either moving the
laser head, moving the workpiece or a combination of both.
The most popular approach is known as a 'flying optics' system where the workpiece
remains stationary and mirrors are moved in both X and Y axes. The advantages of this
approach are that the motors are always moving a known, fixed mass. This can often be
much heavier than the workpiece, but it is easier to predict and control.
As the workpiece is not moved, this also means that there is no real limit to sheet weight.
The disadvantage of flying optics is the variation in beam size, as a laser beam is never
perfectly parallel, but actually diverges slightly as it leaves the laser.
This means that without controlling the divergence, there may be some variation in
cutting performance between different parts of the table, due to a change in raw beam
size. This effect can be reduced by adding a re-collimating optic, or some systems even
use adaptive mirror control.
The alternative is a 'fixed optic' system where the laser head remains stationary and the
workpiece is moved in both X and Y axes. This is the ideal situation optically, but the
worst situation mechanically, especially for heavier sheets.
For relatively light sheet weights, a fixed optic system can be a viable option, but as the
sheet weight increases, accurately positioning the material at high speed can be a
problem.
The third option is known as a 'hybrid' system, where the laser head is moved in one axis
and the material moved in the other axis. This is often an improvement over fixed optics,
but still suffers from difficulties with heavier sheet weights.

202

What difficulties does reflection cause?

All metals are reflective to CO2 laser beams, until a Amada LCV laser cutting machine with
certain power density threshold value is reached.
autostorage and pallet changer system
Courtesy of Amada UK Ltd
Aluminium is more reflective than carbon manganese
steel or stainless steel and has the potential to cause
damage to the laser itself.
Most laser cutting machines use a laser beam aligned
normal to a flat sheet of material. This means that
should the laser beam be reflected by the flat sheet it
can be transmitted back through the beam delivery
optics, and into the laser itself, potentially causing
significant damage.
This reflection does not come entirely from the sheet
surface, but is caused by the formation of a molten
pool which can be highly reflective. For this reason simply spraying the sheet surface
with a non-reflective coating will not entirely eliminate the problem.
As a general rule the addition of alloying elements reduces the reflectivity of aluminium
to the laser, so pure aluminium is harder to process than a more traditional 5000 series
alloy.
With good, consistent cutting parameters the likelihood of a reflection can be reduced to
almost zero, depending on the materials used. However it is still necessary to be able to
prevent damage to the laser while developing the conditions or if something goes wrong
with the equipment.
The 'aluminium cutting system' which most modern equipment uses is actually a way of
protecting the laser rather than an innovative technique for cutting. This system usually
takes the form of a back reflection system that can detect if too much laser radiation is
being reflected back through the optics.
This will often automatically stop the laser, before any major damage is caused. Without
this system there are risks with processing aluminium as there is no way of detecting if
potentially hazardous reflections are occurring.

203

Job knowledge for welders - Laser

cutting: process variants
Laser cutting offers a high precision, CNC
controlled method of cutting plastic, metallic and
thin ceramic components. It is a mechanised,
thermal, non-contact process capable of cutting
most materials with a high degree of precision and
accuracy.
There are two commonly used types of industrial
cutting laser, CO2 and Nd:YAG. These differ in
that the wavelength of infrared light produced is
10.6m for CO2 lasers and 1.06m for Nd:YAG
lasers. Both these types of lasers produce the cut
by focusing a beam of monochromatic light to a very small spot size by lenses and
mirrors giving power densities in the up to 105 W/mm2. This power density is sufficient to
melt locally or even vaporise most materials. Once a through thickness zone of molten or
vaporised material is generated (a keyhole), a jet of assist gas, delivered co-axially
through the cutting nozzle, is used to eject this material from the kerf. (Fig 1).

Fig.1. Laser cutting head

The characteristics of the laser cutting process relate to the fact that the beam can be
focused to a spot of less than 0.5mm diameter to achieve these very high power densities.
The resulting cut edge is very square and the process is capable of cutting at very high
speeds. The combination of an intensely concentrated heat source moving at high speeds
also results in very little heat being transmitted to the surrounding material and, therefore,
very little thermal distortion of parts.

204

The difference in wavelength between the two types of lasers is significant in that the
shorter wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser enables the light to be transmitted to the
workpiece by fibre optics allowing three dimensional cutting or trimming of parts.
Light from CO2 lasers on the other hand are transmitted to the workpiece by mirrors or
transmissive optics. Although three dimensional cutting systems are available for CO2
lasers they are relatively cumbersome compared to fibre delivered Nd:YAG lasers and
CO2 lasers are more commonly used for two dimensional flat bed cutting.

Assist gases
The types of assist gases used to eject the material from the kerf can be classified as
either reactive or inert. The CO2 gas used in CO2 lasers is not the assist gas, but one of the
gases excited to produce the laser light in the lasing cavity, usually quite a distance from
the cutting process head. The most commonly used reactive assist gases are oxygen or
air. Oxygen is used primarily for cutting low alloy steels and readily reacts with iron at
high temperatures producing additional heat energy which enables thicker parts to be cut
or greater speeds to be achieved. This gas is delivered at relatively low pressures and
flow rates and the process is referred to as 'low pressure oxygen cutting'.
Inert assist gases commonly used are either nitrogen or argon. These provide no thermal
assistance to the cutting process and are used simply to blow the molten material out of
the kerf. They are used at pressures of around 10 bar and the process is referred to as
'high pressure inert gas cutting'. Inert gases can be used for alloys which readily oxidise
in the presence of oxygen such as stainless steel, aluminium or titanium to give a very
bright and clean cut edge. Occasionally, inert gases are recommended for cutting low
alloy steels where the edges are to be subsequently laser welded. This reduces the
formation of an oxidised layer on the face of the cut edge and will reduce porosity in the
resulting weld.

Cut quality
The precision or dimensional accuracy of a cut is important as it helps to ensure correct
part tolerances and fit-up, thus eliminating rework or secondary processing operations
further down the production line. The main criteria used to assess the quality of a cut,
together with typical values for lasers areas follows.

Kerf
Defined as the width of the cut at its widest point in millimetres, the kerf gives an
indication of the minimum internal radius or feature that can be cut. Laser cuts possess a
narrow to very narrow kerf width (0.5-1.0mm) for CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers respectively.

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Cut edge roughness, Rz,mm

Cut edge roughness is used to define the cosmetic appearance of a cut and can give an
indication of whether subsequent machining operations are necessary. It is determined by
an Rz value in microns (also known as the ISO 10 point height parameter). This is a
measure of the surface roughness transverse to the cut edge produced by traversing at 2/3
depth with a stylus and taking an average value. Both CO2 and Nd:YAG processes
produce cuts with a low edge roughness (<50m).

Cut edge squareness, U

Edge squareness is of interest because it gives an indication of the fit-up between two
components and whether any post cutting machining operations will be necessary. It is
defined in terms of the Perpendicularity and Angularity tolerance, U (mm). This is a
measure, in millimetres, of how much the cut edge deviates from a perfect square edge.
CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are capable of producing cuts with good edge squareness
(<0.5mm). This is highlighted in Fig. 2.

Fig.2. Relative edge squareness of

laser and competing processes for
carbon steels

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) width

HAZ width is defined as the width of a detectable microstructural change measured
perpendicular to the cut edge face. This is only applicable to alloys that are hardenable or
heat treatable. The width of the HAZ is of interest because, due to the potential
degradation of properties and this material may have to be removed before final assembly
of the product. The concentrated heat source produced by both CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers
produces a very narrow HAZ (<0.5mm).

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Dross
Dross describes the resolidified material that adheres to the bottom edge of a cut
produced by a thermal process. Levels of dross are quantified subjectively, with none,
light, medium and heavy being the terms used most commonly. For laser cutting, dross is
light provided the cutting parameters are optimised.

Economics of laser cutting processes

Whilst most suited for precision cutting of thin sheet in the 1-15mm thickness range, both
CO2 and Nd:YAG laser cutting systems require high capital investment. The cost of
purchasing laser equipment can range from 50k-250k depending on the output power
requirements of the system. Precision work handling equipment is required if a laser is to
be used to its full potential, in terms of cutting speed and quality. When combined with a
chiller unit, this can add a further 100k to the cost of implementing a laser system.
As a result, laser cutting systems typically are used where high cut quality requirements
make their application essential, or where the initial investment is offset by the high
production rates that can be reached as a result of their high cutting speeds on thin sheet
materials as illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. Cutting Speeds of laser and

competing processes for carbon
steels

For low production volumes, sub-contracting work to laser job shops can offer an
attractive alternative to such an investment.

207

Ceramics - materials, joining and

applications
Ceramics are an incredibly diverse family of materials whose members span traditional
ceramics (such as pottery and refractories) to the modern day engineering ceramics (such
as alumina and silicon nitride) found in electronic devices, aerospace components and
cutting tools.
Whilst the most extravagant claims of the 1980s in favour of advanced ceramic materials
(such as the all ceramic engine) have largely proved inaccurate, it is true to say that
ceramics have established themselves as key engineering materials.
When used in conjunction with other materials, usually metals, they provide added
functionality to components thereby improving application performance, once the
appropriate joint design and technology have been identified.

Ceramic materials
Ceramics exhibit very strong ionic and/or covalent bonding (stronger than the metallic
bond) and this confers the properties commonly associated with ceramics: high hardness,
high compressive strength, low thermal and electrical conductivity and chemical
inertness.
This strong bonding also accounts for the less attractive properties of ceramics, such as
low ductility and low tensile strength. The wider range of properties, however, is not
widely appreciated. For example, whilst ceramics are perceived as electrical and thermal
insulators, ceramic oxides (initially based on Y-Ba-Cu-O) are the basis for high
temperature superconductivity. Diamond, beryllia and silicon carbide have a higher
thermal conductivity than aluminium or copper.
Control of the microstructure can overcome inherent stiffness to allow the production of
ceramic springs, and ceramic composites have been produced with a fracture toughness
about half that of steel.
The main compositional classes of engineering ceramics are the oxides, nitrides and
carbides. The Table gives the general properties of the most used ceramics.

208

Table 1 Properties of ceramics

Ceramic Melting
point
(C)

Density
(g/cm3)

Strength
(MPa)

Coefficient
Thermal
of thermal conductivity
expansion
(W/m.K)
(x 10-6/C)

Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)

BeO

2530

3.1

246

7.4

210

400

Al2O3

2050

4.0

455

8.0

40

380

ZrO2

2700

5.6

175

10.5

19

140

AlN

1900

3.3

441

4.4

180

320

Si3N4

1900

3.2

210

3.0

17

175

B4C

2350

2.5

350

4.3

25

450

SiC

2700

3.2

140

4.3

50

210

WC

2377

15.8

600

5.2

700

3.5

1500

0.5

2000

500

Diamond 3000

Oxides
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2) are the most commonly used engineering
grade oxide ceramics, with alumina being the most used ceramic by far in terms of both
tonnage and value.

Nitrides
Silicon nitride (Si3N4), and aluminium nitride (AlN) are the main advanced engineering
ceramics in this category. There is a wide range of grades and types of these materials,
particularly of silicon nitride with each grade having specific properties

Carbides
Silicon carbide (SiC) is widely used for its high thermal conductivity, corrosion
resistance and hardness, although as an engineering ceramic its toughness is lower than
that of some silicon nitride grades. Boron carbide (B4C) is the third hardest industrial
material (after diamond and cubic boron nitride) and is used for components needing very
high wear performance.

209

Ceramic-based composites
Ceramics are used as the reinforcement of composite systems such as GRP (glass
reinforced plastics) and metal matrix composites such as alumina reinforced aluminium
(Al/Al2O3). Advanced ceramic materials are also used as the matrix materials in
composites. Currently the most widely available materials are based on SiC and carbon.

Joining
There are many possible techniques for joining ceramics to themselves and to dissimilar
materials. These technologies range from mechanical fixturing to direct bonding. Fig.1
gives an overview of these methods.

Fig.1. An overview of
processes for joining
ceramics

The selection of one of these techniques to manufacture a particular component will

depend on a number of factors including:

desired component function eg strength, electrical insulation or wear resistance

materials to be joined
operational temperature
applied stress
required level of joint hermeticity
component design
cost

Whilst all these considerations must be taken into account, generally the two important
factors are the similarity of the materials to be joined and the required temperature
capability. Fig. 2 gives the temperature capability of a number of joining media.

210

Fig.2. Temperature
capability
of
a
number of joining
media

When joining ceramics to metals it is necessary to create an interface between the

materials. In general the interface must accommodate the following:

the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

bond type ie ionic/covalent for ceramics ranging to the metallic bond
crystallographic lattice mismatch between the ceramic and metal

Applications
Compared to metals and plastics, ceramics are hard, non-combustible and inert. Thus
they can be used in high temperature, corrosive and tribological applications. These
applications rely on combinations of properties that are unique to industrial ceramics and
which include:

retention of properties at high temperature

low coefficient of friction (particularly at high loads and low levels of lubrication)
low coefficient of expansion
corrosion resistance
thermal insulation
electrical insulation
low density

Engineering ceramics are used to fabricate components for applications in many

industrial sectors, including ceramic substrates for electronic devices (Fig. 3),
turbocharger rotors (Fig. 4), and tappet heads for use in automotive engines. Other
examples of where advanced ceramics are used include oil-free bearings in food
processing equipment, aerospace turbine blades, nuclear fuel rods, lightweight armour,
cutting tools, abrasives, thermal barriers and furnace/kiln furniture.

211

Fig.3. Ceramic substrates for electronic

devices

Fig.4. Ceramic turbocharger rotor

assembly made from silicon nitride
Courtesy of NGK/NTK Spark Plug Co

Summary
When selecting a material for use in a specific component the applicability and suitability
of the candidate materials need to be considered in detail. When a ceramic material is
being selected the fitness-for-purpose criteria that should be applied include:

operational environment - atmosphere, temperature, applied stress, fatigue,

exposure time
predictable excursions beyond the usual, including mechanical impact or rapid
heating/cooling
design - ceramic materials are relatively intolerant of abrupt changes in crosssection such as notches, holes and corners
joining - the role of the joint, its operational conditions and performance
requirements and the joining techniques suitable for manufacture
cost - as with all materials selection and component design questions, the cost and
availability of the raw materials and all necessary fabrication techniques must be
considered in the light of their suitability to provide a component with the
required performance profile at a viable cost

Future development is likely to come from improved processing and fabrication

techniques that will lower component costs or improve behaviour, an increasing demand
for higher performance materials necessitating the use of more ceramics. Whilst it is
difficult to predict new materials, improvements in existing ones can be readily foreseen.
The most significant area of development is likely to be in the ceramic matrix
composites.

212

Whilst existing composites based on SiC will improve as porosity levels are reduced by
improved processing techniques, the development of high temperature oxide-based
composites is likely to provide a competitor material system with wider applicability in
the near future. In the future we can expect to see a still greater contribution to industrial
growth and technological development from these materials.

Welding techniques for thermoplastics

The purpose of this article is to give an overview of the variety of techniques available to
industry for the thermal joining of thermoplastics.
The techniques used can be divided into three distinct groups based on the method used
to introduce heat to the weld. These are:

by mechanical movement,
by an external heat source
from electromagnetism

Welding techniques where heat is generated by

mechanical movement
Linear vibration
In linear vibration welding the parts to be joined are brought into contact under pressure
before being rubbed together in a linear reciprocating motion. The resulting friction melts
the material at the interface after which the vibration stops; the parts are then aligned and
held together until the weld solidifies.
Most thermoplastic materials can be welded using this technique, which is used
extensively in the automotive industry for joining components such as two-part bumpers,
fuel tanks, air ducts and inner door panels.

Spin

Fig. 1. Spin welding machine

In spin welding the joint areas are always circular and the
motion is rotational. The technique has been exploited for
applications as diverse as the manufacture of polyethylene
floats, aerosol bottles, transmission shafts and PVC pipes
and fittings.

Ultrasonic

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Ultrasonic welding involves the use of high frequency mechanical energy to soften or
melt the thermoplastic at the joint line. Parts to be joined are held together under pressure
and then subjected to ultrasonic vibrations, usually at a frequency of 20 or 40kHz.
Ultrasonic welding is a fast process, with weld times typically less than a second, and can
be easily automated. It is a popular choice for assembling components in the automotive,
medical, electronic and packaging markets.

