AS

Chemistry B
(Salters)
Support Notes

These notes are designed to supplement your normal revision

notes.

More past papers and marking schemes are available at
www.iccvle.co.uk Y12 Chemistry.

You are strongly advised to use Best Choice, your AS Revise,
Storylines and Chemical Ideas textbooks to support your
revision. Also print off the exam spec from the and ensure that
you are familiar with what you must know.

There are several good Apps available for revising on both
iTunes and Google. Podcasts on iTunes are also well worth
using.

Finally, you are encouraged to INDEPENDENTLY complete at
least 3 paper papers before the exam to familiarise yourself
question type, format and timing.

AS Paper F331 Overview

Exam Hints and Answering Questions

Common Exam Terms and their meanings

Objective 1
Define:

Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity.

Draw:

Represent by means of pencil lines.

Label:

Add labels to a diagram.

List:

Give a sequence of names or other brief answers with no explanation.

Measure:

Find a value for a quantity.

State:

Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.

Objective 2
Annotate:

Add brief notes to a diagram or graph.

Apply:

Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in a new situation.

Calculate:

Find a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working (unless instructed not to do
so).

Describe:

Give a detailed account.

Distinguish:

Give the differences between two or more different items.

Estimate:

Find an approximate value for an unknown quantity.

Identify:

Find an answer from a given number of possibilities.

Outline:

Give a brief account or summary.

Objective 3
Analyse :

Interpret data to reach conclusions.

Comment:

Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.

Compare :

Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items, referring
to both (all) of them throughout.

Construct:

Represent or develop in graphical form.

Deduce:

Reach a conclusion from the information given.

Derive:

Manipulate a mathematical relationship(s) to give a new equation or relationship.

Design:

Produce a plan, simulation or model.

Determine:

Find the only possible answer.

Discuss:

Give an account including, where possible, a range of arguments for and against the
relative importance of various factors, or comparisons of alternative hypotheses.

Evaluate:

Assess the implications and limitations.

Explain:

Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms.

Predict:

Give an expected result.

Show:

Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.

Sketch:

Represent by means of a graph showing a line and labelled but unscaled axes but with
important features (for example, intercept) clearly indicated.

Solve:

Obtain an answer using algebraic and/or numerical methods.

Suggest:

Propose a hypothesis or other possible answer.

Atoms and Electron Structure

Revision Notes
1)

Atomic Structure

Relative mass
1
1
1/2000

Proton
Neutron
Electron

Relative charge
+1
0
-1

The nucleus contains almost all of the mass of an atom because that is where the
protons and neutrons are found
The nucleus of an atom contains all of the positive charge
The electrons are outside the nucleus and, therefore, so is the negative charge
Atomic number
= number of protons in the nucleus
Mass number
= number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Number of neutrons
= mass number atomic number
Number of electrons
= number of protons (in a neutral atom)

Mass number = 9

Atomic number = 4

Be
4

2)

4 protons, 5 neutrons, 4 electrons

Isotopes and ions

3)

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons (and different masses)
For example, chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. Both have 17 protons but they
have 18 and 20 neutrons, respectively
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the
same electron arrangement
Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
As an atom Cl has 17 electrons. A Cl- ion has gained one electron so it now has 18.
As an atom Na has 11 electrons. A Na+ ion has lost one electron so it now has 10.
Relative atomic mass

Relative atomic mass is the average mass of an atom of an element taking the
mixture of isotopes into account. However, learn the technical definition from
definitions sheet
To calculate relative atomic mass, add together (mass number x percentage/100) for
each isotope

Example:
75% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 35
25% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 37
Average mass of a Cl atom

= (mass no x percent/100) + (mass no x percent/100)

= (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100)
= 35.5

For simple molecules, such as O2 and H2O, the relative molecular mass is calculated
by adding the relative atomic masses of the elements involved, giving 32.0 for O2 and
18.0 for H2O

4)

For giant structures, such as Na2S and SiO2, the relative formula mass is calculated
by adding the relative atomic masses of the elements involved, giving 68.1 for Na2S
and 60.1 for SiO2
Orbitals

5)

An orbital is a region that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins
Orbitals have different shapes called s, p, d, and f (but f orbitals are beyond our
syllabus)
S orbitals are spherical in shape and come in sets of one (which can hold up to 2
electrons)

P orbitals are hour-glass or egg-timer shaped and come in sets of three (which can
hold up to 6 electrons)

Energy levels (or shells)

The first energy level (or shell) only contains an s orbital, labelled 1s
The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons
The second energy level contains an s orbital (labelled 2s) and three p orbitals
(labelled 2p)
The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
The third energy level contains an s orbital, three p orbitals and five d orbitals
The third shell can hold up to 18 electrons
The order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
Note that the 4s fills before the 3d

Some examples of electronic structures are shown below.

Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sodium
Sulphur
Calcium

1 electron
7 electrons
11 electrons
16 electrons
20 electrons

1s1
1s2
1s2
1s2
1s2

2s2
2s2
2s2
2s2

2p3
2p6 3s1
2p6 3s2 3p4
2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

In a Cl- ion, the 18 electrons are arranged 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
In a Na+ ion, the 10 electrons are arranged 1s2 2s2 2p6

The diagram over shows the relative energies of the orbitals from 1s to 4f

Ionisation energy

Energy

4f
4d
3d
3p

4p
4s
4s of "lower"
energy than 3d

3s
2
p
2s
1s

Distance from nucleus

Source: www.chemsheets.co.uk

6)

Successive Ionisation Energies

Evidence that electrons are arranged in shells or energy levels can be obtained by
measuring the successive ionisation energies of an element
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy needed to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms i.e.
M(g) M+(g) + eNote - State symbols are essential in ionisation equations

7)

In general, ionisation is easier if the nuclear charge is smaller, the electron is further
away from the nucleus and there is more shielding from inner electron shells.
For an element, successive ionisation energies get bigger because the remaining
electrons are held more tightly by the unchanged nuclear charge.
Jumps in ionisation energies occur when going from one energy level (shell) to
another. This tells you which group the element is in. The jump in energy occurs
because the new energy level is closer to nucleus and less shielded.