Welding techniques using an external heat source

Hot plate
Hot plate welding is possibly the simplest plastic joining technique, used for various
applications ranging from small automotive fluid reservoir vessels to pipelines in excess
of 1000mm in diameter.
The technique involves heating the ends of the parts to be joined against an electrically
heated platen until they are sufficiently molten. The heater plate is then removed and the
parts pressed together. A cooling cycle follows, allowing the weld to develop strength.

Hot bar and impulse

This technique is mainly used for joining thermoplastic films with a thickness of less than
0.5mm. It works on the principle that if two films are pressed against a heated metal bar,
they will soften and allow a joint to be made between them. Weld times are rapid, around
two seconds for 100mm film.
The principle of impulse welding is the same. Here the heat comes from a brief burst of
electrical energy through a nickel chromium wire triggered as the films are pressed
together. This method is used in packaging for the rapid sealing of polyethylene bags.

Hot gas
In hot gas welding of thermoplastics, the parts to be joined, typically sheet sections up to
30mm in thickness, are prepared in a V-butt or T-butt configuration before a stream of
hot gas is directed towards the joint area. This causes melting of the joint area and also of
a consumable filler rod of the same polymer type as the parts being joined. The weld is
formed from the fusing together of the joint with the filler material.
The main advantage of hot gas welding is that the equipment is easily portable. However,
the process is slow and weld quality depends greatly on the skill of the operator. Training
and Certification of operators is recommended to achieve high standards.

214

Extrusion

Fig. 2. Extrusion welding

Extrusion welding is similar to hot gas welding, sharing

some of its characteristic advantages and disadvantages.
Molten thermoplastic filler material is fed into the joint
preparation from the barrel of a mini hand-held extruder
based on an electric drill. The molten material emerges
from a PTFE shoe shaped to match the profile being
welded. At the leading edge of the shoe a stream of hot
gas is used to pre heat the substrate prior to the molten
material being deposited, ensuring sufficient heat is
available to form a weld.
The process is used typically for assembly of large
fabrications such as chemical storage vessels, with wall
thicknesses up to 50mm.

Welding techniques which directly use

electromagnetism.
Fig. 3. Overview of welding processes for thermoplastics, grouped by heating
mechanism

215

Resistive implant
This involves trapping an electrically conducting implant between the two parts to be
joined before applying a high electric current to cause resistive heating. As the implant
heats, the surrounding thermoplastic material softens and melts. Application of pressure
ensures the molten surfaces fuse together to form a weld.
A widely used application of resistive implant welding is the electrofusion technique for
joining thermoplastic pipes using specially designed socket couplers containing an
integral electrical heating coil.

Induction
Induction is similar to resistive implant welding as an implant is generally needed at the
joint line. However, in this process a work coil connected to a high frequency power
supply is placed close to the joint. As high frequency electric current passes through the
work coil, a dynamic magnetic field is generated whose flux interacts with the implant.
Eddy currents are induced in the implant, heating it and the surrounding joint area.

High frequency (dielectric)

High frequency (dielectric or radio frequency) welding relies on the ability of the plastic
being joined to generate heat in a rapidly alternating electric field. Hence the technique is
generally restricted to PVC, EVA and polyurethanes.
During the process, the parts to be joined are subjected to a high frequency electric field
applied between two metal bars. The dynamic electric field causes molecular vibration in
the plastic. Some of the resulting oscillatory motion is converted into thermal energy,
causing the material to heat.
Products manufactured by high frequency welding include stationery wallets, inflatables,
tarpaulins and blood bags.

Infrared
During infrared welding the parts to be joined are brought into very close proximity with
an electrically heated platen. The technique is similar to hot plate welding although no
actual physical contact is made with the heat source. After sufficient time has elapsed the
parts become molten and can be forced together to form a weld.
Infrared welding is generally faster than hot plate welding with typical welding times
being reduced by around 50%. The fact that heating is achieved without physical contact
eliminates the possibility of contamination entering the weld from the surface of the hot
plate. The technique is used for joining thermoplastic pipes.

Laser
216

The laser welding technique uses a focused beam of intense radiation, usually in the
infrared area of the electromagnetic spectrum, to melt the plastic in the joint region. The
type of laser used and the absorption characteristics of the plastic determine the extent of
welding possible.
Clearweld transmission welding, recently patented by TWI, uses a colourless infrared
absorbing medium at the joint interface of two transmissive plastics. Thus two optically
clear plastics may be laser welded with an almost invisible joint.
Laser welding has the advantage of being a quick, clean, non-contact process which
generates minimum flash and distortion.

Hot gas welding of plastics: Part 1 - the

basics
Process background
Hot gas welding is a fabrication process for thermoplastic materials. The process,
invented in the mid 20th century, uses a stream of heated gas, usually air, to heat and melt
both the thermoplastic substrate material and the thermoplastic welding rod. The
substrate and the rod fuse to produce a weld (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig.1. Hot gas hand welding nozzle Fig.2. Hot gas hand welding
motion and rod angle

To ensure welding takes place, adequate temperature and pressure must be applied to the
rod, along with the use of the correct welding speed and gun position. The weld quality,
since this is a purely manual technique, is dependent on the skill of the welder. Typical
applications include chemical storage vessels, ventilation ducting and repair of plastic
mouldings such as car bumpers.

217

Welding materials
There are two groups of plastic materials; thermoplastics and thermosets. The hot gas
welding technique is only applicable to those plastic materials that can be heated and
melted repeatedly, namely thermoplastics.
When a thermoplastic is heated, the molecular chains become mobile within the material
and allow it to melt and flow.
Thermosets are a group of plastic materials in which the molecular chains form crosslinks. These cross-links, formed by a chemical reaction, prevent the molecular chains
becoming mobile when heat is applied.
Although many thermoplastics can be welded by this process, the most common are
polypropylene, polyethylene, PVC and some fluoropolymers such as PVDF, FEP and
PFA.
Extruded rod and sheet are the most commonly used raw materials for the manufacture of
fabricated plastic products. It is of utmost importance when fabricating plastics that the
welding rod and the sheet are of identical material and chemical type.
For example, although it is possible to weld polypropylene homopolymer to
polypropylene random block copolymer, the strength of the weld will be reduced
significantly. It is also important to check the quality of the welding rod prior to use,
since air bubbles within the rod can form during the extrusion process. These will lead to
voids in the weld. Welding rods will typically be either three or four millimetres in
diameter.

Welding equipment
The equipment used for hot gas welding consists of an air supply, a handle with sturdy
grip, a heating chamber with temperature control to produce the hot gas and a nozzle
where the heated gas leaves the welding gun in order to heat the plastic rod and substrate.
(Fig.3)

Fig.3. Hot gas welding gun

218

A fan, either incorporated into the welding gun handle or positioned remotely and
connected to the gun, provides the air supply. It is also possible to use compressed gas
from bottles, for example, air or nitrogen.
Whichever gas supply is used, it is important that it is clean and dry, since dirt and
moisture will contaminate the weld.
The gun temperature is set via a dial on the handle, with some welding guns showing the
temperature of the air stream on a digital read-out also on the handle. It is good practice
to measure the gas temperature consistently using a digital thermometer, for example,
with the thermocouple tip placed 5mm inside the welding gun nozzle.
The front end of the welding gun allows interchangeable welding nozzles to be fitted
depending on the type of welding needed.
Three nozzle types are most commonly used, the tacking nozzle, the round nozzle and the
high-speed nozzle (Fig.4).

Fig.4. Plastic welding nozzles (left to

right) tacking nozzle, round nozzle,
high speed nozzle

The tacking nozzle, as the name suggests, is used to tack the materials together before
welding. The round nozzle allows the welder to heat the rod and substrate without
physical contact with either and is useful for welding in areas with difficult access.
This is less commonly used than the high-speed welding nozzle where the toe of the
nozzle contacts the welding rod and allows the welder to put pressure on both the rod and
the substrate material whilst welding.
Along with correct temperature, the pressure ensures that there is adequate fusion
between the welding rod and the substrate material.
In addition to the welding gun, several tools are needed. These are a coarse tooth file,
router and hand grinder for edge preparation, a scraper for removal of the material

219

surface around the weld and a wire brush for cleaning the nozzle. Also, wire cutters are
required for cutting the welding rod and a jigsaw for cutting the substrate materials.

Welding parameters
There are four main welding parameters in the hot gas welding process: temperature,
pressure, welding speed and gun position. Since the process is manual, it is important that
the welder has a good understanding of the need to ensure that all four of these
parameters are correct and controlled during the welding operation.
Temperature is the most important of the four parameters, since the temperature at the
interface between the rod and the substrate is not only controlled by the setting on the
gun, but also by the gun travel speed and the gun position with respect to the substrate.
Typically, the temperature for welding is set between 80 and 100C above the melting
point of the material being welded. The gun travel speed is normally between 0.1 and
0.3m/min, again, depending upon the material being welded.
The welding pressure is applied via the toe of the welding nozzle and is achieved by
holding the welding gun grip firmly and pushing down into the weld. For round nozzle
welding, pressure is applied manually from the welding rod.
The correct welding pressure is easier to achieve using welding guns with the fan
separate to the gun since a firmer grip around the handle can be achieved. The force
applied to the welding rod would typically be between 15 and 30N.
Practical welding details are given in Hot gas welding of plastics: Part 2 - welding
techniques

Weld quality
As a manual process, weld quality is dependent on skill. There is no recognised nondestructive technique, that conclusively shows the presence of defects in plastic welds
that could lead to weld failure. Therefore, it is recommended that good quality welder
training is received and that welder certification is adopted.
The European Standard (EN13067) sets out the criteria for plastic welder approval. It
details a scheme where the welder undergoes both a theoretical and a practical test and
the welder, upon successful completion, is awarded a certificate of approval in the
specific material categories taken in the test. Certification lasts for two years with a
further two years prolongation, effectively giving the welder an approval certificate for
four years before requiring a full retest.

220

Extrusion welding of thermoplastics

Introduction
Extrusion welding is used in the manufacture of thick-section
fabrications, such as tanks and pipes, where it is necessary to
produce large volume, homogeneous seams in a single pass, unlike
hot gas welding where it would be necessary to produce a seam
using multiple runs.

Polypropylene tank made

using extrusion and hot
gas welding

In tank fabrications, the main use of extrusion welding is to weld the

bases and tops, although in certain applications, the body panels are
also welded using this technique. In large section pipe fabrications,
it can be used where manual welding techniques are required.
Another use for extrusion welding is in environmental applications
where it is used in the joining of lining material for the construction
of landfill waste sites, lagoons and roof coverings. It is also
becoming increasingly used in agriculture and water engineering, for
example, in the fabrication of land drainage systems, sump tanks and
manways.

Equipment
Extrusion welders are available in a variety of sizes, from compact units with an integral
air supply, weighing a mere 2.8 kg, through to large 13kg machines used for welding
lining material in landfill applications. They can be supplied in both 110v and 240v
configurations.
Fig.1. Extrusion welding gun

221

Extrusion welding has historically been used to weld mainly PP and HDPE, although
some modern types of extruders have also been engineered to weld PVC and PVDF. In
the case of PVC, due to its narrow processing 'window', the extruder needs to be purged
using PP or PE weld rod, to ensure that no PVC material is left to degrade in the barrel.
Extrusion welders are designed to ensure that certain parameters are accurately defined to
maximise weld quality, these being:

Temperature of the welding material - extrudate

Mass flow rate of the welding material
Temperature of the hot gas for substrate pre-heat
Quantity of hot gas

The welding speed that can be achieved is dependent on the flow rate of the extrudate,
the material thickness, the cross sectional area of the seam and the size and design of the
PTFE welding shoe.

Preparation
As for hot gas welding, good quality extrusion welded seams can only be achieved if the
parts to be welded are prepared correctly. They must be scraped to remove any
contamination and the oxide layer on the surface of the material, and then fully tacked
together to ensure perfect alignment for the application of the initial root run of 3mm hot
gas weld. The root run ensures full weld penetration which maximises weld strength and
also ensures that the parts remain together during the extrusion process. Due to the large
quantity of air used for the pre-heat (typically 300 ltrs/min to comply with the DVS
guidelines) a standard hot gas tack weld would break due to expansion.
The angle of the extruder in relation to the work-piece is also extremely important, to
ensure an even pre-heat of the substrate and an even flow of the extrudate (Fig.2a and
2b). If incorrect parameters are used, ie too cold, the surface of the weld will be very
rough and irregular in appearance and the resulting weld will have low strength. If the
weld is too hot, the surface will have a wet look and the weld will again have low
strength.

222

Fig.2a) Example of a good quality

extrusion weld

Fig.2b) This photo illustrates a weld

made
using
incorrect
welding
parameters

The modern extrusion welder has the facility to control the melt temperature and the preheat air separately, with a display on the control box for easy operation and monitoring.
The electronic control of the melting chamber does not allow the drive motor to operate
until the material is at the correct temperature. This prevents strain being put on the motor
and the screw drive.

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Description
Fig.3. Schematic of extrusion welding gun

The drive motor (1) is an electric drill with improved gearing, which drives a screw shaft
in a heated barrel. This also feeds the welding rod (2) into the rod input point (3) via a
pair of pinch rollers, then into the extruder (4). Modern extruders have a special welding
rod feed, which prevents the welding rod from becoming twisted, and ensures constant
rod input. This improves the homogeneous quality of the welding seam, because
variations in input due to twists and kinks in the weld rod, can lead to deviations in
output. The extruder screw grinds the welding rod into granules. The resulting granulate
is then fed into the melting chamber (5) where it is melted. The mass then continues
through the barrel to the pre-formed, interchangeable, PTFE shoe (6), where it is formed
to the shape of the seam required.
Certain machines also have the facility to be fed with granulate directly, rather than
welding rod. These extruders are mainly used in landfill applications where there is the
potential for long seams and inclement weather conditions. The hoppers can be covered
to reduce the possibility of moisture and contamination that can appear on weld rod.
The correct design of welding shoe required for the type of seam to be welded, is placed
on the end of the extruder. The base material is heated (plasticised) by the heating nozzle
(7) with air supplied (on this particular design) via an integral air heater unit (8).
Extrusion welding is a manual welding process and as such, is dependent on operator
skill. Therefore to achieve a high quality seam, it is recommended that a quality training
programme and certification is undertaken. As in hot gas welding, the draft European
standard (prEN 13067) sets out the requirements for plastics welder approval in extrusion
welding. The CSWIP PW-6-96 certification scheme is available for the certification of
plastics welding personnel, to undertake both a theory test and a practical examination in

224

extrusion welding of PP and HDPE. Certification is valid for two years with a further two
years prolongation, as long as the welder has continued to use the process on a regular
basis for that period of time. After the four-year period, the welder will need to undergo a
full retest.

Butt fusion welding of plastics

Introduction

Fig.1. Aligning and clamping the pipes

The heating phase, sometimes referred to as 'bead up', is

where the pipe ends are pressed against a heated plate
for a period of time. This is followed by the 'heat soak'
phase where the pressure is reduced to just hold the pipe
ends on the hot plate. This allows time for the heat to
soak into the material at the pipe ends.
After the heat soak phase, the hot plate is removed and
the pipe ends brought together. The time taken to do this
is called 'dwell time' and needs to be as short as possible.
The final phase is the welding/cooling time,
predetermined subject to pipe diameter and wall
thickness.

Machine set up
Before making any pipe welds, the butt fusion welding machine needs to be checked for
smooth running and set up for the pipe materials to be welded.

Selection of the correct clamps or inserts, ensuring all fixings are tight, to reduce
the possibility of misalignment due to axial movement.
Correct temperature of the hot plate, for the material being welded; this should be
checked with a surface temperature probe and digital thermometer in several
positions after a stabilisation period of at least 20 minutes. Between welds the hot
plate should be covered by a heatproof bag to protect it from surface
contamination and to prevent heat loss.
Check the planer blades used to trim and square the pipe ends; they need to be
sharp, undamaged and firmly fixed to the planer surface to avoid slippage of the
planer during rotation.
Check all moving parts for smooth operation and, if using a hydraulic machine,
check the hoses and fittings for signs of leakage.

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Preparing the pipe

Prior to welding, correct preparation of the pipes is Fig.2. Planing the pipe ends so they are
necessary. When measuring pipe lengths, allowance ready for welding
should be made for the trimming and melting sequences
to guarantee correct lengths after welding.
Before clamping the pipes into the machine, the ends
should be checked for irregular shape, damage, or
embedded grit. The maximum allowable depth of this
must be less than 10% of the wall thickness. Damaged or
deeply scored pipe should be discarded. Any loose
contamination can be removed by wiping the pipe ends
with a lint-free cloth on both inner and outer surfaces.
Once cleaned, the pipes are clamped into the machine.
To help alignment, it is good practice to clamp the pipes
in such a way that their stamped markings are in line.
This also helps with identification at a later date if
required.
Once securely fitted in the clamps, the pipe ends should be brought into contact with the
rotating planer tool until continuous shavings are cut from each end. The planing process
ensures the pipe ends are smooth and square ready for the welding phase. Loose shavings
should be removed from the machine and inside the pipes taking care not to touch the
planed ends. This ensures that no grease or dirt is transferred from hands to pipe ends.
The pipes should then be checked for alignment and adjustments made to the clamps
where necessary to ensure there is minimal mismatch in diameter.

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Welding
Before the welding sequence, heating and cooling times Fig.3. The hotplate is positioned
and fusion pressures should be noted for the specific pipe between the pipes
diameter and written down for quick reference during the
welding cycle. Some machines have all the relevant tables
on them for convenience. A timer or stopwatch should be
available for accurate timing.
The heatproof bag should be removed from the hotplate,
and the temperature should be checked using a digital
thermometer and surface probe.
It is good practice to complete a dummy weld before
undertaking actual welding. This is to ensure the surface
area of the hotplate in contact with the pipe ends is totally
clean of any dust particles or other contaminants.
Place the hotplate between the pipe ends, ensuring that it
is properly located and square to the pipe faces. Move the Fig.4. Bead formation needs to be
pipes into contact with the surface applying an axial force. monitored carefully
The force should be applied smoothly making sure that the
required pressure is not exceeded. The force needs to be
held securely, allowing the formation of a bead of molten
material around the pipe.
The bead needs to be even around the pipe circumference,
on both sides of the hotplate. This is the 'bead up' phase of
the process.
The means of applying the force will vary with the type of
equipment. On certain types of machine the force will be
applied by mechanical means using a spring loaded
mechanism with the force being maintained by a locking
screw. On other types of equipment, hydraulic rams are
used with the pressure maintained by switching valves in
the hydraulic power pack.
When the required bead has been achieved, the pressure is reduced for the heat soak
phase. The pipes rest on the hot plate which allows the heat to permeate the material,
reducing the possibility of cold welds.
This time will vary subject to pipe diameter and wall thickness, therefore manufacturers
recommended times should be used.

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Fig.5. The pipes should be kept

When this phase is completed, the pipe faces are moved clamped during the welding/cooling
away from the hotplate as smoothly as possible to ensure phase
that none of the molten bead sticks to the surface and the
hotplate is removed. The pipes are then brought together
as smoothly and quickly as possible to minimise the
possibility of temperature drop, taking care not to exceed
the required force.

The welding/cooling phase begins when the required force

has been achieved. The weld force should be maintained
throughout this phase, to ensure maximum weld strength
On completion of the cooling time, the pressure can be
reduced to zero, and the pipe removed from the clamps.
The finished weld can now be visually inspected for
uniformity and alignment.

Friction welding of plastics

Friction welding of thermoplastics is a long established technique Fig.1. An air intake
usually employed for joining injection-moulded parts. The welding manifold
joined
by
process has found many applications ranging from automotive, for friction welding
example air intake manifolds (see Fig.1) and expansion tanks, through
to domestic appliance components such as a cistern ball float.
Experimental applications of friction welding for thermoplastics have
included welding polyethylene pipes for gas and water distribution.
There are five identifiable variations of the friction welding process;
linear, orbital, multi-directional, rotational and angular.
The linear and rotational forms of the friction welding process are used
extensively in industrial applications. Figure 2 shows a typical linear
friction-welding machine. The angular friction welding process has
only been used in a limited number of commercial applications and equipment is not
commercially available. Welding machines using the other two friction welding
techniques, orbital and multi-directional, have only become available in recent years.

228

Fig.2. An example of a typical linear friction

welding machine

Thermoplastic friction welding processes

Linear friction welding (also known as vibration welding) of thermoplastics involves
rubbing together, under axial force, two injection-moulded components in a linear
reciprocating motion. The frequency of the vibration is typically between 100 and 240Hz
with a peak-to-peak vibration movement of 1 to 4mm.
Rotational friction welding (or spin welding) is rubbing together plastic parts, under axial
force, while a component is rotated in the continuous circular motion. The typical
rotation speed is between 1200 and 3500rpm.
Orbital welding involves rubbing together the thermoplastic parts, under axial force, in an
orbital motion at the interface. Similar to linear friction welding, the frequency of
operation is around 200Hz with an off-axis deflection between 1 and 2mm. The orbital
motion has been adapted on some equipment to give a multi-directional, non-uniform
vibration pattern.
The final friction welding process, angular friction welding, is designed to allow circular
components to be welded in a vibration mode. The components are rubbed together in a
reciprocating motion, through a few degrees (typically 2 to 5), during the welding
process giving an arc of vibration motion at the component interfaces.

Process operation
In all the thermoplastic friction welding processes, the heat generated by the rubbing
action must be sufficient to melt and flow the plastic at the weld interface. Sufficient heat
is generated by a combination of weld time, weld force and interface velocity, determined
by either the reciprocating or rotational motion.

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Figure 3 shows a schematic of the material displacement at the welding interface during
the welding cycle. In all friction processes a similar pattern of behaviour can be seen.
Typically, displacement can be divided into four phases.

Fig.3. Material displacement at

the welding interface during
welding

In Phase 1 the parts are brought together and a welding force is applied. The interfacial
friction begins but initially, no material flows. In Phase II, the weld zone material starts to
melt and material displacement to the edges of the weld begins. Phase III is a steady state
phase; the material is pushed out from the weld at a constant rate. Phase IV is the cooling
phase when the interfacial friction is stopped but the force is still applied to consolidate
the weld.
It is generally accepted that Phases I, II and IV are an essential part of the process but that
there is no benefit, in terms of weld strength, in prolonging Phase III. Typically Phases I
and II would take between 0.5 and 8 seconds to complete depending on the weld surface
area being joined. Typically cooling times in Phase IV would be between 4 and 10
seconds.

Welding process parameters

In friction processes, welding can be carried out either until the pre-set weld time has
elapsed or a pre-set material displacement has been achieved.
When welding by time, the weld time is the length of time the plastic parts are rubbed
together to create the heat. As discussed previously, the weld time should ideally be
terminated when the steady state phase of the weld cycle is achieved. This can be
determined by using a displacement transducer. Higher melting point materials would
typically require a longer weld time.
An alternative to welding by time is to weld by displacement. Interfacial friction is
applied to components being welded until a fixed material displacement is achieved. This

230

would typically be 1 to 2mm, but would depend on the flatness of the components being
welded. Undulations in the welding interface would need to be taken into consideration
when setting the weld displacement.
Applying a force to the component during welding creates a pressure at the joint
interface. For friction welding of plastics, the typical welding and cooling pressure is
between 0.5 and 2Mpa. Increasing the weld pressure beyond these values can reduce the
strength of the weld by forcing out most of the molten thermoplastic materials, resulting
in a 'cold weld' being formed.
The cooling time is the length of time for which parts remain under pressure after the
relative friction motion is removed. Other welding process parameters are unique to the
individual processes and include amplitude and frequency in the vibration process and
rotational speed in the spin welding process.

Component design
Component design can be divided into the joint design and the
design of the component itself. Joint and component design are
critical to the success of friction welding processes, particularly in
linear and orbital friction welding where flexing in the walls of the
components can result in a reduction of the relative interfacial
motion needed to produce friction heating. To eliminate this
problem, it is important to include features such as stiffening ribs
and U-flanges to the component wall around the weld area. The Uflange is particularly important since it is designed to lock the
component wall to the component tooling, thus preventing wall
flexing. Wall flexing is especially a problem in vibration welding
where the vibrations occur transverse to the wall of the component
unless suitable measures described above are implemented. Figure 4
shows a U-flange joint used in vibration welding, which can also be
employed
with
other
friction
welding
processes

Fig.4.
U-flange
joint used in
vibration
or
other
friction
welding processes

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Summary
Friction welding processes are widely used techniques for the assembly of plastic
components. Correct selection of welding parameters and component design are essential
to successful welding using these processes.

232

Hot plate welding of plastics moulded

components
Introduction
Hot plate welding, also known as mirror, platen, or butt
welding, is used for welding injection-moulded components, for
example in automotive applications, and extensively in joining
plastic pipes for gas and water distribution. This article deals
only with welding injection-moulded components. A typical hot
plate welding application is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1. A rear light cluster typical hot plate welding

application

The process uses a heated, metal plate to heat and melt the
interface surfaces of the thermoplastic components. Once the
component interfaces are sufficiently heated, the hot plate is
removed and the components are brought into contact to form
the weld. An axial load is applied to the components during
both the heating and joining phases of the welding process.

Hot plate welding equipment

An example of a hot plate welding machine used for welding injection-moulding
components is shown in Fig.2. The machine consists of four main parts; the hot plate, the
machine slides, holding fixtures, and machine control system.
The hot plate is typically flat, but can be shaped to match the Fig.2. An example of a hot plate
profile of the components being welded. If necessary this welding machine
could be three-dimensional. Hot plates are usually
manufactured in aluminium or aluminium bronze. The latter
has greater dimensional stability at the high temperatures
required for the hot plate welding process.
To prevent the molten thermoplastic materials sticking to the
hot plate during the heating phase of the process, the plates are
often coated with a non-stick surface. Typically, a PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) based material is used for the
coating. This could be a permanent coating or a semipermanent, adhesive backed PTFE fabric. It is important when
using PTFE-coated hot plates, not to set the temperature above
270C, since toxic fumes are produced, which can lead to fluoropolymer fume fever.

233

The component-holding fixtures are mounted on to the machine slides. The slides are
designed to support the holding fixtures and the components being welded, as well as
applying the axial load without distorting the machine frame. The load is typically
applied by a pneumatic system. The components can either be restrained in the holding
fixture using mechanical clamps or using a vacuum system. It is important, where
practical, that the holding fixtures support the component directly behind the welding
surfaces. This will prevent distortion of the components during the heating and joining
phases.
The machine controller controls the heating and joining phases of the welding process.
On modern equipment, this would typically be microprocessor control led.

Hot plate welding process

In order to achieve good quality welds, it is important to understand how the process
works. The process begins when the components are loaded into the holding fixtures.
Components should be firmly positioned in the fixtures to ensure that the surfaces to be
heated are flat and free from distortion. When the welding cycle is initiated, the
components are brought into contact with the hot plate surface and the heating phase
begins.
The heating process is the most important part of hot plate welding. Heating takes place
in two phases. In the first phase, often known as the 'bead up' phase, the components are
pushed against the hot plate, under an axial load and melting begins to occur. Once the
entire joint surface of the component is melted as shown by a small continuous bead of
molten material (approximately 1 to 2mm in height) around the perimeter of the
component, the axial load is reduced. This reduction can be achieved either by reducing
the pressure in the pneumatic system, or by using melt depth stops. The melt depth stops
are positioned on the machine, between the hot plate and the machine slides to give a
predetermined amount of melt or 'bead up'.
When the load is reduced, the 'heat soak' phase of the heating cycle begins. Heat is
allowed to soak into the material to give a 'thermal mass' of molten material behind the
surface in contact with the hot plate. This ensures that there is sufficient heat present in
the material to prevent the welding surfaces cooling below the melt temperature when the
components are removed from the hot plate and brought together for welding. It also
ensures that there is molten material behind the weld interface when the interface
material is squeezed out as the components are forced together to form the weld. If the
heat soak phase is ignored, a brittle cold weld is formed.
The final phase of the welding process is the joining phase, when the components are
brought together and allowed to cool under axial load. Again, melt depth stops can be
used to control the amount of material displacement during the joining phase. When the
joining phase is complete, the welded components are removed from the holding fixtures.

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Hot plate welding parameters

There are six welding parameters that govern the hot plate welding process:

Bead up time or bead size

Heat soak time
Dwell time
Cooling time
Heating pressure and cooling pressure
Temperature

The bead up time is the time taken to achieve a minimum size bead around the perimeter
of the component. This time will depend upon the wall thickness of the component being
welded. The thicker the wall, the longer it will take to achieve the minimum bead size. A
typical minimum bead size will be between 1 to 2mm in height.
The heat soak time is the length of time the component remains in contact with the hot
plate under reduced axial load. This is again dependent upon the wall thickness of the
component. The thicker the wall of the component, the longer the required heat soak
time. Longer heat soak times will be needed for materials with higher melting
temperature.
The dwell time is that taken for the components to be removed from the surface of the hot
plate and then brought into contact with each other. Once the components are removed
from the hot plate their surfaces begin to lose heat. It is, therefore, essential that the dwell
time is kept as short as possible to prevent the surfaces cooling to below the temperature
required for welding before being brought into contact.
The final welding parameter relating to time is the cooling time. This is the amount of
time that the components remain under an axial load after they have been brought
together before they are removed from the holding fixture. During the early stages of this
phase, the thermoplastic molecular chains at the weld interface can diffuse to form the
weld.
The heating and cooling pressure is the pressure at the component interface during the
welding process. In the welding of injection-moulded components, it is recommended
that melt stops are used to control the displacement of material during the heating and
cooling phases. In this case, the heating and cooling pressure is not critical to the welding
process, providing it is greater than the value required to push the parts against the melt
stops.
The welding temperature is the temperature at which the hot plate is set in order to carry
out the welding process. This is typically 60 to 100C above the melting temperature of
the material. If the temperature is set too high, it can lead to degradation of the material at
the weld interface, which will result in a poor quality weld.

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Component design
Typically, the butt joint shown in Fig.3 is joined by the hot plate welding process. Unlike
in the majority of the plastic welding processes, the welding flash (excess material)
produced around the weld line during the process is not normally hidden or removed.
However, flash traps (shown in Fig.4) can be added to the weld area if the weld flash is
required to be hidden.
Fig.3. A butt joint of this kind is typically Fig.4. A flash trap may be included in
joined by the hot plate welding process
the welding process to hide the weld
flash

Ultrasonic welding of injection

moulded components - Part 1
Process and equipment

Fig.1. Ultrasonic
machine

Process overview
Ultrasonic welding, for thermoplastic injection moulded
components, is a process that uses mechanical vibrations above the
audible range. The vibrations, produced by a welding sonotrode or
horn, as it is generally known, are used to soften or melt the
thermoplastic material at the joint line. The components to be joined
are held together under pressure and subjected to vibrations, usually
at a frequency of 20 or 40kHz.

236

welding

The ability to weld a component successfully is governed by the design of the equipment,
the mechanical properties of the material to be welded and the design of the components
and joint. Ultrasonic welding times are short (typically less than one second), which
makes the process ideal for mass production. The process is widely accepted in many
applications ranging from automotive light clusters to consumer electronics products,
such as mobile telephone casings.
An ultrasonic welding machine is shown in Fig.1.

Ultrasonic welding equipment

Ultrasonic welding equipment consists of a machine press, generator, converter or
transducer, booster, sonotrode or horn, and component support tooling. A schematic of an
ultrasonic welding machine is shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2. Schematic
welding machine

of

ultrasonic

Generator
The generator converts electrical power from the single-phase mains to the correct
frequency and voltage for the transducer to convert into mechanical vibrations. The
microprocessor unit controls the welding cycle and feeds back key welding information
to the user, via the user interface. The user interface also allows the operator to enter the
required welding parameters.

237

Machine press
The machine stand is designed to hold the welding system or stack and apply the force
necessary for welding. It consists of a base-plate, to hold the tooling jig, and a pneumatic
cylinder to apply the force.
The machine has a pressure gauge and regulator for adjustment of the welding force. It
should be noted that a particular gauge pressure set on one piece of ultrasonic welding
equipment will not necessarily provide the same welding force as another machine set at
the same gauge pressure.
Welding force should be calibrated using a load cell so that direct comparison of welding
forces can be made from machine to machine.
There is also a flow control valve to allow adjustment of the speed at which the welding
head approaches the component being welded. Some equipment manufacturers have
introduced an electromagnetic force application system in place of the traditional
pneumatic cylinder. This gives better control of the approach rate, and can be beneficial
when welding small or delicate components.