Blocks in the Periodic Table

An element can be assigned to the s, p or d block by working out which type of

orbital its outermost electron is in
The s block is groups 1 and 2
The p block is groups 3 to 8
The d block is between the s and p blocks

Equations
Revision Notes
1)

Formulae
a)

Elements

b)

For most elements the formula is just the symbol e.g. Na for sodium, S for
sulphur
The exceptions are the seven diatomic elements H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and
I2
Ionic compounds

Compounds of a metal and a non-metal are made of ions

Metal ions have a positive charge
Ions of Group 1 elements have a +1 charge, ions of Group 2 elements have
a +2 charge
For transition elements, like copper and iron, the number after the name
gives the charge on the ion e.g. copper(II) oxide contains Cu2+ ions, iron(III)
oxide contains Fe3+ ions
Non-metal ions have a negative charge
Ions of Group 7 elements have a -1 charge, ions of Group 6 elements have a
-2 charge
You need to learn the formulas of five ions: nitrate, NO3-, carbonate, CO32-,
sulphate, SO42-, hydroxide, OH-, and ammonium, NH4+
To work out the formula of an ionic compound
Write the formulae of the ions
Adjust the number of each ion so that there is no overall charge

Example 1 magnesium bromide

Example 2 aluminium nitrate

Ions are Mg2+ and BrNeed 2 x Br- to balance Mg2+

Formula is MgBr2

Ions are Al3+ and NO3Need 3 x NO3- to balance Al3+

Formula is Al(NO3)3

c)

Covalent compounds

Some formulae for covalent compounds can be worked out from the name.
The prefix mono- means one, di- means two and tri- means three.
Therefore, carbon monoxide is CO, silicon dioxide is SiO2 and sulphur trioxide
is SO3
Other formulae have to be learnt e.g. ammonia is NH3 and methane is CH4

2)

Equations

There are no word equations at A-level. An equation means a balanced

symbol equation.
To write a balanced symbol equation:
Identify the reactants and products
Write a word equation
Write down the formula for each substance
Balance the equation by putting numbers in front of formulae
Add state symbols (s), (l), (g) or (aq)

Example marble chips and hydrochloric acid

Reactants are calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
Products are calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Ca
C
O
H
Cl

1
1
3
1
1

1
1
3
2
2

2 in front of HCl balances the equation

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Adding state symbols
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

4)

Ionic equations

Ionic equations leave out ions that are unchanged in a reaction. They give a clearer
picture of what is happening in a reaction
To go from a symbol equation to an ionic equation:
o Split up anything that is (aq) and ionic (acids, alkalis and salts)
o Cancel ions that are on both sides

Example
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

5)

Simple Equations

A salt is formed when the H+ of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or NH4+

Salts are formed when acids react with bases and carbonates
Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
e.g.

2HCl(aq) + MgCO3(s)

MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Observations effervescence (fizzing), carbonate dissolves/disappears

Acid + base
e.g.

salt + water

2HCl(aq) + MgO(s)

MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Observations base dissolves/disappears

Acid + alkali
e.g.

salt + water

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)

NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Observations no visible change unless indicator added

e.g.

Sulphuric acid + ammonia

H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq)

e.g.

Methane + Oxygen
CH4(g) + 2O2(aq)

e.g.

2HCl(aq) + Mg (s)

ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4(aq)

Carbon Dioxide + Water

CO2(g) + H2O (g)
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Observations base dissolves/disappears

MASH

Moles
Revision Notes
1.

Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass

In Topic 1 we met relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass. Remember that
relative means compared with 12C
The relative mass of a simple covalent substance, like H2O or O2, is called its relative
molecular mass
The relative mass of a giant ionic or giant covalent substance, like NaCl or SiO2, is
called its relative formula mass
Relative masses do not have units
Relative molecular masses and relative formula masses are calculated by adding up
relative atomic masses

Example relative formula mass of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Na
C
O
Total

2 x 23.0
1 x 12.0
3 x 16.0

2.

Empirical & Molecular Formulae

=
=
=
=

46.0
12.0
48.0
106.0

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element in a compound
Write down mass or % of each element
Divide each one by the relative atomic mass of that element
Find the ratio of the numbers (divide them all by the smallest one)

Example Find the empirical formula of a compound which is found to contain 1.40g of
nitrogen and 0.30g of hydrogen
Composition
Divide by r.a.m.
Divide by smallest
Empirical formula

N
1.40
14.0 = 0.1
1

H
0.30
1.0 = 0.3
3

NH3

The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound
Molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula

Example Find the molecular formula of the compound whose empirical formula is CH2O
and whose relative molecular mass is 60.0
Mass of empirical formula = (1 x 12.0) + (2 x 1.0) + (1 x 16.0) = 30.0
60/30 = 2 so molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula = C2H4O2

3.

The mole

4.

Molar mass

5.

In Chemistry amounts of substance are measured in moles

A mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons)
There are 4 ways of calculating a number of moles
For a number of particles, moles = number of particles/6.02 x 1023
Given a mass (in grams), moles = mass/molar mass
Given a gas volume, moles = volume in dm3/24 or moles = volume in cm3/24000
For a solution, moles = concentration x volume/1000 (volume in cm3)

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance

Its units are g mol-1
For an atom, the molar mass is the relative atomic mass expressed in g mol-1 e.g.
23.0 g mol-1 for Na
For a simple molecule, the molar mass is the relative molecular mass expressed in g
mol-1 e.g. (2 x 16.0) = 32.0 g mol-1 for O2
For a giant ionic or giant covalent substance, the molar mass is the relative formula
mass expressed in g mol-1 e.g. (23.0 x 35.5) = 58.5 g mol-1 for NaCl

Reacting Mass Calculations

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you are told about
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the mass of the thing you are asked about.

Work out the mass of HCl formed from 6 g of hydrogen

H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Step 1: Moles H2 = 6 2.0 = 3
Step 2: Moles HCl = 3 x 2 (from equation) = 6
Step 3: Mass HCl = 6 x molar mass = 6 x 36.5 = 219g

6.

(mass molar mass)

(moles x molar mass)

Gas Volume Calculations

First 2 steps same as reacting mass calculations but in step 3 use 24 dm3 per mole of gas.

Work out the volume of CO2 formed from 3.99 kg of iron (III) oxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
Step 1: Moles Fe2O3 = 3990 159.6 = 25
Step 2: Moles CO2 = 25 x 3 (from equation) = 75
Step 3: Volume CO2 = 75 x 24 = 1800 dm3

(mass molar mass)

(moles x 24)

7.

Titration Calculations

Step 1 - Find the number of moles of the thing you know the concentration and volume of.
Step 2 Use the equation to find out the moles of the thing you are asked about.
Step 3 Find the unknown concentration or molar mass

25 cm3 of NaOH needed 21.5 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4 for neutralisation. Calculate the
concentration of the NaOH solution.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2NaCl + 2H2O
Step 1: Moles H2SO4 = 0.1 x 21.5 1000 = 2.15 x 10-3 (conc x vol 1000)
Step 2: Moles NaOH = 2.15 x 10-3 x 2 (from equation) = 4.30 x 10-3
Step 3: Conc NaOH = 4.30 x 10-3 (25 1000) = 0.172 mol dm-3 (moles volume in dm3)

8)

Water of crystallisation

Hydrated salts, like copper (II) sulphate crystals, contain water of crystallisation as
part of their structure (they are not damp!)
The water of crystallisation is shown in the formula by . which effectively means +
e.g. CuSO4.5H2O
The water of crystallisation can be driven off by strong heating to leave an anhydrous
salt e.g.
CuSO4.5H2O
CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue (hydrated)
white (anhydrous)

Bonding and Structure

Revision Notes
1)

Introduction

2)

Atoms form bonds to get a full outer shell of electrons

There are three types of bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic
The structures produced by forming bonds are either giant or simple
The possible combinations of structure and bonding are giant ionic, simple covalent,
giant covalent and giant metallic
Simple covalent is sometimes called simple molecular
Giant covalent is sometimes called giant molecular or macromolecular
To melt a substance the forces holding the particles together need to be broken
To conduct electricity there must something charged that can move (ions or
electrons). Technically this is called a mobile charged species
To dissolve in a particular solvent the substance must interact with the solvent
Types of Bonding

Ionic bonding metals transfer electrons to non-metals producing positive metal ions
and negative non-metal ions. An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. NaCl

Covalent bonding A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons. Only non-metals

can get a full shell by sharing electrons. The bond is the attraction of the shared
electrons for the two nuclei. Dot-cross diagrams show outer electrons only e.g. Cl2

In dative covalent bonds, one atom provides both of the shared pair of electrons e.g.
formation of an ammonium ion, NH4+, from ammonia, NH3, and H+

3)

Metallic bonding metals lose their outer shell electrons to produce a lattice of
positive metal ions surrounded by delocalised (free) electrons.

Types of Structure
a)

Giant ionic lattices e.g. sodium chloride

o
o
o
o
o
o

b)

Lattice of oppositely charged ions.

High melting and boiling points (strong forces of attraction between ions
need to be broken).
Do not conduct when solid (ions not free to move).
Conduct when molten or dissolved in water (ions then free to move).
Most are soluble in polar solvents like water. The ions interact with the
dipoles in the solvent molecules
Tend not to dissolve in non-polar organic solvents like cyclohexane. The ions
do not interact with non-polar solvents
Simple covalent lattices e.g. iodine and ice

o
o
o
o

c)

Consists of molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces (see

section 5 below)
Low melting and boiling points (weak forces of attraction between
molecules are easily broken)
Do not conduct (no mobile charge carriers)
Most are insoluble in polar solvents, like water, because they do not interact
with the dipoles in the solvent. Alcohols, however, can hydrogen bond to
water molecules
Tend to dissolve in non-polar organic solvents, like cyclohexane, because the
solvent can interact with the simple covalent substance
Giant metallic lattices e.g. magnesium, copper

o
o
o
o
d)

Lattice of metal ions surrounded by delocalised electrons.

High melting and boiling points usually (strong forces of attraction between
metal ions and free electrons need to be broken).
Conduct when solid (free electrons).
Insoluble in all solvents (some react with water)
Giant covalent lattices e.g. diamond, graphite

o
o
o
o

Lattice of non-metal atoms joined by strong covalent bonds

Very high melting and boiling points usually (many strong covalent bonds to
be broken)
Diamond doesnt conduct (no mobile charge carriers). Graphite is the only
non-metal that conducts as a solid (structure contains delocalised electrons)
Insoluble in polar solvents, like water, because they do not interact with the
dipoles in the solvent in water

4)

Electronegativity and bond polarity

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a covalent bond.

If there is a big difference in electronegativity between the atoms at either end of a
covalent bond the electrons will be pulled towards the more electronegative atom
creating a polar covalent bond (the bond has a permanent dipole)
For example, chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen so the H-Cl bond is
polar

+ -

HCl

5)

Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that dont cancel out (e.g. H2O) because the
dipoles are at an angle
Non-polar molecules either have no dipoles (e.g. Cl2) or dipoles that cancel out (e.g.
CO2) because the dipoles are at 180

Intermolecular Forces

Three types of weak force hold simple covalent molecules together.

a) Van der Waals

o
o
o

Arise from temporary dipole (uneven distribution of electrons) in one molecule that
induces dipole in another molecule.
The more electrons, the stronger the van der Waals forces
Occur in all simple covalent substances

b) Dipole-dipole
o
o

Attraction between molecules with permanent dipoles

+ ends attracted to - ends

c) Hydrogen bonds
o
o
o

Need H attached to N/O/F (highly electronegative elements).

Exposed H nucleus is strongly attracted to lone pair on N/O/F
Diagram must show lone pairs, dipoles and H-bond shown by dotted line e.g. water

d) Anomalous properties of water

Water has some unusual properties due to the presence of hydrogen bonding
Ice is less dense than water because ice has an open structure caused by hydrogen
bonding
Water has a higher melting and boiling point than expected due to the strength of
hydrogen bonds that have to be broken

6)

Shapes of Molecules

The following procedure allows the shape of a molecule to be worked out.