Welding stack
This is the part of the machine that provides the ultrasonic mechanical vibrations. It is
generally a three-part unit consisting of transducer, booster and welding horn, mounted
on the welding press at the centre-point of the booster section. The stack is a tuned
resonator, rather like a musical instrument tuning fork. In order to function, the resonant
frequency of the tuned welding stack must closely match the frequency of the electrical
signal from the generator (to within 30Hz).

Transducer
The transducer, also known as the converter, converts the electrical energy from the
generator to the mechanical vibrations used for the welding process. It consists of a
number of piezo-electric ceramic discs sandwiched between two metal blocks, usually
titanium.
Between each of the discs there is a thin metal plate, which forms the electrode. As the
sinusoidal electrical signal is fed to the transducer via the electrodes, the discs expand
and contract, producing an axial, peak-to-peak movement of 15 to 20m.
Transducers are delicate devices and should be handled with care. Once the elements are
broken, the transducer will not function.

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Booster
The booster section of the welding stack serves two purposes, primarily to amplify the
mechanical vibrations produced at the tip of the transducer and transfer them to the
welding horn. Its secondary purpose is to provide a location for mounting the stack on the
welding press.
The booster expands and contracts as the transducer applies the ultrasonic energy. Figure
3 shows a range of ultrasonic welding boosters.

Fig.3. Ultrasonic welding boosters

The booster, like other elements in the welding stack, is a tuned device therefore it must
resonate at a specific frequency in order to transfer the ultrasonic energy from the
transducer to the welding horn. In order to function successfully, the booster must be
either one half of a wavelength of ultrasound in the material from which it is
manufactured, or multiples of this length. Normally, it is one half wave length.

Welding horn
The welding horn is the element of the welding stack that supplies energy to the
component being welded. A typical welding horn is shown in Fig.4. Design of the
welding horn is critical to successful welding. It is strongly recommended that welding
horn manufacture should only be carried out by companies specialising in ultrasonic
welding.

Fig.4 Ultrasonic welding horn

239

The welding horn, like the booster element, is a tuned device, which, in the majority of
applications, also provides mechanical gain. It is typically manufactured in either
aluminium or titanium. Aluminium welding horns tend to be used for low volume
applications since wear can be a particular problem with this material. Some welding
horns have specially hardened tips to reduce wear during welding.
As with the booster element, the length of the welding horn must be either one half of a
wavelength of ultrasound in the material from which it is manufactured, or multiples of
this length. This ensures that there is sufficient amplitude at the end of the welding horn
to effect welding.
The amplitude is typically between 30 and 120m. The shape of the welding horn is
important since stress, caused by the axial expansion and contraction of the horn, could
lead to cracking in high amplitude applications. In some applications the welding horn is
manufactured with slots in the axial direction. This is to ensure that the maximum
vibration amplitude is in the longitudinal direction.
The tip of the welding horn delivers the ultrasonic energy to the component being
welded. The tip should be specifically designed to match the component. This will ensure
that maximum energy transfer between the horn and the component is achieved. Usually,
the tip of the horn is profiled to match the contours of the component.

Support tooling
Finally, the base of the machine press supports the tooling that supports the components
during the welding operation. The support tooling is designed to prevent movement of the
lower component while the ultrasound is applied. It is often machined to match the
contours of the component surface intimately.
The next article will cover component design and welding parameters.

Ultrasonic welding of injection moulded

components - Part 2. Component design
and weld parameters
Introduction
One of the key factors to successful ultrasonic welding is good component design, in
particular the shape of the surfaces to be joined ie the joint design. There are a variety of
joint designs possible, each with specific features and advantages. The choice of design
depends on the following factors:
240

Type of thermoplastic
Part geometry
Weld requirements
Aesthetics

One of the basic requirements of any joint design for ultrasonic welding is a small,
uniform initial contact area. This can be achieved using a projection joint or a shear joint.

Projection joint
The basic projection or energy director joint is shown in Fig.1. The joint consists of a
small triangular section moulded into the component and typically running the length of
the joint perimeter. The purpose of the energy director is to focus the ultrasonic energy at
the apex, resulting in a rapid build up of heat. This causes the triangular section to melt
and flow across the joint interface, forming a weld.

Fig.1. Projection joint

The type of thermoplastic to be welded determines the form of the triangular energy
director. Amorphous materials require a right-angled triangle with the 90 angle at the
apex. For semi-crystalline materials, a 60 equilateral projection is used. Typical heights
for energy directors are between 0.2 to 1.0mm, depending on the material.
The projection joint is favoured for use with amorphous materials such as PC, ABS and
PS where a hermetic seal is not required.
Figure 2 shows a variation of the projection joint, in the form of a tongue and groove
design. The advantage of this design is that the weld flash is hidden and the parts to be
joined are self-locating. However, joint strength is relatively weak since the weld is only
about half the width of the joint.

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Fig.2. Tongue and groove variation of a

projection joint

Shear joint
For some applications, a projection joint may not provide sufficient strength. In such
cases, a shear joint can be used.
A basic shear joint design is shown in Fig.3. The joint allows one component to shear
inside the other, providing self-location. Welding is accomplished by first melting the
small initial contact area and then continuing to melt with a controlled interference along
the vertical walls as the parts telescope together. The smearing action of the two melt
surfaces at the weld interface is beneficial for two reasons.

Fig.3. Basic shear joint design

Firstly it eliminates leaks and voids, so a strong, hermetic weld is produced. Secondly, it
eliminates exposure to air, preventing premature solidification. This is particularly
important for semi-crystalline materials, which rapidly change from a molten state to a
solid state. As such, semi-crystalline materials should only be ultrasonically welded with
a shear joint.
The vertical dimension of the weld, typically between 1.0 and 1.5mm, controls the
strength of the joint and can be adjusted to suit the requirements of the application.

242

A design consideration with this type of joint is the wall thickness of the lower part,
which should be sufficient to prevent outward movement during welding. Side-wall
support from a fixture jig should also be provided.

Other design considerations

Aside from the joint design, other aspects of the moulded component must be considered
if ultrasonic welding is to be effective.
The distance between the joint line and the contact surface where the welding horn meets
the component can be critical. Far field welding, as shown in Fig.4, is where the distance
is greater than 6mm. This arrangement is best suited to rigid amorphous materials such as
PS, ABS and PMMA, which have good ultrasound transmission properties. Many semicrystalline materials, such as PP are poor transmitters of ultrasonic energy, requiring the
joint to be as close as possible to the welding horn area. This is termed near field
welding, as shown in Fig.5.

Fig.4. Far field welding

Fig.5. Near field welding

For all materials, the use of near field welding is preferable, since it tends to require
shorter weld times and lower pressures.

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Sharp corners on the moulding should be avoided, as these can localise stress, possibly
leading to fracture under the action of the ultrasonic vibratory energy. Minimum radii of
0.2 to 0.5mm are suggested.

Welding parameters
There are a number of parameters that must be selected correctly in order to achieve good
ultrasonic welds. These include vibration amplitude, welding mode, downspeed, trigger
pressure, weld time, hold time. For this article, the amplitude and welding modes are
considered.

Amplitude
Successful welding depends on the proper amplitude of vibration occurring at the tip of
the welding horn. For any booster/horn combination, the amplitude is fixed. Amplitude
selection is based on the thermoplastic being welded such that the proper degree of
melting is achieved. In general, semi-crystalline materials require more energy and,
therefore, more horn tip amplitude compared to amorphous materials.
Process control on modern ultrasonic welding machines can allow the amplitude to be
profiled. High amplitude may be used to initiate melting, followed by a lower amplitude
to control the viscosity of the molten material.

Welding modes
Welding by time is termed an open-loop process. The components to be welded are
assembled in the tooling fixture before the welding horn descends and makes contact.
The ultrasound is then applied to the assembly for a fixed duration of time, typically
between 0.2 to 1.0 seconds. This process gives no indication of successful welding.
It works on the assumption that a fixed weld time will result in a fixed amount of energy
being applied to the joint, giving a controlled amount of melt. In reality, the power drawn
to maintain amplitude is never the same from one cycle to the next. This is due to factors
such as the fit between the components.
Therefore, since energy is a function of power and time, and time is fixed, the energy
applied will vary from one component to the next. For mass production, where
consistency is important, this is undesirable.
Welding by energy is a closed loop process, giving feedback control. The ultrasonic
machine software measures the power being drawn and adjusts the exposure time so that
the desired energy input to the joint is delivered.
The assumption with this process is that if the energy consumed is the same for every
weld, the quantity of molten material in the joint is the same each time. However, in
244

reality there are energy losses, within the welding stack and especially at the interface
between the welding horn and the component.
As a result, some components may receive more energy than others, with the possibility
of inconsistent weld strengths.
Welding by distance allows components to be joined by a specific weld depth. This mode
operates independently of time, energy or power drawn and compensates for any
tolerance variation in the moulded components, thus giving the best guarantee that the
same amount of material in the joint is melted each time. Limits can be set on the amount
of energy used or the time taken to make the weld, for the purposes of quality control.

A review of the application of weld

symbols on drawings - Part 1
Weld symbols have been used for many years and are a simple way of communicating
design office details to a number of different industrial shop floor personnel such as
welders, supervisors, and inspectors. Subcontractors are often required to interpret weld
symbols on engineering drawings, from perhaps the main contractor or client. It is
essential that everyone should have a full understanding of weld symbol requirements to
ensure that the initial design requirement is met.
There are a number of standards which relate to weld symbols including British,
European, International and American (American Welding Society) standards. Most of
the details are often similar or indeed, the same, but it is essential that everyone
concerned knows the standard to be used. One of the first requirements therefore is:

Which standard?
The UK has traditionally used BS 499 Part 2. This standard has now been superseded by
BS EN 22553, however in many welding and fabrication organizations there will be old
drawings used that make reference to out of date standards such as BS 499 Pt 2.
BS EN 22553 is almost identical to the original ISO 2553 standard on which it was
based. Therefore we can say, for at least this article's scope, there are no significant
differences, but it is essential that the reader consults the specific standard. The American
system is also similar in many respects but will not be covered here.

Basic requirements
All the standards have the same requirements in relation to the following items:

Arrow line and arrow head

245

Reference line

The arrow line can be at any angle (except 180 degrees) and can point up or down. The
arrow head must touch the surfaces of the components to be joined and the location of the
weld. Any intended edge preparation or weldment is not shown as an actual cross
sectional representation, but is replaced by a line. The arrow also points to the component
to be prepared with single prepared components. See Figs. 1-4.
Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Symbol types
To the basic set-up of the arrow and reference line, the design draughtsperson can apply
the appropriate symbol, or symbols for more complex situations.
The symbols, in particular for arc and gas welding, are often shown as cross sectional
representations of either a joint design or a completed weld. Simple, single edge
preparations are shown in Fig. 5.
For resistance welding, a spot weld and seam weld are shown in Fig. 6:

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Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Joint and/or weld shape

The above examples can be interpreted as either the joint details alone or the completed
weld, however, for a finished weld it is normal to find that an appropriate weld shape is
specified. Using the examples above, there are a number of options and methods to
specify an appropriate weld shape or finish.
Butt welded configurations would normally be shown as a convex profile (Fig.7 'a', 'd'
and 'f') or as a dressed-off weld as shown in 'b' and 'c'. Fillet weld symbols are always
shown as a 'mitre' fillet weld (a right angled triangle) and a convex or concave profile can
be superimposed over the original symbol's mitre shape. See Fig. 7.
Fig. 7.

Part 2 of this explanation of weld symbols covering more complex situations will appear
in the next issue.

247

A review of the application of weld

symbols on drawings - Part 2
Part 1 of this article which appeared in the May/June issue of Connect, dealt with the
most basic weld symbols as they appear on engineering drawings. As previously
mentioned, it is essential that all concerned in any project are aware of which Standard is
being applied.

Weld sizing
In order that the correct size of weld can be applied, it is common to find numbers to
either the left or to the right of the symbol.
For fillet welds, numbers to the left of the symbol indicate the design throat thickness, leg
length, or both design throat thickness and leg length requirements. Figure 1 gives
examples of symbols used in different Standards.

Fig.1

For fillet welds:

Superseded BS499 Pt 2 gives
a = design throat thickness
b = leg length
ISO 2553/EN 22553 requirements
a = design throat thickness
z = leg length
s = penetration throat thickness
For butt joints and welds, an S with a number to the left of a symbol refers to the depth of
penetration as shown in Fig.2.

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Fig.2

When there are no specific dimensional requirements specified for butt welds on a
drawing using weld symbols, it would normally be assumed that the requirement is for a
full penetration butt weld (Fig.3).

Fig.3

Numbers to the right of a symbol or symbols relate to the longitudinal dimension of

welds, eg for fillets, the number of welds, weld length and weld spacing for noncontinuous welds, as Fig.4.

Fig.4

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On fillet welded joints made from both sides, a staggered weld can be shown by placing a
'Z' through the reference line (Fig.5).

Fig.5

Supplemetary symbols
Weld symbols indicate the type of preparation to use or the weld type. However, there
may still be occasions where other information is required. The basic information can
therefore be added to in order to provide further details as shown in Figs.6, 7 and 8.

Fig.6

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Fig.7

Fig.8

Weld all round

For a Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) welded to a plate, for example:

Weld in the field or on site

The box attached to the arrow can be used to contain, or point to, other information.

Welding process type

ISO 4063 gives welding processes specific reference numbers. As shown in Fig.9 the
appropriate process number is placed in the tail of the arrow. Other processes are given a
unique number. In this example, 135 refers to MAG welding.

Fig.9

There are a number of additional symbols given in the Standards (eg ISO 22553) which
refer to additional welding or joint requirements. Figure 10 shows the requirement for a
sealing run.

Fig.10

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Compound joints/welds
A compound weld could be a 'T' butt weld which requires fillet welds to be added to
increase the throat thickness as shown in Fig.11.

Fig.11

The broken reference line

The main feature that distinguishes weld symbol standards is Fig.12
that for ISO 2553 and BS EN 22553, there is an additional
feature of a broken reference line.
This method is used when a weldment or weld preparation
needs to be specified on the 'other side' of the arrow as shown
in Fig.12.
Any symbol that is used to show a joint or weld type feature
on the other side of the arrow line is always placed on a dotted
line.
BS 499 and AWS require symbols to be placed above the
reference line (which indicate the other side) or below the
reference line (indicating the arrow side).

Summary
Weld symbols are a very useful way of communicating welding requirements from the
design office to the shop floor.

252

It is essential that the 'rules' of the standard used are correctly applied by drawing office
personnel. However, it is also important that shop floor personnel are able to read and
understand the details of weld symbols.
Much of this requirement can be met by reference to the standard being used within the
organisation and by the drawing office personnel considering the needs of the end user
such as the welders, welding supervisors, welding inspection personnel and welding
engineers in order to minimise costly mistakes due to misinterpretation.
Training of all personnel in the correct use of weld symbol specifications also plays an
important role in ensuring that weld symbols are both correctly applied and correctly
read.

Fillet welded joints - a review of the

practicalities
Fillet welded joints such as tee, lap and corner joints are the most common connection in
welded fabrication. In total they probably account for around 80% of all joints made by
arc welding.
It is likely that a high percentage of other joining techniques also use some form of a
fillet welded joint including non-fusion processes such as brazing, braze welding and
soldering. The latter techniques are outside the scope of this article.
Although the fillet weld is so common, there are a number of aspects to be considered
before producing such a weld. This article will review a number of topics that relate to
fillet welded joints and it is hoped that even the most seasoned fabricator or welding
person will gain from this article in some way.
Common joint designs for fillet welds are shown below in Fig.1.

Fig.1

253

Fillet weld features

ISO 2553 (EN 22553) uses the following notation as Figs.2 and 3 show.
a = throat thickness
z = leg length
s = deep penetration throat thickness
l = length of intermittent fillet
Fig.2

Fig.3

Fillet weld shapes

Over specified fillet welds or oversized fillet welds

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Fig.4

One of the greatest problems associated with fillet welded joints is achieving the correct
weld size in relation to the required leg lengths or throat thickness (Fig.4).
The designer may calculate the size and allow a 'safety factor' so that the weld specified
on the fabrication drawing is larger than is required by design considerations.
The weld size is communicated by using an appropriate weld symbol.
In the UK the weld size is frequently specified by referring to the leg length 'z' in ISO
2553 where the number gives the weld size in millimetres as shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5

In Europe, it is more common to find the design throat thickness, 'a' specified (Fig.6).