Draw a dot-cross diagram

Count number of electron pairs round the central atom
Pairs of electrons repel each other and get as far apart as possible
Lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs so bonds are pushed closer together e.g.
107 in ammonia compared with the tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5 in methane

Number of pairs

Examples

Name of shape

Bond angle

3 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
4 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
6 bonding pairs
(repel equally)
3 bonding, 1 lone
(lone pair repels
more than bonds)
2 bonding , 2 lone
(lone pair repels
more than bonds)
2 double bonds
(repel equally)

BF3

Trigonal planar

120

CH4, NH4+

Tetrahedral

109.5

SF6

Octahedral

90

NH3

Pyramidal

107

H 2O

Non-linear

104.5

CO2

Linear

180

OCR seems quite keen on SO2 where S has 2 double bonds and 1 lone pair. Repulsion is
roughly equal for double bonds and lone pairs so bond angle is 120, shape non-linear

Basic Concepts
Revision Notes
1)

Formulae

Be able to recognise and use the different ways of showing organic compounds.

Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

e.g. C2H6O for ethanol

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element
in a molecule e.g. CH2 for ethene (from molecular formula C2H4 2)

General formula is the simplest algebraic formula for a member of a homologous

series e.g. CnH2n+2 for alkanes

Structural formula is the minimum detail that shows the arrangement of the atoms
in a molecule e.g. CH3CH2OH for ethanol

Displayed formula shows the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds between
them e.g. for ethanol:

All bonds should be shown. Do not put OH for the alcohol group

Skeletal formula shows just the carbon skeleton and functional groups e.g. for
ethanol

2)

(see also Appendix 1)

Functional groups and naming organic compounds

Be able to recognise and use the following terms.

A homologous series is a series of organic compounds having the same functional

group with successive members differing by CH2
Alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and halogenoalkanes are all homologous series
A functional group is a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions
of a compound e.g. C=C for alkenes and OH for alcohols

The rules for naming organic compounds are as follows.

1) The functional group gives the ending of the name e.g. ol for an alcohol
2) The number of carbons gives the first part of the name e.g. prop- or propan- for
3 carbons
3) Number the carbon chain to give the functional group carbon the lowest number
4) Any side chains (branches) or halogens go at the front of the name with commas
between numbers and dashes between numbers and words e.g. 2,2dimethylhexane
5) With more than 1 side chain or halogen, use alphabetical order e.g. 1-bromo-2methylbutane

3)

Structural isomers

Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae
e.g. the molecular formula C4H19Br can produce four different structures
Differences between structural isomers arise from the position of the functional group
and/or the arrangement of the carbon chain e.g. C4H9Br has four isomers

1-bromobutane

2-bromobutane

2-bromo-2-methylpropane
4)

1-bromo-2-methylpropane

Cyclic Alkanes

5)

Carbon can form rings as well as chains

Cyclic alkanes have general formula CnH2n (same as alkenes)
Cyclopentane is 5 CH2s in a ring with molecular formula C5H10. Skeletal formula is
a pentagon
Cyclohexane is 6 CH2s in a ring. Skeletal formula is a hexagon

Percentage yield

Most organic reactions do not give 100% conversion of reactant to product

Reasons for this include the fact that most organic reactions are reversible, there
may be side products and there will be loss of the desired product during purification
% yield =

Actual moles of product

x 100%
Possible moles of product

Example
In the following reaction, 2.18g of bromoethane produce 0.75g of ethanol. Calculate the
percentage yield.
CH3CH2Br + NaOH CH3CH2OH + NaBr
Moles of reactant (bromoethane)
Possible moles of ethanol
Actual moles of ethanol
Percentage yield

6)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

mass/molar mass
2.18/109
0.020 mol
0.020 mol (from equation)
0.75/46.0
0.0163 mol
0.0163/0.020 x 100%
82%

Atom economy
Atom economy =

Molecular mass of desired products

Sum of molecular masses of all products

x 100%

Example
In the above example
Molecular mass of desired product
Molecular masses of all products

= 46.0
= 46.0 + 102.9
= 148.9

Atom economy

= 46.0/148.9 x 100%
= 30.9%

Chemical processes with a high atom economy produce fewer waste materials
A reaction may have a high percentage yield but a low atom economy (as in the
above example)

6)

More on naming organic compounds

This section covers naming compounds with more than one alkene or alcohol
functional group
a)

Dienes

Compounds containing two alkene groups are called dienes e.g.

The name of this compound is buta-1,3-diene

b)

Diols and triols

Compounds containing two alcohol groups are called diols while three OH groups
makes a triol e.g.

Ethane-1,2-diol

propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol)

Appendix 1 - Skeletal Formulae

Skeletal formulae show carbon-carbon bonds and functional groups
Alkane

e.g. hexane

Alkene

e.g. hex-3-ene

Alcohol

e.g. ethanol

Halogenoalkane e.g. 2-chloro-2-fluoropentane

Aldehyde

e.g. butanal

Ketone

e.g. propanone

Carboxylic acid

e.g. 3-methylbutanoic acid

Ester

e.g. methyl propanoate

Amine

e.g. ethylamine

Benzene

or

Alkanes
Revision Notes
1)

General
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n+2
Saturated = only single C-C bonds
Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only
C-H bonds are non-polar (C and H have similar electronegativities) so:
o The only intermolecular forces in alkanes are Van der Waals forces
o Alkanes do not attract charged species (nucleophiles and electrophiles)
In alkanes, the bonds round each carbon are tetrahedral in shape. Each C has 4 bond
pairs in its outer shell which repel each other and get as far apart as possible.

2)

Boiling points

3)

Boiling point increases with chain length more electrons, more Van der Waals
forces
Boiling point decreases as branching increases branched alkanes have less surface
area in contact so intermolecular forces are weaker (or straighter chains can pack
closer, more Van der Waals forces)
Reactions
a)

b)

Combustion
Reaction with oxygen producing CO2 and H2O
Exothermic (produces heat)
Gas volume increases (used to drive pistons in engines)
Alkanes are used as fuels in industry, in the home and in transport
Substitution
H replaced by Cl or Br e.g.
CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr

Requires u/v light to break Br-Br bond

The bond breaking is homolytic fission because two radicals are produced, each
having an unpaired electron
A mechanism shows the detailed steps by which the reactants turn into the
products
The mechanism here is called radical substitution
Initiation step
Propagation

e.g.
e.g.