255

Fig.6

Once the drawing has been issued to the shop floor, it is usual to find an additional safety
factor also being applied on by the welder or inspector. It is also common to hear 'add a
bit more it will make it stronger'.
The outcome is an oversized weld with perhaps an 8mm leg length rather than the 6mm
specified by the designer. This extra 2mm constitutes an increase in weld volume of over
80%.
This coupled with the already over specified weld size from the designer's 'safety factor'
may lead to a weld that is twice the volume of a correctly sized fillet weld.
By keeping the weld to the size specified by the drawing office, faster welding speeds can
be achieved, therefore increasing productivity, reducing overall product weight,
consumable consumption and consumable cost.
The other benefit is that, in the case of most arc welding processes, a slight increase in
travel speed would in most cases see an increase in root penetration so that the actual
throat thickness is increased:
An oversized weld is therefore very costly to produce, may not have 'better strength' and
is wasteful of welding consumables and may see other fabrication problems including
excessive distortion.

Lap joints welded with fillet welds.

As discussed earlier, oversized welds are commonplace and the lap joint is no exception.
The designer may specify a leg length that is equal to the material thickness as in Fig.7.

Fig.7

Strength considerations may mean that the fillet weld size need not be anywhere near the
plate thickness. In practice the weld may also be deficient in other ways for example:

256

Fig.8

Due to melting away of the corner of the upper plate (Fig.8), the vertical leg length is
reduced meaning that the design throat has also been reduced; therefore an undersized
weld has been created. Care is therefore needed to ensure that the corner of the upper
plate is not melted away. Ideally the weld should be some 0.5-1mm clear of the top
corner (Fig.9).

Fig.9

It may be the designer may therefore specify a slightly smaller leg length compared to the
thickness of the component.
To compensate for this reduction in throat thickness it may be necessary to specify a deep
penetration fillet weld. This amount of additional penetration would need to be confirmed
by suitable weld tests. Additional controls may also be needed during production welding
to ensure that this additional penetration is being achieved consistently.
In addition to the reduction in throat thickness there is the potential for additional
problems such as overlap at the weld toe due to the larger weld pool size (Fig.10) or an
excessively convex weldface and consequential sharp notches at the weld toe (Fig.11).
Fig.10

Fig.11

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Both the potential problems shown in Figs.10 and 11 could adversely influence the
fatigue life of the welded joint due to the increased toe angle, which acts as a greater
stress concentration.
Poor fit-up can also reduce the throat thickness as in Fig.12. The corner of the vertical
component has been bevelled in the sketch in an exaggerated manner to illustrate the
point.

Fig.12

Summary
Fillet welded joints are not only the most frequently used weld joints but are also one of
the most difficult to weld with any real degree of consistency. Fillet welds require a
higher heat input than a butt joint of the same thickness and, with less skilled welders this
can lead to lack of penetration and/or fusion defects that cannot be detected by visual
examination and other NDT techniques.
Fillet welded joints are not always open to NDT or are indeed time consuming to many
non-destructively testing techniques such as radiography or ultrasonic testing and the
results are often difficult to interpret. Inspection methods such as visual inspection,
magnetic particle inspection and penetrant inspection are surface examination techniques
only and with visual inspection, much of the effort is expended in measuring the size of
the weld rather than identifying other quality aspects.
Fillet welded joints are therefore much more difficult to weld and inspect. Often the
welds that are produced are larger than they need to be or they may be of a poor shape
which can adversely influence their service performance.
To overcome these difficulties, designers need to specify accurately the most appropriate
throat size and welding personnel should strive to achieve the specified design size.
Welders also need to be adequately trained and sufficiently skilled to be capable of
maintaining an acceptable weld quality.

258

A general review of geometric shape

imperfections - types and causes
Part 1. Introduction
In the job knowledge series welding imperfections such as cracks, lack of fusion,
penetration and porosity have been discussed. This article looks at those imperfections
related to poor geometric shape and will concentrate on the following:

Excess weld metal

Undercut
Overlap
Linear misalignment
Incompletely filled groove

Such imperfections might be considered as anomalies in the joint and they will always be
present to some degree so that it becomes necessary to separate the acceptable from the
unacceptable. This is done by following guidance given by the application standard,
which was the basis for the component design, and/or by direction, as set out in the job
contract. Examples of standards that might be referred to are:
PD 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS 2640 Specification for Class II oxy-acetylene welding of carbon steel pipework for
carrying
fluids
BS EN 25817 Arc welded joints in steel - guidance on quality levels for imperfections
AWS D1.1 Structural welding code - Steel

Excess weld metal

(also called cap height, overfill or reinforcement)
This is weld metal lying outside the plane
joining the weld toes. Note that the term Fig.1. Excess weld metal
'reinforcement', although used extensively in
the ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in
Europe as it implies it adds strength to the
welded joint, which is rarely the case.

259

Common causes
This imperfection is formed when excessive weld metal is added to the joint, which is
usually a result of poor welder technique for manual processes but may be due to poor
parameter selection when the process is mechanised. That is, too much filler metal for the
travel speed used. In multi-run welding a poor selection of individual bead sizes can
result in a bead build-up pattern that overfills the joint. Different processes and
parameters (eg voltage) can result in different excess weld metal shapes.

Acceptance
The acceptability of this imperfection is very dependent on the application in which the
product will be used. Most standards have limit, related to material thickness (eg10%),
but also have a maximum upper limits. Both the ratio and the maximum may be related to
the severity of service that the component is expected to see. The following table gives
examples taken from BS EN 25817.
Excess weld metal limits for quality levels:

Severity of service

Moderate, D

Stringent, B

Limit (up to maximum) h = 1mm + 0.25 b h = 1mm + 0.25 b

Maximum

10 mm

3 mm

Transition required

smooth

smooth

Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead (see figure)

An important reason for limiting the height of excess weld metal is that it represents a
non-value added cost. However, it must be remembered that the height of the weld cap
influences the resultant toe blend. A sharp transition causes a local stress concentration
that can contribute to loss of strength, which is particularly important in fatigue
situations. As a result most specifications state that 'smooth transition is required'.

Avoidance
If the imperfection is a result of welder technique then welder retraining is required. For
mechanised techniques an increase in travel speed or voltage will help to reduce cap
height.

260

Undercut
Fig.2. Undercut

This is an irregular groove at the toe of a run in

the parent metal.
The figure shows undercut at surface of a
completed joint but it may also be found at the
toes of each pass of a multi-run weld. The latter
can result in slag becoming trapped in the
undercut region.

Common causes
When arc and gas welding, undercut is probably the most common shape imperfection.
With single-sided pipe welds it may also be found at the bore surface. It may also be seen
on the vertical face of fillet welds made in the horizontal vertical position.
A wide spreading arc (high arc voltage) with insufficient fill (low current or high travel
speed) is the usual cause. However, welder technique, especially when weaving, and the
way the welding torch is angled can both cause and be used to overcome undercutting (ie
angled to push the weld metal to fill the melted groove). High welding current will also
cause undercut - this is generally associated with the need for a high travel speed to avoid
overfilling of the joint.

Acceptance
Largely because this imperfection is widespread, most standards permit some level of
undercut although they do require that a 'smooth transition is required. The limits in BS
EN 25817 range from 0.5mm (stringent) to 1.5mm (moderate) while AWS D1.1 has a
limit of 1mm. Standards may also place limits on the length of the undercut. For example,
BS 2640 says, 'not exceed a total of 25mm in any 100mm length of weld'.
Measuring undercut can be a problem because of the small size of the imperfection
compared with the general environment where there can be mill scale, irregularities in the
surface and spatter.
In critical applications the imperfection can be 'corrected' by blend grinding or by
depositing an additional weld bead.

Avoidance
This imperfection may be avoided by reducing travel speed and/or the welding current
and by maintaining the correct arc length.

261

Overlap (cold lapping)

Fig.3. Overlap

This is an imperfection at a toe or root of a

weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface
of the parent metal without fusing to it. It may
occur in both fillet and butt welds.

Common causes
This is often caused by poor manipulation of
the electrode or welding gun, especially when the weld pool is large and 'cold', where the
welder allows gravity to influence the weld shape before solidification. Tightly adherent
oxides or scale on the metal surface can also prevent the weld metal fusing with the
parent metal to cause the overlap imperfection.

Avoidance
Avoidance is achieved through an acceptable level of welder skill and a reduction in weld
pool size (obtained by reducing current or increasing travel speed). Adequate cleaning of
the parent plate is also important.

Acceptance
Standards rarely allow the presence of this imperfection, unless the length is short (eg BS
EN 25817 for moderate quality level D). Overlap can be very difficult to detect,
especially if it is extremely small.

Linear misalignment
Fig.4 Linear misalignment

(Also known in the USA as high-low).

This imperfection relates to deviations from
the correct position/alignment of the joint.

Common causes
This is primarily a result of poor component
fit-up before welding, which can be
compounded by variations in the shape and thickness of components (eg out of roundness
of pipe). Tacks that break during welding may allow the components to move relative to
one another, again resulting in misalignment.

262

Acceptance
The acceptability of this defect is related to the design function of the structure or pipe
line either in terms of the ability to take load across the misalignment or because such a
step impedes the flow of fluid.
Acceptance varies with the application.
BS EN 25817 relates misalignment to wall thickness but sets maximum limits (eg linear
misalignment, for moderate limits of imperfections D, = 0.25 x material thickness in mm,
with a maximum of 5mm).
AWS D1.1 allows 10% of the wall thickness up to a maximum of 3mm
BS2640 gives limits for size and alignment as follows:
Outside diameter
Maximum permissible difference Maximum
out
of
Up to and
in
internal
diameter alignment at the bore
Over including
mm
mm
mm mm

42.2

1.0

1.0

42.4

114.3

2.0

1.0

3.0

2.0

114.3 -

The consequence of linear misalignment can, when welding is carried out from one side,
be lack of root or sidewall fusion to give a sharp continuous imperfection along the
higher weld face toe. In some situations linear misalignment in the bore of a pipe can lead
to in-service problems where turbulence of the carrier fluid in the pipe creates subsequent
erosion.

Incomplete filled groove

This is a continuous, or intermittent, channel
in the surface of a weld, running along its
length, due to insufficient weld metal.

Incomplete filled groove

Common causes
This problem arises when there has been
insufficient filler metal (current or wire feed
too low or too high a travel speed) so that the
263

joint has not been sufficiently filled. The result is that the thickness of weldment is less
than that specified in the design, which could lead to failure.

Acceptance
Most standards will not accept this type of imperfection, except perhaps over short
lengths and even then a smooth transition is required. The designer expects the joint to be
adequately filled, but not too much so (see excess weld metal).
Often the presence of this imperfection is an indication of poor workmanship and could
suggest that further training is required.

Continuation
Part 2 looks at shape imperfections such as excess penetration and root concavity and
highlights shape imperfections related to fillet welded joints.

A general review of the causes and

acceptance of shape imperfections - Part 2
Part 1.
This second article on shape imperfections refers mostly to fillet welds but there are two
additional butt weld imperfections that require some comment.

Excessive penetration (Excess penetration bead)

Excess weld metal protruding through the root Fig.1. Excess penetration
of a fusion (butt) weld made from one side
only.
With pipe welding this type of imperfection
may cause effects in the fluid flow that can
cause erosion and/or corrosion problems.

Common causes
Penetration becomes excessive when the joint gap is too large, the root faces are too
small, the heat input to the joint is too high or a combination of these causes.

264

Acceptance
The criteria which sets the level of acceptable penetration depends primarily on the
application code or specification.
BS 2971 requires that the 'penetration bead shall not exceed 3mm for pipes up to and
including 150mm bore or 6mm for pipes over 150mm bore'.
BS 2633 gives specific limits for smaller diameters pipes, eg for pipe size 25-50mm the
maximum allowed bore penetration is 2.5mm.
ASME B31.3 bases acceptability on the nominal thickness of the weld, for instance,
allowing for a thickness range of 13-25mm up to 4mm of protrusion. However, ASME
notes that 'more stringent criteria may be specified in the engineering design'.
BS EN 25817 relates the acceptable protrusion to the width of the under-bead as follows:
Severity of service

Moderate, D

Stringent, B

Limit (up to maximum) h 1mm + 1.2 b h 1mm + 0.3 b

Maximum

10 mm

3 mm

Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead (see Fig.1)

Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure. If
welder technique is the problem then re training is required.

Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing)

A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a
Fig.2. Root concavity
butt weld.

Common causes
Root concavity is caused by shrinkage of the
weld pool in the through-thickness direction of
the weld. Melting of the root pass by the second
pass can also produce root concavity.
This imperfection is frequently associated with
TIG welding with the most common cause being poor preparation leaving the root gap

265

either too small or, in some cases, too large. Excessively high welding speeds make the
formation of root concavity more likely.

Acceptance
The root concavity may be acceptable. This will depend on the relevant standard being
worked to. For example:
BS 2971 requires that:
a) there is complete root fusion
b) the thickness of the weld is not less than the pipe thickness.
ASME B31.3 requires that the 'total joint thickness, including weld reinforcement, must
be greater than the weld thickness'.
BS EN 25817 sets upper limits related to the quality level, eg Moderate, D, h 1.5mm
and for Stringent, B, h 0.5mm. Furthermore, a smooth transition is required at the weld
toes.
In effect the standards require that the minimum design throat thickness of the finished
weldment is achieved. If the first two conditions of acceptance are met but the weld face
does not have a sufficiently high cap, additional weld metal may be deposited to increase
the throat.

Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure and that
the defined parameters are being followed. If welder technique is the problem then
retraining is required.

Fillet welded joints

Fig.3. Excess convexity

This Section should be read in conjunction with

Job Knowledge 66 Fillet welded joints - a review
of the practicalities.

Excess convexity
This feature is also covered by the definition for
excess weld metal, see Part 1, and may be
described as weld metal lying outside the plane
joining the weld toes. Note that the term
'reinforcement', although used extensively in the

266

ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in Europe as it implies that excess metal

contributes to the strength of the welded joint. This is rarely the case.

Common causes
Poor technique and the deposition of large volumes of 'cold' weld metal.

Acceptance
The idealised design requirement of a 'mitre' fillet weld is often difficult to achieve,
particularly with manual welding processes.
BS EN 25817 acceptance is based on a mitre fillet weld shape with a specific design
throat and any excess weld metal is measured in relation to this mitre surface. The limits
for this imperfection relate the height of the excess metal to the width of the bead with
maximum values ranging from 3mm for a stringent quality level to 5mm for a moderate
quality level. Surprisingly, there is no reference to a 'smooth transition' being required at
the weld toes for such weld shape.
AWS D1.1 also has limits relating width to acceptable excess as follows:
Width of weld face Maximum convexity

W 8mm

2mm

W <8 to W<25mm

3mm

W 25mm

5mm

Avoidance
Welder technique is the major cause of this problem and training may be required. It is
also important to ensure that the parameters specified in the welding procedures
specification are adhered to.

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Oversize fillet welds (welds with a throat larger than

required by the design)
As discussed in Job Knowledge 66, oversize fillet Fig.4. Oversize fillet weld
welds can represent a significant additional cost and
loss of productivity.

Common causes
There are some welding related causes, eg high
welding current, slow travel speeds, and some
supervision related (eg to be safe make this fillet
bigger by x mm.)

Acceptance
BS EN 25817 notes that 'for many applications a throat thickness greater than the
nominal one may not be a reason for rejection'.
Where called for this standard has limits related to the actual throat (eg for stringent
quality levels, the actual weld throat [a] may exceed the nominal (design) weld throat [h]
by 1+0.15a with a maximum of 3mm. For the moderate quality level the maximum limit
for this feature is 5mm.

Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters and do not add to the specified
weld size. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Undersized fillet welds (fillet welds smaller than those

specified)
Fig.5. Undersized fillet weld
Common causes
The welding related causes are associated with high
welding speeds and low welding currents.

Acceptance
It is normally assumed that fillet welds will be at least
of the size specified. BS EN 25817 states 'a fillet weld
with an apparent throat thickness smaller that that
268

prescribed should not be regarded as being imperfect if the actual throat thickness with a
compensating greater depth of penetration complies with the nominal value'. That is if we
can be sure there is good penetration the smaller fillet may be acceptable, however, this
should be discussed with the designer of the fabrication.

Quality levels

Moderate D
Intermediate C
Stringent B
Imperfection:
fillet
weld
Long imperfections NOT permitted
NOT
having
a
throat
permitted
thickness smaller than
the nominal value
Short imperfections (see Fig.5) h 0.3mm+
0.1 a
max 2mm

max 1mm

Relying upon deep penetration to provide the required minimum design throat thickness
can be difficult to justify. Penetration is a weld characteristic that is hard to measure
directly and reliance must be placed on the stringent control of both the welding process
and the welder. Manual welding can rarely be relied upon to provide the required
consistency but it is an option with mechanised welding systems.

Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters. Use sufficient current and
appropriate travel speed. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Asymmetric fillet weld (a fillet weld where the legs are

of unequal length)
Common causes

Fig.6. Asymmetric fillet weld

Due to incorrect electrode positioning or to gravity

pulling the molten pool towards one face of the joint. It
is an mainly a problem with fillet welds made in the
horizontal/vertical (PB) position.

269

Acceptance
There are instances where asymmetry may be specified (eg to place the toe stress
concentration in a particular region).
BS EN 25817 would, for a 10mm leg length fillet weld (ie 7.1mm throat) allow a
difference in leg lengths of about 2.5mm at the stringent quality level and 3.4mm at the
moderate quality level. Acceptance is related to the throat thickness.
The consequence of this imperfection is a significant increase in weld volume. Provided
the leg length requirement is achieved there would not be a loss of strength. Perhaps this
is why, in other standards, a requirement is not specified and the acceptability is left to
the inspection personnel to make the 'engineering judgement'!

Poor fit-up
The most common imperfection is an excessive gap Fig.7. Poor fit-up
between the mating faces of the materials.

Common causes
Poor workshop practice, poor dimensioning and
tolerance dimensions on drawings.

Acceptance
A major problem with fillet welds is ensuring the gap
between the components is within defined limits. ISO
5817 specifies the acceptance criteria as follows:

Quality levels
Moderate D

Intermediate C

Stringent B

h 1mm + 0.3 a h 0.5mm + 0.2 a h 0.5mm + 0.1 a

max 4mm

max 3mm

max 2mm

Where h = fit-up gap and a = fillet weld design throat

Figure 7 shows that the gap results in a reduction in the leg length on the vertical plate
and this, in turn, results in a reduction in the throat thickness of the joint. A 10mm leg

270

length fillet with a root gap of 3mm gives an effective leg of 7mm (a throat of 4.9mm
instead of the expected 7mm).
This discrepancy is addressed within AWS D1.1. which permits a root gap of up to 5mm
for material thickness up to 75mm. However, 'if the (joint) separation is greater than
2mm the leg of the fillet weld shall be increased by the amount of the root opening, or the
contractor shall demonstrate that the effective throat has been obtained'.

Mechanical testing - Tensile testing, Part1

Mechanical testing is carried out to produce data that may be
used for design purposes or as part of a material joining Fig.1. Typical
procedure or operator acceptance scheme. The most important machine
function may be that of providing design data since it is
essential that the limiting values that a structure can withstand
without failure are known.

tensile

Inadequate control of the material properties by the supplier,

or incompetent joining procedures and operatives are,
however, equally crucial to the supply of a product that is safe
in use. An example of this dual role of mechanical testing is
the tensile test that may be used either to determine the yield
strength of a steel for use in design calculations or to ensure
that the steel complies with a material specification's strength
requirements.
Mechanical tests may also be divided into quantitative or
qualitative tests. A quantitative test is one that provides data
that will be used for design purposes, a qualitative test where
the results will be used for making comparisons - hardness or
Charpy-V tests - for example as a 'go/no go test' such as the
bend test.
Mechanical property data are obtained from a relatively small number of standard tests
and these will be covered over the next several articles. These will include tensile and
toughness tests, the tests used for welding procedure and welder approval and those used
for the determination of in-service properties.

Tensile testing
As mentioned earlier the tensile test is used to provide information that will be used in
design calculations or to demonstrate that a material complies with the requirements of
the appropriate specification - it may therefore be either a quantitative OR a qualitative
test.
271

testing

The test is made by gripping the ends of a suitably prepared standardised test piece in a
tensile test machine and then applying a continually increasing uni-axial load until such
time as failure occurs. Test pieces are standardised in order that results are reproducible
and comparable as shown in Fig 2.

Fig.2. Standard shape tensile specimens

Fig.3. Stress/strain curve

Specimens are said to be proportional when the gauge length, L0, is related to the
original cross sectional area, A0, expressed as L0=k A0. The constant k is 5.65 in EN
specifications and 5 in the ASME codes. These give gauge lengths of approximately 5x
specimen diameter and 4x specimen diameter respectively - whilst this difference may

272

not be technically significant it is important when claiming compliance with

specifications.
Both the load (stress) and the test piece extension (strain) are measured and from this data
an engineering stress/strain curve is constructed, Fig.3. From this curve we can
determine:
a) the tensile strength, also known as the ultimate tensile strength, the load at failure
divided by the original cross sectional area where the ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.),
max = Pmax/A0, where Pmax = maximum load, A0 = original cross sectional area. In EN
specifications this parameter is also identified as 'Rm';
b) the yield point (YP), the stress at which deformation changes from elastic to plastic
behaviour ie below the yield point unloading the specimen means that it returns to its
original length, above the yield point permanent plastic deformation has occurred, YP or
y = Pyp/A0 where Pyp = load at the yield point. In EN specifications this parameter is also
identified as 'Re';
c) By reassembling the broken specimen we can also measure the percentage elongation,
El% how much the test piece had stretched at failure where El% = (Lf - L0/Lo) x100 where
Lf = gauge length at fracture and L0 = original gauge length. In EN specifications this
parameter is also identified as 'A' (Fig.4a).

Fig.4
a)
Calculation
elongation
b)
Calculation
reduction of area

of

percentage

of

percentage

273

d) the percentage reduction of area, how much the specimen has necked or reduced in
diameter at the point of failure where R of A% =(A0 - Af/A0) x 100 where Af = cross
sectional area at site of the fracture. In EN specifications this parameter is also identified
as 'Z', (Fig.4b).
(a) and (b) are measures of the strength of the material, (c) and (d) indicate the ductility or
ability of the material to deform without fracture.
The slope of the elastic portion of the curve, essentially a straight line, will give Young's
Modulus of Elasticity, a measure of how much a structure will elastically deform when
loaded.
A low modulus means that a structure will be flexible, a high modulus a structure that
will be stiff and inflexible.
To produce the most accurate stress/strain curve an extensometer should be attached to
the specimen to measure the elongation of the gauge length. A less accurate method is to
measure the movement of the cross-head of the tensile machine.
The stress strain curve in Fig.3 shows a material that has a well pronounced yield point
but only annealed carbon steel exhibits this sort of behaviour. Metals that are
strengthened by alloying, by heat treatment or by cold working do not have a pronounced
yield and some other method must be found to determine the 'yield point'.
This is done by measuring the proof stress (offset yield strength in American
terminology), the stress required to produce a small specified amount of plastic
deformation in the test piece.
The proof stress is measured by drawing a line parallel to the elastic portion of the
stress/strain curve at a specified strain, this strain being a percentage of the original gauge
length, hence 0.2% proof, 1% proof (see Fig.5).

274

Fig.5. Determination of proof (offset yield)

strength

For example, 0.2% proof strength would be measured using 0.2mm of permanent
deformation in a specimen with a gauge length of 100mm. Proof strength is therefore not
a fixed material characteristic, such as the yield point, but will depend upon how much
plastic deformation is specified. It is essential therefore when considering proof strengths
that the percentage figure is always quoted. Most steel specifications use 0.2%
deformation, RP0.2 in the EN specifications.
Some materials such as annealed copper, grey iron and plastics do not have a straight line
elastic portion on the stress/strain curve. In this case the usual practice, analogous to the
method of determining proof strength, is to define the 'yield strength' as the stress to
produce a specified amount of permanent deformation.
Part 2 of this series on mechanical testing will cover welding procedure approval tensile
testing.

275

Mechanical testing - Tensile testing Part

II
Welding procedure approval for tensile testing.
To approve a butt welding procedure most
specifications such as BS EN 288 Parts 3 and 4
and ASME IX require tensile tests to be carried
out.
These are generally cross joint (CJ) tensile tests of
square or rectangular cross section that, as the
name suggests, are oriented across the weld so that
both parent metals, both heat affected zones
(HAZs) and the weld metal itself are tested
(Fig.1). The excess weld metal in the cap of the
weld may be left in-situ or machined off.

Fig.1. Square or rectangular

cross joint tensile test piece

While it is possible to measure the yield strength, the elongation and the reduction of area
of CJ specimens the fact that there are at least three different areas with dissimilar
mechanical properties makes such measurements inaccurate and unreliable, although this
is sometimes carried out purely for information purposes.
The specifications mentioned above require the UTS and the position of the fracture only
to be recorded. The cross joint strength is usually required to exceed the minimum
specified UTS of the parent metal. In most situations the weld metal is stronger than the
parent metal - it is overmatched - so that failure occurs in the parent metal or the HAZ at
a stress above the specified minimum.

276

In cases where the weld and/or the HAZs are weaker than the parent metal - welded agehardened or cold worked aluminium alloys are a good example - this is covered in most
specifications. Refer to Table 2 of BS EN 288 Part 4 or clause QW153 in ASME IX.
The designer must also take this into account in design calculations and provide some
method of compensating for this loss of strength.
The tensile testing of flat plate butt welds presents few problems of specimen shape but
those machined from a pipe butt joint are not flat and this curvature can affect the results.
In the context of welding procedure approval testing, this is not significant since the test
is used only for the determination of the UTS and the position of the fracture. For more
accurate results the test piece may be waisted and may be machined flat as illustrated in
Fig.2.

Fig.2. Flat cross joint tensile specimen

machined from tube

Fig.3. Multiple cross joint specimens

machined from thick plate

277

It may be necessary to machine a number of specimens through the thickness of a weld,

particularly on very thick joints where the capacity of the tensile machine is insufficient
to pull a full thickness specimen, Fig.3.
To test a small diameter tube, a solid bar is inserted in the bore of the tube to prevent the
tube collapsing when the sample is clamped into the tensile machine.
Most weld testing is carried out with CJ specimens but longitudinally oriented specimens
are useful particularly where the weld metal or the HAZ is very strong but ductility is
low.
In a CJ specimen the parent metal can yield and finally fail without the weld metal or the
HAZ experiencing any significant amount of deformation whereas in a longitudinal test
piece the load is shared more equally.
A brittle weld or HAZ will not elongate with the parent metal but will crack, with the
cracks opening, but not necessarily propagating into the parent metal, as testing proceeds.
The testing described above is that required by the welding procedure approval
specifications. These provide no assurance that the welds in a structure will be suitable
for their purpose such as elevated or cryogenic service and many application standards
such as BS PD 5500 Unfired Pressure Vessels, and ASME VIII Pressure Vessels, require
additional tests.
Since the strength of a metal falls as the temperature rises these specifications require
elevated temperature tensile tests to be carried out at the maximum design temperature.
These tests are required to be carried out on the weld metal only and use a longitudinally
orientated round cross section specimen from which an accurate measurement of the
proof strength can be obtained.
Many application standards such as BS PD 5500 require tests additional to those required
by, for example, BS EN 288 Part 3. This must be remembered when procedure approval
documentation is submitted for approval by the inspecting authority or the client.

Validity of tensile data.

The samples taken are assumed to be representative of the bulk of the material but this is
not always the case.
Tensile strength of a casting, for instance, is often determined from a specimen machined
from a riser and this will have a grain size different from that of the bulk of the casting.
A rolled steel plate will be found to have different properties in the longitudinal,
transverse and through thickness directions. Material specifications such as BS EN
10028, Flat Products in Steel for Pressure Purposes, therefore, require the tensile test to
278

be taken transverse to the rolling direction so that the steel is tested across the 'grain' - the
lower strength, lower ductility direction.
The size of a product can also influence the properties as, during heat treatment, the
section thickness will affect the cooling rate with slower cooling rates, and hence softer
structures, at the centre of thicker sections. This is dealt with in material standards by
specifying what is known as the 'limiting ruling section', the maximum diameter of bar at
which the required mechanical properties can be achieved at the centre.
In addition to variations of the properties due to the shape of the specimens and the
testing temperature, the rate of loading will also affect the results.
Figure 4 shows how the tensile strength increases but ductility decreases as the testing
speed is increased. The speed of the cross head of the tensile machine therefore needs to
be controlled and BS EN 10002 specifies a stress rate range of 6MPa per second to
60MPa per second. The ASTM specifications have similar - but not identical requirements.

Fig.4. Effect of speed of testing on

strength and ductility

Needless to say, calibration of testing equipment to guarantee operation within acceptable

parameters is mandatory.

Relevant specifications
BS EN 10002 Methods of tensile testing of metallic materials.
BS EN 876 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - longitudinal tensile test.
BS EN 895 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - transverse tensile test.
BS EN ISO 7500-1 Tension/compression testing machines. Verification and calibration
of
the
force
measuring
system.
ASTM
A370
Mechanical
testing
of
steel
products.
ASTM E8 Tension testing of metallic materials.
ASTM B557 Tension testing wrought and cast aluminium and magnesium alloy products.

279

Mechanical testing - notched bar or

impact testing
Before looking at impact testing let us first define what is meant by 'toughness' since the
impact test is only one method by which this material property is measured.
Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a
test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to fracture and fail. The more energy that is
required then the tougher the material.
The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the
toughness of the test piece under slow loading conditions. However, in the context of an
impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to
brittle or fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions.
It was during World War II that attention was focused on this property of 'notch
toughness' due to the brittle fracture of all-welded Liberty ships, then being built in the
USA. From this work the science of fracture toughness developed and gave rise to a
range of tests used to characterise 'notch toughness' of which the Charpy-V test described
in this article is one.
There are two main forms of impact test, the Izod and the Charpy test.
Both involve striking a standard specimen with a controlled weight pendulum travelling
at a set speed. The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece is measured and
this gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material.
These tests show that metals can be classified as being either 'brittle' or 'ductile'. A brittle
metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal a
large amount of energy.
It should be emphasised that these tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared
with each other or with a requirement in a specification - they cannot be used to calculate
the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal. Tests that can be used in this way will
be covered in future Job Knowledge articles. The Izod test is rarely used these days for
weld testing having been replaced by the Charpy test and will not be discussed further in
this article.
The Charpy specimen may be used with one of three different types of notch, a 'keyhole',
a 'U' and a 'V'. The keyhole and U-notch are used for the testing of brittle materials such
as cast iron and for the testing of plastics. The V-notch specimen is the specimen of
choice for weld testing and is the one discussed here.

280

The standard Charpy-V specimen, illustrated in Fig.1. is 55mm long, 10mm square and
has a 2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face.
Fig.1. Standard Charpy-V notch specimen

To carry out the test the standard specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and
struck on the opposite face to the notch by a pendulum as shown in Fig.2. The specimen
is fractured and the pendulum swings through, the height of the swing being a measure of
the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally three
specimens are tested at any one temperature, see Fig.3, and the results averaged.