Termination step

e.g.

Br2 2Br
CH4 + Br CH3 + HBr
CH3 + Br2 CH3Br + Br
2CH3 CH3CH3

}
}

as a
pair

Further substitution can occur with more Hs being replaced by Brs

CH3Br + Br2 CH2Br2 + HBr etc

The reaction produces a mixture of products (CH3Br, CH2Br2, CHBr3 and CBr4).
This means that radical substitution is not a good way of making a particular
product (the reaction has limited use in synthesis which means making a
desired product in a number of steps)

Fuels
Revision Notes
1)

Fractional Distillation

2)

Crude oil is a mixture of many compounds, most of which are alkanes.

Crude oil is separated into fractions, many of which can be used directly as fuels.
The separation process is called fractional distillation. This involves:
o Vaporising the crude oil
o Passing the vapour into a column that is hot at the bottom and cool at the
top
o The vapour rising and condensing at the appropriate level
o Separation is based on the different boiling points of alkanes

Processing of fractions
a)

Cracking

Crude oil contains no alkenes and more long chain alkanes than are needed.
Cracking converts long chain alkanes into shorter chain alkanes and an alkene
e.g.
C11H24 C8H18 + C3H6

Cracking requires heat and a catalyst. It is a thermal decomposition reaction.

The alkenes from cracking are used to make polymers and alcohols

b)

Isomerisation
Isomerisation turns straight chain alkanes into branched chain alkanes e.g.
Octane 2,2,4-trimethylpentane

c)

Branched chain hydrocarbons make better fuels as their lower boiling points
mean they burn more efficiently
Isomerisation increases the octane number of the hydrocarbon
It needs a catalyst and heat

Reforming
Reforming turns straight chain alkanes into cyclic alkanes and arenes (and
hydrogen) e.g.
C6H14
C6H12 + H2
Hexane
cyclohexane
C6H14
Hexane

Arenes contain a benzene ring (see A2 - Topic 1). Benzene can be represented in
several ways. The third one will make more sense next year:

Arenes make better fuels than straight chain alkanes as they have higher octane
numbers and burn more efficiently
Reforming needs heat and a catalyst

3)

Fossil fuels and biofuels

4)

C6H6 + 4H2
benzene

Fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil) are very useful to us as sources of energy and as a
feedstock for making petrochemicals
However, they are non-renewable as they take millions of years to form and
increased CO2 levels from burning fossil fuels are leading to global warming and
climate change
We will eventually need to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources
such as biofuels e.g. alcohol made from sugar cane and biodiesel made from
grain
Biofuels are renewable as plant material takes only a short time to grow.

Octane Number
Octane number or Octane rating is a value used to indicate the
resistance of a motor fuel to knock. Octane numbers are based on a
scale on which octane is 100 (minimal knock) and heptane is 0 (bad
knock).
Examples: A fuel with an octane number of 92 has the same knock as
a mixture of 92% octane and 8% heptane.

Alkenes
Revision Notes
1)

General
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n
Cycloalkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n-2
Unsaturated = contain a double C=C bond
Hydrocarbon = contains C and H only

2)

Bonding in Alkenes
o
o

3)

The carbons at either end of the double bond and the 4 atoms they are bonded to
are all in a plane (flat). These 6 atoms are joined by single bonds
The bonds around each C in the C=C bond are trigonal planar in shape. There are 3
areas of electrons round each C (1 double bond and 2 single bonds) which repel
equally to give a bond angle of 120
The double bond is formed by sideways overlap of p orbitals producing a bond
(sausage-shaped clouds of electrons above and below the plane of the single bond
framework)

E/Z isomers
Isomers
___________________

Structural
Stereoisomers
Isomers
_____________

E/Z isomers
Optical isomers (A2 only)

Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but with a different arrangement in
space
E/Z isomerism is one type of stereoisomerism arising from restricted rotation about a
double bond when two different groups are attached to each carbon of the C=C
group
E is short the German word entgegen which means opposite i.e. on opposite sides of
the double bond
Z is short for the German word zusammen which means together i.e. on the same
side of the double bond
1-bromo-2-chloropropene displays E/Z isomerism. This is because one C of the C=C
bond is attached to an H and a Br, which are different, and the other C of the C=C is
attached to a Cl and a CH3 which are also different

Z-1-bromo-2-chloropropene

For an example like this you only need to say that it will have E and Z isomers, not
which one is which
But-2-ene is a simpler example where it is more straightforward to say which is E and
which is Z

Z-but-2-ene
(CH3s are together)

E-but-2-ene
(CH3s on opposite sides of the double bond)

Cis/trans isomerism is a special case of E/Z isomerism in which two of the substituent
groups are the same. Cis corresponds to Z and trans corresponds to E
Sticking with but-2-ene as the example

Cis-but-2-ene
4)

E-1-bromo-2-chloropropene

trans-but-2-ene

Addition Reactions of Alkenes

In addition reactions, 2 molecules join to form 1 molecule.

Alkenes undergo addition reactions because they have a double bond.
a)
e.g.

b)
e.g.

Addition of hydrogen produces an alkane

CH2=CH2 + H2

CH3CH3
ethane

Needs a Ni catalyst
One mole of hydrogen needed per double bond
This reaction is used to produce margarine from unsaturated vegetable oils by
catalytic hydrogenation
Addition of halogens produces a dihalogenoalkane
CH2=CH2 + Br2

CH2BrCH2Br
1,2-dibromoethane

The colour change in this reaction is from orange to colourless

This is used as a test for unsaturation (to show the presence of a double bond)

c)

Addition of hydrogen halides produces a halogenoalkane

CH2=CH2 + HBr

e.g.

CH3CH2Br
bromoethane

If this reaction is done with an unsymmetrical alkene, two isomeric products may
be formed e.g.
CH3CH=CH2 + HBr CH3CHBrCH3
2-bromopropane
and

d)

e)

CH3CH=CH2 + HBr CH3CH2CH2Br

1-bromopropane

Addition of steam produces an alcohol

e.g.

CH2=CH2 + H2O

CH3CH2OH
ethanol
Needs a strong acid catalyst e.g. phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Temperature must be above 100C so that H2O is in the form of steam
Mechanism for Electrophilic Addition
The high electron density in the bond makes alkenes attractive to electrophiles
(electron pair acceptors, such as Br2 and HBr)
As the bromine molecule approaches the bond, the electrons in the Br-Br bond
are repelled. A dipole is induced in the bond with the Br nearer the alkene being
+
The Br-Br bond undergoes heterolytic fission to produce a cation (positive ion)
and an anion (negative ion), Both electrons from the bond go to the negative ion
Br2 Br+ + :Br-

The Br+ is the electrophile that accepts an electron pair from the bond to
produce an intermediate, CH2BrCH2+
The intermediate is a carbocation (it has a carbon with a positive charge)

In organic mechanisms, a curly arrow represents the movement of a pair of

electrons
Curly arrows should start from a bond or lone pair and finish at the atom where a
bond or lone pair is being formed

5)

Polymerisation of Alkenes

Alkenes can join together to form addition polymers

Monomer = small molecule that can be polymerised
Polymer = long chain molecule formed by joining many monomers together (many
means several thousand)
The bond breaks and forms single bonds that join the monomers together
a)

Examples
Equation

b)

2 repeat units of polymer

Ethene

poly(ethene)

Chloroethene

poly(chloroethene)

Processing of waste polymers (e.g. plastic bottles)

Mechanical Recycling Waste polymers can be melted down and re-used

following separation into types (PTFE etc). However it is expensive to collect and
sort waste polymers

Combustion for energy production Waste polymers can be burnt as a fuel

but this may produce toxic waste products (see below)

Feedstock recycling Waste polymers can be cracked and the products used to
make fuels and other polymers (after separation)

d)

Minimising environmental damage in polymer disposal

Chemists and chemical processes can minimise the environmental damage caused by
disposing of polymers

Combustion for energy production Burning halogenated plastics, such as

PVC, produces toxic products like HCl. However, the HCl can be removed by gas
scrubbers which by dissolve it in a spray of alkali

Developing new polymers Addition polymers are not biodegradable (they

dont rot down). Chemists have developed biodegradable and compostable
polymers that will rot down e.g. from isoprene (methyl-1,3-butadiene), maize
and starch

Enthalpy Changes
Revision Notes
1)

Introduction

2)

An enthalpy change is a change in heat energy measured at constant pressure.

Enthalpy changes refer to the chemicals not the surroundings.
The symbol for an enthalpy change is H ( = change, H = heat energy)
The units for enthalpy change are kJ mol-1

Exothermic Reactions

In exothermic reactions, the chemicals lose energy so H is negative. The

surroundings gain energy so feel hotter.
In terms of a reaction with oxygen, oxidation is an exothermic process.
Examples include:
Combustion burning fuels for heating and in engines e.g.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Respiration oxidation of carbohydrates in living things
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

3)

Endothermic Reactions

In endothermic reactions, the chemicals gain energy so H is positive. The

surroundings lose energy so feel cooler.
Endothermic reactions require an input of heat energy or they will stop.
Examples of endothermic processes include:
Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

4)

Measuring Enthalpy Changes

o
o
o
o

Measuring enthalpy changes by experiment is called calorimetry

Calorimetry works by using the energy released or absorbed in a reaction to
change the temperature of a known mass of water
Calculating an enthalpy change from experimental results involves a two step
process
Firstly:
q = -mcT/1000
Where m = mass of water in g
c= specific heat capacity of water (4.18 Jg-1K-1)
T = change in temperature

Secondly:

H = q/n
Where n= number of moles of reactant (mass/molar mass or conc x
vol/1000)

o
o

Enthalpy changes measured from calorimetry are smaller than the expected
values because of heat loss to the apparatus and the environment
Other reasons for differences from standard values are non-standard conditions
and evaporation of water

In the case of measuring enthalpies of combustion, differences from standard

values can occur through incomplete combustion and evaporation of the fuel (if it
is a liquid)

Example
The combustion of 0.15g of ethanol, C2H5OH, in a spirit burner increased the temperature of
75 cm3 of water by 12.5C. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol in kJ mol-1.

5)

= -mcT/1000
= -75 x 4.18 x 12.5/1000
= -3.919 kJ

= 0.15/46
= 3.26 x 10-3 mol

= -3.919/3.26 x 10-3
= -1202 kJ mol-1

Enthalpy Changes

The standard conditions for measuring enthalpy changes are a pressure of 100
kPa and a temperature of 298K. Standard enthalpy changes are indicated by the
symbol

Enthalpy change of reaction, HR, is the enthalpy change when the reaction
occurs in the molar quantities shown in the chemical equation
Enthalpy change of combustion, Hc, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is completely burnt under standard conditions e.g.
C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

Some substances cannot be burnt and have zero enthalpy of combustion e.g. O2,
CO2, H2O
Enthalpy change of formation, Hf, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is formed under standard conditions e.g.
5C(s) + 6H2(g) C5H12(l)

Hf for elements is zero

It is difficult to measure Hf for hydrocarbons because carbon and hydrogen do
not react readily and other hydrocarbons will be formed in addition to the one of
interest

7)

Enthalpy Profile Diagrams

These diagrams show the difference in enthalpy between the reactants and products.
In the space below, draw in an example of an exo and endothermic reaction.