Fig.2. Charpy testing machine

281

Fig.3. Schematic Charpy-V energy and

% age crystallinity curves

A characteristic of carbon and low alloy steels is that they exhibit a change in fracture
behaviour as the temperature falls with the failure mode
changing from ductile to brittle.
If impact testing is carried out over a range of
temperatures the results of energy absorbed versus
temperature can be plotted to give the 'S' curve
illustrated in Fig.3.
This shows that the fracture of these types of steels
changes from being ductile on the upper shelf to brittle
on the lower shelf as the temperature falls, passing
through a transition region where the fracture will be
mixed.
Many specifications talk of a transition temperature, a
temperature at which the fracture behaviour changes
from ductile to brittle. This temperature is often
determined by selecting, quite arbitrarily, the
temperature at which the metal achieves an impact value of 27 Joules - see, for example
the impact test requirements of EN 10028 Part 2 Steel for Pressure Purposes.
What the curve shows is that a ductile fracture absorbs a greater amount of energy than a
brittle fracture in the same material. Knowing the temperature at which the fracture
behaviour changes is therefore of crucial importance when the service temperature of a
structure is considered - ideally in service a structure should operate at upper shelf
temperatures.
The shape of the S curve and the positions of the upper and lower shelves are all affected
by composition, heat treatment condition, whether or not the steel has been welded,
welding heat input, welding consumable and a number of additional factors. All the

282

factors must be controlled if good notch toughness is required. This means that close
control of the welding parameters is essential if impact testing is a specification
requirement.
Stainless steels, nickel and aluminium alloys do not show this change in fracture
behaviour, the fracture remaining ductile even to very low temperatures. This is one
reason why these types of alloys are used in cryogenic applications.
In addition to the impact energy there are two further features that can be measured and
may be found as a requirement in some specifications. These are percentage crystallinity
and lateral expansion.
The appearance of a fracture surface gives information about the type of fracture that has
occurred - a brittle fracture is bright and crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous.
Percentage crystallinity is therefore a measure of the amount of brittle fracture,
determined by making a judgement of the amount of crystalline or brittle fracture on the
surface of the broken specimen.
Lateral expansion is a measure of the ductility of the specimen. When a ductile metal is
broken the test piece deforms before breaking, a pair of 'ears' being squeezed out on the
side of the compression face of the specimen, as illustrated in Fig 4. The amount by
which the specimen deforms is measured and expressed as millimetres of lateral
expansion. ASME B31.3 for example requires a lateral expansion of 0.38mm for bolting
materials and steels with a UTS exceeding 656N/mm 2 , rather than specifying an impact
value.

Fig.4 Lateral expansion

The next article in this series will look at the testing of welds, how the impact strength
can be affected by composition and microstructure and some of its limitations and
disadvantages.

283

Notched bar or impact testing. Part II

Mechanical testing - Notched bar or impact testing - Part I
The previous article looked at the method of Charpy-V impact testing and the results that
can be determined from carrying out a test. This next part looks at the impact testing of
welds and some of the factors that affect the transition temperature such as composition
and microstructure. Within such a short article, however, it will only be possible to talk in
the most general of terms.
Welding can have a profound effect on the properties of the parent metal and there may
be many options on process selection, welding parameters and consumable choice that
will affect impact strength.
Many application standards therefore require impact testing to be carried out on the
parent metal, the weld metal and in the heat affected zone as illustrated in Fig.1 which is
taken from BS PD 5500 Annex D. The standards generally specify a minimum impact
energy to be achieved at the minimum design temperature and to identify from where the
specimens are to be taken. This is done in order to quantify the impact energy of the
different microstructures in the weld metal and the HAZs to ensure that, as far as
possible, the equipment will be operating at upper shelf temperatures where brittle
fracture is not a risk.

Fig.1. PD5500 App D. location of Charpy

specimens in weld HAZ

These application standards may be supplemented by client specifications that impose

additional and more stringent testing requirements, as shown in Fig.2 taken from an oil
industry specification for offshore structures.

284

Fig.2. Offshore client requirements

The positioning of the specimens within a weld is extremely important both in terms of
the specimen location and the notch orientation. A specimen positioned across the width
of a multi-pass arc weld will probably include more than one weld pass and its associated
HAZs. Quite a small movement in the position of the notch can therefore have a
significant effect on the impact values recorded during a test. Positioning a notch
precisely down the centre line of a single pass of a submerged arc weld can give
extremely low impact values!
Testing the heat affected zone also has problems of notch position since in a carbon or
low alloy steel there will be a range of microstructures from the fusion line to the
unaffected parent metal. Many welds also use a 'V' preparation as illustrated above and
this, coupled with the narrow HAZ, means that a single notch may sample all of these
structures. If the impact properties of specific areas in the HAZ need to be determined
then a 'K' or single bevel preparation may be used.
The standard specimen is 10mm x 10mm square - when a weld joint is thicker than
10mm the machining of a standard size specimen is possible. When the thickness is less
than this and impact testing is required it becomes necessary to use sub-size specimens.
Many specifications permit the use of 10mm x 7.5mm, 5mm and 2.5mm thickness (notch
length) specimens. There is not a simple relationship between a 10mm x 10mm specimen
and the sub-size specimens - a 10mm x 5mm specimen does not have half the notch
toughness of the full size test piece. As the thickness decreases the transition temperature
also decreases, as does the upper shelf value, illustrated in Fig.3 and this is recognised in
the application standards.

285

Fig.3. Effect of size on

transition temperature and
upper shelf values

In a carbon or low alloy steel the lowest impact values are generally to be found close to
the fusion line where grain growth has taken place.
Coarse grains generally have low notch toughness, one reason why heat input needs to be
controlled to low levels if high notch toughness is required.
For example, EN ISO 15614 Pt. 1 requires Charpy-V specimens to be taken from the
high heat input area of a procedure qualification test piece and places limits on any
increase in heat input. Certain steels may also have an area some distance from the fusion
line that may be embrittled so some specifications require impact tests at a distance of
5mm from the fusion line.
Charpy-V tests carried out on rolled products show that there is a difference in impact
values if the specimens are taken parallel or transverse to the rolling direction. Specimens
taken parallel to the rolling direction test the metal across the 'grain' of the steel and have
higher notch toughness than the transverse specimens - one reason why pressure vessel
plates are rolled into cylinders with the rolling direction oriented in the hoop direction.
In a carbon or low alloy steel the element that causes the largest change in notch
toughness is carbon with the transition temperature being raised by around 14C for
every 0.1% increase in carbon content.
An example of how this can affect properties is the root pass of a single sided weld. This
often has lower notch toughness than the bulk of the weld as it has a larger amount of
parent metal melted into it - most parent metals have higher carbon content than the filler
metal and the root pass therefore has a higher carbon content than the bulk of the weld.
Sulphur and phosphorus are two other elements that both reduce notch toughness, one
reason why steel producers have been working hard to reduce these elements to as low a
level as possible. It is not uncommon for a good quality modern steel to have a sulphur
content less than 0.005%.

286

Of the beneficial elements, manganese and nickel are possibly the two most significant,
the nickel alloy steels forming a family of cryogenic steels with the 9% nickel steel being
capable of use at temperatures down to -196C. Aluminium is also beneficial at around
0.02% where it has the optimum effect in providing a fine grain size.
Lastly, let us have a brief look at some of the other factors that can affect the impact
values. These are concerned with the quality of the specimen and how the test is
conducted.
It goes without saying that the specimens must be accurately machined, the shape of the
tip of the notch being the most important feature. A blunted milling cutter or broach will
give a rounded notch tip and this in turn will give a false, high impact value. Checking
the tip radius on a shadowgraph is one simple way of ensuring the correct tip shape.
Correct positioning of the specimen on the anvil is most important and this can be done
using a specially designed former.
The last point concerns the testing of specimens at temperatures other than at room
temperature. When testing at sub-zero temperatures the length of time taken to remove
the specimen from the cooling bath, position it on the anvil and test it is most important.
EN875 requires this to be done within five seconds otherwise the test piece temperature
will rise making the test invalid - referring back to the impact energy vs temperature
curve in the previous article will show why.
Relevant Specifications

BS 131

Part
4

Calibration of Impact Testing Machines for metals.

BS 131

Part
5

Determination of Crystallinity

BS 131

Part
6

Method for Precision Determination of Charpy-V Impact Energy

BS 131

Part
7

Specification for Verification of Precision Test Machines

EN 875

Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials - Impact Tests

EN
10045

Part
1

Test Method

EN
10045

Part
2

Verification of Impact Testing Machines

ASTM
O2A

E23- Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic
Materials.

287

Bend testing
The bend test is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used to evaluate
both the ductility and soundness of a material. It is often used as a quality control test for
butt-welded joints, having the advantage of simplicity of both test piece and equipment.
No expensive test equipment is needed, test specimens are easily prepared and the test
can, if required, be carried out on the shop floor as a quality control test to ensure
consistency in production.
The bend test uses a coupon that is bent in three point bending to a specified angle.
The outside of the bend is extensively plastically deformed so that any defects in, or
embrittlement of, the material will be revealed by the premature failure of the coupon.
The bend test may be free formed or guided.
The guided bend test is where the coupon is wrapped around a former of a specified
diameter and is the type of test specified in the welding procedure and welder
qualification specifications. For example, it is a requirement in ASME IX, the EN 287
and EN 288 series of specifications and ISO 15614 Part 1.
As the guided bend test is the only form of bend test specified in welding qualification
specifications it is the only one that will be dealt with in this article.
Typical bend test jigs are illustrated in Fig.1(a) and 1(b).

Fig.1(a) shows a guided bend test jig that uses

a male and a female former, the commonest
form of equipment

288

Fig.1(b) shows a wrap-around guided

bend test machine that works on the
same principles as a plumber's pipe
bender

The strain applied to the specimen depends on the diameter of the former around which
the coupon is bent and this is related to the thickness of the coupon 't', normally expressed
as a multiple of 't' eg 3t, 4t etc.

The former diameter is specified in the test standard and varies with the strength and
ductility of the material - the bend former diameter for a low ductility material such as a
fully hard aluminium alloy may be as large as 8t. Annealed low carbon steel on the other
hand may require a former diameter of only 3t. The angle of bend may be 90, 120 or
180 depending on the specification requirements.
On completion of the test the coupon is examined for defects that
may have opened up on the tension face. Most specifications
regard a defect over 3mm in length as being cause for rejection.

Fig.2.

For butt weld procedure and welder qualification testing the bend
coupons may be oriented transverse or parallel to the welding
direction.
Below approximately 12mm material thickness transverse
specimens are usually tested with the root or face of the weld in
tension. Material over 12mm thick is normally tested using the
side bend test that tests the full section thickness, Fig.2.
Where the material thickness is too great to permit the full section
to be bent the specifications allow a number of narrower
specimens to be taken provided that the full material thickness is
tested. Conventionally, most welding specifications require two
root and two face bend coupons or four side bends to be taken
from each butt welded test piece.
The transverse face bend specimen will reveal any defects on the
face such as excessive undercut or lack of sidewall fusion close to
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the cap. The transverse root bend is also excellent at revealing lack
of root fusion or penetration. The transverse side bend tests the full
weld thickness and is particularly good at revealing lack of sidewall fusion and lack of root fusion in double-V butt joints. This
specimen orientation is also useful for testing weld cladding where
any brittle regions close to the fusion line are readily revealed.
Longitudinal bend specimens are machined to include the full weld
width, both HAZs and a portion of each parent metal. They may be
bent with the face, root or side in tension and are used where there
is a difference in mechanical strength between the two parent
metals or the parent metal and the weld. The test will readily reveal
any transverse defects but it is less good at revealing longitudinally
oriented defects such as lack of fusion or penetration.
Whilst the bend test is simple and straightforward to perform there
are some features that may result in the test being invalid.
In cutting the coupon from the test weld the effects of the cutting must not be allowed to
affect the result. Thus it is necessary to remove any HAZ from flame cutting or work
hardened metal if the sample is sheared.
It is normal to machine or grind flat the face and root of a weld bend test coupon to
reduce the stress raising effect that these would have. Sharp corners can cause premature
failure and should be rounded off to a maximum radius of 3mm.
The edges of transverse bend coupons from small diameter tubes will experience very
high tensile stresses when the ID is in tension and this can result in tearing at the
specimen edges.
Weld joints with non-uniform properties such as dissimilar metal joints or where the weld
and parent metal strengths are substantially different can result in 'peaking' of the bend
coupon. This is when most of the deformation takes place in the weaker of the two
materials which therefore experiences excessive localised deformation that may result in
premature failure.
A dissimilar metal joint where one of the parent metals is very high strength is a good
example of where this may occur and similar peaking can be seen in fully hard welded
aluminium alloy joints.
In these instances the roller bend test illustrated in Fig.1(b) is the best method of
performing a bend test as each component of the coupon is strained by a similar amount
and peaking is to a great extent eliminated.

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Related Specifications

BS EN 910

Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials - Bend Tests

ASME IX

Welding and Brazing Qualifications

ASTM E190-92 Guided bend Test for Ductility of Welds

Hardness Testing Part 1

The hardness of a material can have a number of meanings depending upon the context,
which in the case of metals generally means the resistance to indentation. There are a
number of test methods of which only the Brinell, Vickers and portable hardness testing
will be covered in this article.

Brinell Hardness Test

Fig.1. Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th
century. The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the surface of the
sample using a standard load as shown in Fig.1(a). The diameter/load ratio is selected to
provide an impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10, 5 or 1mm in
diameter, the load may be 3000, 750 or 30kgf, The load, P, is related to the diameter, D
by the relationship P/D 2 and this ratio has been standardised for different metals in order

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that test results are accurate and reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30:1 - for example a
10mm ball can be used with a 3000kgf load or a 1mm ball with a 30kgf load. For
aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1. The load is applied for a fixed length of time, usually
30 seconds. When the indentor is retracted two diameters of the impression, d 1 and d 2 ,
are measured using a microscope with a calibrated graticule.and then averaged as shown
in Fig.1(b).
The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is found by dividing the load by the surface area of
the impression. There is a somewhat tedious calculation that can be carried out to
determine the hardness number but it is more usual and far simpler to refer to a set of
standard tables from which the Brinell hardness number can be read directly.
The Brinell test is generally used for bulk metal hardness measurements - the impression
is larger than that of the Vickers test and this is useful as it averages out any local
heterogeneity and is affected less by surface roughness. However, because of the large
ball diameter the test cannot be used to determine the hardness variations in a welded
joint for which the Vickers test is preferred. Very hard metals, over 450BHN may also
cause the ball to deform resulting in an inaccurate reading. To overcome this limitation a
tungsten carbide ball is used instead of the hardened steel ball but there is also a hardness
limit of 600BHN with this indentor.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test operates on similar principles to the Brinell test, the major
difference being the use of a square based pyramidal diamond indentor rather than a
hardened steel ball. Also, unlike the Brinell test, the depth of the impression does not
affect the accuracy of the reading so the P/D 2 ratio is not important. The diamond does
not deform at high loads so the results on very hard materials are more reliable. The load
may range from 1 to 120kgf and is applied for between 10 and 15 seconds.

Fig.2. Schematic principles of

operation of Vickers hardness
machine

The basic principles of operation of the Vickers hardness test are illustrated in Fig.2
where it can be seen that the load is applied to the indentor by a simple weighted lever. In

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older machines an an oil filled dash pot is used as a timing mechanism - on more modern
equipment this is done electronically.
As illustrated in Fig.3(b) two diagonals, d 1 and d 2 , are measured, averaged and the
surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell test the
diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables.
The hardness may be reported as Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid
Number (DPN) or, most commonly, Hv xx where 'xx' represents the load used during the
test.

Fig.3.
Vickers
hardness test

As mentioned earlier, the Vickers indentation is smaller than the Brinell impression and
thus far smaller areas can be tested, making it possible to carry out a survey across a
welded joint, including individual runs and the heat affected zones. The small impression
also means that the surface must be flat and perpendicular to the indentor and should
have a better than 300 grit finish.

Errors in Hardness Testing

There are many factors that can affect the accuracy of the hardness test. Some of these
such as flatness and surface finish have already been mentioned above but it is worth reemphasising the point that flatness is most important - a maximum angle of
approximately 1 would be regarded as acceptable.
To achieve the required flatness tolerance and surface finish surface grinding or
machining may be necessary. The correct load must be applied and to achieve this there
must be no friction in the loading system otherwise the impression will be smaller than
expected - regular maintenance and calibration of the machine is therefore essential. The
condition of the indentor is crucial - whilst the Vickers diamond is unlikely to deteriorate

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with use unless it is damaged or loosened in its mounting by clumsy handling, the Brinell
ball will deform over a period of time and inaccurate readings will result. This
deterioration will be accelerated if a large proportion of the work is on hard materials.
The length of time that the load is applied is important and must be controlled.
The specimen dimensions are important - if the test piece is too thin the hardness of the
specimen table will affect the result. As a rule of thumb the specimen thickness should be
ten times the depth of the impression for the Brinell test and twice that of the Vickers
diagonal. Similarly, if the impression is too close to the specimen edge then low hardness
values will be recorded - again as a rule the impression should be some 4 to 5 times the
impression diameter from any free edge. Performing hardness testing on cylindrical
surfaces eg pipes and tubes, the radius of curvature will affect the indentation shape and
can lead to errors. It may be necessary to apply a correction factor - this is covered in an
ISO specification, ISO 6507 Part 1.
The specimen table should be rigidly supported and must be in good condition - burrs or
raised edges beneath the sample will give low readings. Impact loading must be avoided.
It is very easy to force the indentor into the specimen surface when raising the table into
position. This can strain the equipment and damage the indentor. Operator training is
crucial and regular validation or calibration is essential if hardness rest results are to be
accurate and reproducible.