Endo

8)

Average Bond Enthalpy

This is the energy needed to break one mole of gaseous bonds

Example equation:
H2(g) 2H(g)

For a bond such as C-H that is found in many compounds, the value given in the
data book is an average over many compounds containing the bond
Average bond enthalpies have a positive sign because energy is needed to break
a bond

9)

Exo

Calculating Enthalpy Changes

Hesss Law = enthalpy change is independent of route

Enthalpy changes can be calculated in three ways, based on Hesss Law.
The three ways can be used for to calculate any enthalpy change formation,
combustion, other types of reaction
The data provided determines which method to use
If the data is enthalpy changes of formation, use:
H = Hf (products) - Hf (reactants)

If the data is enthalpy changes of combustion, use:

H = Hc (reactants) - Hc (products)

If the data is bond enthalpies, use:

H = (bonds broken) - (bonds formed)

Using average bond enthalpies gives less accurate results than the other two
methods because bond enthalpies are not specific to the compounds involved in
the reaction (they are average values from many different compounds)
The reaction is exothermic if more energy is released when new bonds are
formed than is needed to break the old bonds
The reaction is endothermic if more energy is needed to break bonds in the
reactants than is released when bonds are formed in the products

Example data is enthalpy of formation

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.
Li2CO3(s) Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
Enthalpies of formation (kJ mol-1)

Li2CO3(s) -1216, Li2O(s) -596, CO2(g) -394

H = Hf(products) - Hf(reactants)
H
= (-596 + (-394)) (-1216)
= -990 + 1216
= 226 kJ mol-1

Example data is enthalpy of combustion

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.
3C(s) + 4H2(g) C3H8(g)
Enthalpies of combustion (kJ mol-1)

C(s) -394, H2(g) -286, C3H8(g) -2220

H = Hc(reactants) - Hc(products)
H
= (3 x -394) + (4 x -286) (-2220)
= -2326 + 2220
= -106 kJ mol-1

Example data is bond energies

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.
2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
Bond enthalpies (kJ mol-1)

H-I 299, H-H 436, I-I 151

H = (bonds broken) - (bonds formed)

H
= (299 x 2) (436 + 151)
= 598 - 587
= 11 kJ mol-1

THIS IS A LEGACY SPECIFICATION

ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE

2850/01

CHEMISTRY (SALTERS)
Chemistry for Life

*OCE/T76076*

Wednesday 3 June 2009

Morning

Candidates answer on the question paper

A calculator may be used for this paper
OCR Supplied Materials:

Data Sheet for Chemistry (Salters)

(inserted)

Duration: 1 hour 15 minutes

Other Materials Required:

Scientific calculator
*

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

Write your name clearly in capital letters, your Centre Number and Candidate Number in the boxes above.
Use black ink. Pencil may be used for graphs and diagrams only.
Read each question carefully and make sure that you know what you have to do before starting your answer.
Answer all the questions.
Do not write in the bar codes.
Write your answer to each question in the space provided, however additional paper may be used if
necessary.

INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES

The number of marks is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question

or part question.
The total number of marks for this paper is 75.
You may use a scientific calculator.
A copy of the Data Sheet for Chemistry (Salters) is provided as an insert
with this question paper.
You are advised to show all the steps in any calculations.
This document consists of 16 pages. Any blank pages are indicated.

OCR 2009 [R/100/3429]

SPA (NH/CG) T76076/6

FOR EXAMINERS USE

Qu.

Max.

21

12

22

20

TOTAL

75

Mark

OCR is an exempt Charity

Turn over

2
Answer all the questions.

To produce maximum power in a car engine, the fuel must ignite at the correct stage of the engine
cycle. Auto-ignition causes a loss in power.
(a) What name is given to the number which is used as a measure of the tendency of a fuel to
auto-ignite?
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) The branched hydrocarbon 2,2,4-trimethylpentane is an isomer of octane and has a low
tendency to auto-ignite.
(i)

Draw the skeletal formulae for octane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane.

octane

2,2,4-trimethylpentane
[2]

(ii)

Explain why octane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane are structural isomers.

...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii)

Draw the full structural formula of one other isomer of octane.

Name the isomer you have drawn.

name .............................................................................[2]

OCR 2009

3
(c) The process of reforming produces cycloalkanes such as cyclooctane as the main products.
Cyclooctane is not an isomer of octane.
(i)

Give the molecular formula for octane and cyclooctane.

octane.. cyclooctane..

(ii)

[2]

Reforming can also produce benzene. What type of hydrocarbon is benzene?

...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(iii)

Reforming reactions take place in the presence of a heterogeneous catalyst.

Describe the four main stages by which heterogeneous catalysis works.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [4]

OCR 2009

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4
(d) Molecules that contain an oxygen atom, such as alcohols, also have a low tendency to
auto-ignite and can be added to petrol blends.
(i)

What is the general name given to oxygen-containing molecules added to petrol blends?
...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii)

In the box below, write a balanced equation to show the complete combustion of
methanol, CH3OH.

[2]
(iii)

The equation for the complete combustion of methane is shown below.

CH4

2O2

CO2

2H2O

In the combustion chamber of a car engine, alcohols burn more completely than alkanes
that contain the same number of carbon atoms.
Use the equation above and your answer to (ii) to suggest why alcohols burn more
completely in the combustion chamber.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iv)

Name a product of incomplete combustion of alkanes and say why it is a polluting gas.
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]

(v)

Another oxygen-containing compound, (CH3)3COCH3, was used in petrol blends until

recently. Name the functional group in this compound.
...................................................................................................................................... [1]
[Total: 21]

OCR 2009

6
2

Radioactive isotopes are used in a wide variety of industrial applications.

Radioactive isotopes decay to form new elements. There are three types of radioactive emission:
alpha (), beta () and gamma ().
(a) Complete the following table to show the type of emission described.

description

type of emission
(, or )

The atomic number of the decaying

atom increases by one
Radiation of a very short wavelength
The particle emitted has a negative
charge
The particle emitted has a mass of
four units
The particle emitted is strongly
deflected in an electric field
[5]
(b) The radioactive isotope of thallium (Tl), thallium-204, is used to monitor the thickness of thin
films.
(i)

Thallium-204 undergoes beta decay.

Write a nuclear equation for this process.