Hardness Testing Part 2

Part 1
The previous article dealt with the conventional Vickers and Brinell hardness tests. This
second article reviews micro-hardness and portable hardness testing. The investigation of
metallurgical problems in welds often requires the determination of hardness within a
very small area or on components in service or too large to be able to test in a laboratory
environment.
Micro-hardness testing may be carried out using any one of three common methods and,
as with the macro-hardness tests, measure the size of the impression produced by forcing
an indentor into the specimen surface under a dead load, although many of the new test
machines use a load cell system.
The three most common tests are the Knoop test, the Vickers test and the ultrasonic
micro-hardness test.
The Knoop test uses a pyramidal indentor that gives an elongated diamond shaped
impression with an aspect ratio of around 7:1, the Vickers test uses the pyramidal
indentor described in the previous article (January/February 2005).

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The Knoop test is rarely used in Europe where the Vickers test is the preferred method.
The loads used for the tests vary from 1gmf to 1kgf and produce impressions that need to
be measured by using a microscope with magnifications of up to 100X, although modern
machines may be equipped with an image analysis system that enables the process to be
automated.
The ultrasonic hardness test does not rely upon measuring the size of an impression.
Instead, the test uses a Vickers diamond attached to the end of a metal rod. The rod is
vibrated at its natural frequency by a piezoelectric converter and then brought into
contact with the specimen surface under a small load. The resonant frequency is changed
by the size of the impression produced and this change can be measured and converted to
a hardness value.
The size of the impression is extremely small and the test may be regarded as nondestructive since it is non-damaging in most applications.
The micro-hardness test has a number of applications varying from being a metallurgical
research tool to a method of quality control. The test may be used to determine the
hardness of different micro-constituents in a metal, as shown in Fig.1. Where an
impression would be damaging, for instance on a finished product, micro-hardness tests,
particularly the ultrasonic test, may be used for quality control purposes. Micro-hardness
testing also finds application in the testing of thin foils, case hardened items and
decarburised components.

Fig.1. Micro-hardness test

Portable hardness tests may be used where the component is too large to be taken to the
testing machine or in on-site applications. It is useful on-site, for example, for checking
that the correct heat treatment has been carried out on welded items or that welded joints
comply with the hardness limits specified by NACE for sour service. There are three
principal methods - dynamic rebound, Brinell or Vickers indentation or ultrasonic testing.
The Leeb hardness test uses dynamic rebound where a hammer is propelled into the test
piece surface and the height of the rebound is measured. This gives a measure of the
elasticity of the material and hence its hardness.

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This type of test is typified by the 'Equotip' test, Fig.2, a trademark of Proceq SA. The
Equotip tester comprises a hand-held tube that contains a spring loaded hammer. The
device is cocked by compressing the hammer against the spring, the device is then
positioned vertically on the test surface and the release button is pressed. The hammer
strikes the surface, rebounds and the result displayed digitally. Generally the average of
five readings is taken.

Fig.2. Equotip test

To obtain a valid result, the position of the device, the flatness of the surface and the
flexibility of the component all affect the accuracy of the results. Needless to say the skill
and experience of the operator is one of the key factors in producing accurate hardness
figures. The results are generally converted to give a hardness in Vickers or Brinell units.

Fig.3. Ultrasonic testing using a Microdur unit

The other type of portable hardness test in common use is the ultrasonic method
described above. Commercially available machines are typified by the Microdur unit
supplied by GE Inspection Technologies as shown in Fig.3. This type of equipment is
electronically based and can be programmed to give hardness readings of any type Vickers, Brinell, or Rockwell. Needless to say, any of these methods of hardness testing

296

require regular calibration of the equipment, fully trained operators and well prepared
surfaces.
Although there are several different methods of hardness testing the results can be
compared and converted. The ASTM specification E140 contains conversion tables for
metals - ferritic and austenitic steels, nickel alloys, copper and brass- for converting
Vickers to Brinell or Rockwell or vice versa.
To end this article on hardness testing let us look at the significance of the results.
Hardness is related to tensile strength - multiplying the Vickers hardness number of a
carbon steel by 3.3 will give the approximate ultimate tensile strength in N/mm 2 . A
hardness traverse across a weld and its HAZs will therefore reveal how the tensile
strength varies, as illustrated in Fig.4 which is for a work hardened aluminium alloy. In
carbon or low alloy steels a hardness of above approximately 380HV suggests that the
hard brittle microstructure, martensite, has been formed leading to the possibility of cold
cracking during fabrication or brittle fracture in service. This fact has been recognised in
the specification EN ISO 15614 Part 1 so that a maximum hardness of 380HV is
permitted on a hardness traverse of a macro-section from a carbon steel procedure
qualification test.

Fig.4. Variation in tensile strength

across a weld

Relevant
Specifications.
ASTM E 10 Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials
ASTM E 140 Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals.
ASTM
E
110
Portable
Hardness
Testing.
ASTM E 384 Microhardness Testing of Metallic Materials

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ASTM E 103 Rapid Indentation Hardness Testing.

ASTM
E
18
Rockwell
Hardness
Testing.
ASTM E 92 Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials.

CTOD Testing
The concept of fracture toughness was introduced in an earlier Connect article, Job
knowledge 71 , which discussed the Charpy-V test, a simple quantitative test that gives
only an indication of the toughness of a metal.
The next few articles will look at the tests that enable fracture toughness to be accurately
measured in a quantitative manner by using a full size specimen containing a crack with
loading that is representative of service conditions.
This allows a fitness-for-purpose analysis to be carried out which enables a critical defect
size to be calculated. Thus, prior to fabrication, realistic acceptance standards can be set
and decisions on appropriate NDE techniques and detection sensitivities can be made.
For equipment already in service, it is possible to justify the continued use of cracked or
otherwise flawed components until such time as repair or replacement can be effected.
Such engineering critical assessments can save an operator large amounts of time and
money, running into perhaps hundreds of millions of pounds in the case of an oil rig for
example. Whilst the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) test was developed for
the characterisation of metals it has also been used to determine the toughness of nonmetallics such as weldable plastics.
The CTOD test is one such fracture toughness test that is used when some plastic
deformation can occur prior to failure - this allows the tip of a crack to stretch and open,
hence 'tip opening displacement'.
Unlike the inexpensive 10mm by 10mm square Charpy-V test piece with a blunt
machined notch, the CTOD specimen may be the full thickness of the material, will
contain a genuine crack and will be loaded at a rate more representative of service
conditions. Conventionally three tests are carried out at the relevant temperature to ensure
consistency of results.
The test piece itself is 'proportional' - the length, depth and thickness of each specimen
are inter-related so that, irrespective of material thickness, each specimen has the same
proportions.
There are two basic forms - a square or a rectangular cross section specimen. If the
specimen thickness is defined as 'W', the depth will be either W or 2W with a standard
length of 4.6W. A notch is machined at the centre and then extended by generating a
fatigue crack so that the total 'defect' length is half the depth of the test piece- see Fig.1.

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A test on a 100mm thick weld will therefore require a specimen measuring 100mm wide,
200mm deep and 460mm long - an expensive operation, the validity of which can only be
determined once the test has been completed.

Fig.1.
Proportional
rectangular
cross section
CTOD
specimen

The test is performed by placing the specimen into three point bending and measuring the
amount of crack opening. This is done by means of a strain gauge attached to a clip
placed between two accurately positioned knife edges at the mouth of the machined notch
( Fig.2)

Fig.2. Typical test

arrangement.
The
specimen can be
easily immersed in a
cooling bath

As bending proceeds, the crack tip plastically deforms until a critical point is reached
when the crack has opened sufficiently to initiate a cleavage crack. This may lead to
either partial or complete failure of the specimen. The test may be performed at some
minimum temperature eg the minimum design temperature or, more rarely, at a range of
temperatures.
As a rule of thumb, a CTOD value of between 0.1mm and 0.2mm at the minimum service
temperature is regarded as demonstrating adequate toughness.
The values that are required for the calculation of toughness are firstly the load at which
fracture occurs and secondly the amount by which the crack has opened at the point of
crack propagation ( Fig.3).

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Fig.3. Position of CTOD specimen

immediately prior to crack propagation

Since the length of the crack and the opening at the mouth of the notch are known it is a
simple matter to calculate the crack tip opening by simple geometry. Whilst the test is in
progress the results are recorded automatically on a load/displacement chart that is
similar in some respects to the tensile test curve illustrated in Fig.3 in Job knowledge 69.
The CTOD curve is a plot of stress versus strain ( Fig.4). This illustrates the various
shapes of curve that may be produced - (a) is a test where the test piece has fractured in a
brittle manner with little or no plastic deformation. (b) exhibits a 'pop-in' where the brittle
crack initiates but only propagates a short distance before it is arrested in tougher material
- this may occur several times giving the curve a saw tooth appearance or after this one
pop-in deformation may continue in a ductile manner as in (c) which shows completely
plastic behaviour.

Fig.4. Load vs crack opening

displacement curves showing three
types of fracture behaviour

300

The location of the notch in the weld HAZ or parent metal is

important as an incorrectly positioned fatigue crack will not
sample the required area, making the test invalid. To be certain
that the crack tip is in the correct region, polishing and etching
followed by a metallurgical examination are often carried out
prior to machining the notch and fatigue cracking. This enables
the notch to be positioned very accurately. This examination may
be carried out after testing as further confirmation of the validity
of the test results.
Once the sample is broken open the crack surface is examined to
ensure that the fatigue crack has a reasonably straight front. The
residual stresses present in a welded joint may cause the fatigue
crack front to be irregular - if this is excessive the test may be
invalid. To overcome this problem the test piece may be locally
compressed at the machined notch tip to redistribute the residual
stress.
Two depressions each side of the sample can often be seen where this compression has
been carried out. The fatigue cracking itself should be carried out using a low stress
range. The use of high stresses to speed up the fatigue cracking process can result in a
large plastically deformed area ahead of the fatigue crack and this will invalidate the
results of the test.
Other causes of test failure can unfortunately only be determined once the test has been
completed and the crack surface examined. The precise length of the fatigue crack is
measured - this is required for the analysis - but if the length of the crack is not within the
limits required by the specification the test is invalid. If the fatigue crack is not in a single
plane, if the crack is at an angle to the machined notch or if the crack is not in the correct
region the test will need to be repeated.

Related specifications
BS 7448

Parts 1- 4 Fracture
Toughness Tests

Mechanics

BS 6729

Determination of the Dynamic Fracture

Toughness of Metallic Materials.

BS 7910

Guide on Methods for Assessing the

Acceptability of Flaws in Metallic
Structures.

ASTM
E1820

Standard Test Method for Measurement

of Fracture Toughness.

301

Compact tension and J integral tests

The previous Connect article in this series, number 76, dealt entirely with the CTOD test
and illustrated the use of a single edged notched bend (SENB) specimen. This test was
developed at TWI as a cost effective method of determining fracture toughness in a metal
that exhibits some degree of plasticity - plane stress conditions - before fracture, the
analysis of the results being carried out using elastic plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM).
The failure mode is a function of the material properties, the rate of loading, the
temperature and the material thickness. The lower the material toughness or temperature,
the faster the loading rate or the thicker the specimen the more likely it is that brittle
fracture will occur. With carbon manganese steels toughness is generally sufficiently high
that it is difficult to achieve plane strain conditions except at low temperatures ie on the
lower shelf, or with thick plate.
The SENB specimen that is used for the CTOD test can also be used in linear elastic
fracture mechanics (LEFM), a situation where the failure mode is accompanied by little
or no plastic deformation - plane strain conditions. Any displacement that occurs is
essentially elastic, a situation that pertains when brittle fracture occurs. Both types of
fracture, brittle or ductile, can therefore be characterised by the SENB test.
The compact tension (CT) specimen and the J integral test, the two test methods briefly
described in this article, may also be used to characterise fracture behaviour by using the
appropriate calculation techniques irrespective of the failure mode.

Fig.1. Compact tension specimen

The compact tension specimen is, in some respects, similar to the SENB specimen in
that it is a proportional specimen of full plate thickness containing a fatigue crack. The
302

sides of the specimen are approximately twice the specimen thickness as illustrated in
Fig.1. The specimen has a notch machined into one face in the area - weld, HAZ etc - to
be tested and a fatigue crack is then grown from the tip of the machined notch to give a
total 'crack' length approximately equivalent to the specimen thickness. The specimen is
tested in tension with deformation measured by means of a clip gauge mounted across the
mouth of the notch. Load and deformation are recorded and crack length is measured on
the broken test piece. A decision may then be made as to the failure mode and the
appropriate analysis tools then used to calculate toughness.
The compact tension test has the advantage compared with the SENB test that the
specimen is more economical in material and this can be important when thick plates are
to be tested. The specimen is, however, more expensive in machining costs and the
method of loading tends to give lower toughness results than the SENB specimen. For
this reason the CT test is favoured by the nuclear industry, where safety is crucial and
lower bound results are preferred.
The J integral is a third method of determining toughness and is based on the amount of
energy required to propagate a crack. Both CTOD and J can be measured on the same
specimen by using two clip gauges, one to measure CTOD, the other to measure J. To
determine J the specimen is loaded at successively higher loads and the displacement and
crack length at each load is measured. The area beneath the load/displacement curve
gives the amount of energy required for fracture propagation to occur. Analysis of the
results enables a J factor to be calculated as a measure of fracture toughness.

Qualitative tests
All the above tests - the SENB test, the CT test or the J integral - enable critical defect
sizes to be calculated and decisions made about fitness for service of a structure or the
required level and sensitivity of NDE. They are therefore quantitative tests. There are
however a number of qualitative tests that have been developed where the test regime
attempts to simulate service conditions and the test gives a 'go - no go' result. Typical of
this family of tests is the NDT or drop weight test.
This test was developed in the USA for the testing of naval steels where the temperature
at which the failure mode of a plate subjected to impact loading would change from
ductile to brittle behaviour. The sample size is standardised with three sizes depending
upon plate thickness. A 20mm thick plate, for instance, would require a specimen
measuring 125mm x 50mm and full plate thickness.
A brittle crack starter weld is made along one side of the sample, often using a hard
facing electrode. This weld deposit is notched and the sample laid, notch down, across
two supports. A standard weight hammer is then dropped on to the sample and this
initiates a crack in the hard facing as illustrated in Fig.2 which shows weld metal being
tested. The test is carried out on a number of samples at progressively lower temperatures
until the test piece breaks. This temperature is known as the 'nil-ductility temperature'
(NDT). A further two tests are carried out at a temperature 50C above the NDT to

303

demonstrate that complete failure does not occur and that a crack will arrest provided the
test sample is above NDT.

Fig.2. Drop weight testing of

weld

The test may be used to characterise and compare weld metals and plates or as an
acceptance criterion by specifying the NDT temperature.
There are a number of other tests available some of which may be called up in application
standards or in contract specifications. One such test is the dynamic tear test - a test that
is, in principle, similar to the Charpy test. The test piece, however, is 15.8mm thick,
38mm deep and 180mm in length with a notch pressed into the edge instead of being
machined. The test results are absorbed energy, temperature and, if requested, the amount
of crystallinity on the fracture face. One other test worth mentioning is the Wells wide
plate test, developed here at TWI in the early 1960's and illustrated in Fig.3. This uses a
full size plate with a machined notch and/or fatigue crack. Service conditions, residual
stresses etc are simulated as closely as possible. Large scale and very expensive tests
such as this have been almost entirely replaced by the more cost effective SENB and
compact tension specimen methods.

Fig.3. Wells wide plate test

Relevant specifications are given in the Table.

304

Related specifications

BS 7448

Parts 1-4 Fracture Mechanics Toughness Tests

BS 6729

Determination of the Dynamic Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials

BS 7910

Guide on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Metallic

Structures

ASTM
E1820

Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness

305