[3]
(ii)

In the above application the beta particles pass through the film and cause a small
current to flow in a detector.
Suggest why an alpha emitter would not be suitable for monitoring the thickness of thin
films.
...................................................................................................................................... [1]

OCR 2009

7
(c) Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the Sun.
Suggest why it is very difficult to reproduce fusion reactions here on Earth.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [3]
[Total: 12]

OCR 2009

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8
3

Until recently, solder containing lead was used to join metals together. Chemists can use mass
spectrometry to distinguish between various types of solder by the ratio of the isotopes of lead
they contain.
(a) (i)

Use the following terms to label the diagram of the mass spectrometer below.

electric field

ionisation chamber

magnetic field

sample inlet

to a pump which maintains

low pressure
[4]

OCR 2009

9
(ii)

The analysis of one sample of solder showed the existence of three isotopes of lead. The
mass spectrum is shown below.
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, for this sample of lead from the data on the
spectrum.
Give your answer to four significant figures.

53
relative intensity

25

206

22

207

208

mass

Ar = ................................................... [4]
(iii)

Complete the following table, with the help of your Data Sheet, to show the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in the three isotopes.

isotope

number of protons

number of neutrons

number of electrons

lead-206
lead-207
lead-208
[3]
(b) In the past, solder was an alloy of tin and lead. 100 g of one type of solder contained 0.500 mol
of tin. Calculate the mass of lead in 100 g of the solder.
Ar: Sn, 119

mass of lead = .............................................................. g [2]

OCR 2009

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10
(c) Solder can be used for electrical connections because both lead and tin are good conductors
of electricity. This is because of the nature of metallic bonding.
(i)

Draw a labelled diagram below to illustrate metallic bonding.

[3]
(ii)

Use your diagram to suggest how metals conduct electricity.

...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [1]

(d) Tin and lead are in the same group of the Periodic Table.
For the metals in Group 2 of the Periodic Table, explain the similarities and trends in the way
the elements react, in terms of their electronic configurations.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [5]
[Total: 22]

OCR 2009

12
4

Known crude oil reserves are likely to be exhausted long before coal reserves. Methods of obtaining
a variety of hydrocarbons from coal are increasing in importance.
(a) The first stage of one process involves the reaction of the carbon in coal with steam and
oxygen. The products are carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the ratio 3:1 by moles.
Write a balanced equation for this reaction. Include state symbols.

[3]
(b) The bonding in carbon monoxide can be represented as shown.

C O
Name the bond represented by the arrow in this formula and explain how it arises.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

OCR 2009

13
(c) The equation for the production of heptane from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is given
below.
(i)

Complete the enthalpy cycle by filling in the box.

Use the following enthalpy changes of formation to calculate the enthalpy change for this
reaction.

7CO(g)

compound

Hf /kJ mol1

CO(g)

111

C7H16(g)

224

H2O(g)

242

15 H2(g)

C7H16(g)

7H2O(g)

elements:

Enthalpy change = .............................................................. kJ mol-1 [5]

(ii)

Explain why this reaction is accompanied by a decrease in entropy.

...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]

OCR 2009

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14
(d) Coal is used as a fuel in some power stations. Sulphur impurities present in coal react and
produce the toxic gas sulphur dioxide, SO2.
The sulphur dioxide can be removed by reacting it with calcium hydroxide in the presence of
oxygen, as shown below.
2SO2(g)

2Ca(OH)2(s)

O2(g)

2CaSO4(s)

2H2O(l)

Calculate the volume of sulphur dioxide (in dm3) at room temperature and pressure that could
be removed by reaction with 1.0 kg of calcium hydroxide in the presence of excess oxygen.
1 mol of any gas at room temperature and pressure occupies 24 dm3.
Ar: Ca, 40; O, 16; H, 1.0

volume = ...................................... dm3 [3]

(e) At the high temperatures generated when coal is burnt in a power station, nitrogen in the air
reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides. The high temperature is needed because of the
large bond enthalpy of N2.
(i)

Explain the term bond enthalpy.

...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]

OCR 2009

15
(ii)

Describe the bond-breaking and bond-making processes that occur when nitrogen reacts
with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [3]
[Total: 20]

END OF QUESTION PAPER

OCR 2009

full structural(1) ;

iii

reactants adsorbed on surface(1) ;

iii

arene/aromatic (hydrocarbon)(1) ;

ii

oxygenates(1) ;

products diffuse away/desorb/come off from

surface(1) ;

new bonds form(1) ;

bonds break(1) ;

octane C8H18 (1) ; cyclooctane C8H16(1) ;

correct name for example chosen(1) ;

same (molecular) formulae but different

structural(1) ;

(1) ;

21

octane (number)(1) ;

(1) ;

Marks

Additional Guidance

June 2009

Not oxidiser

bonds break between reactants is a con, but allow new bonds

forming between reactants in context

allow stick to/bond to/chemisorb on surface

allow unsaturated

allow H and C atoms reversed

allow correct name if formula is skeletal or not full structural, not

other compounds

all bonds must be shown connecting correct .

not shapes/arrangement on own

allow same number and type of atoms different structure AW

not any full structural

allow variations in angle of lines representing branches in 2,2,4trimethylpentane

allow any skeletal for 1 mark (no dots)

ignore references to pre-ignition/auto-ignition/knocking

allow octane rating

Mark Scheme

Expected Answers

ii

Question
1 a

2850 Chemistry for Life

2850

iv

iii

Question
ii

2850

21

Total

22

ether(1) ;
allow alkoxy(alkane)

do not allow carbon or unburnt hydrocarbon

second mark depends on first

allow CO
allow description of nature of problem e.g. irreversibly bonds to
haemoglobin AW

allow reverse argument

June 2009

toxic/poisonous /photochemical smog(1) ; (ignore

references to greenhouse gas)

carbon monoxide(1) ;

for for same amount /no of moles / molecules (of

fuel)(1) ; for equivalent alkane

allow any multiple

balancing(1) ;

sam need less oxygen / 1 to 2(1) ;

Additional Guidance
do not allow balancing mark if formulae incorrect.
ignore state symbols

Marks

formulae(1) ;

CH3OH(g)+ 1O2(g)CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Expected Answers

Mark Scheme

ii

Question
2 a

2850

204
82

Pb +

0
1

e /

high gravitational forces needed(1) ;

difficult/specialist equipment needed to contain

fusion process(1) ;

very/extremely high pressures needed(1) ;

very/extremely high temps needed(1) ;

have to overcome (nuclear) repulsion (1) ;

any three from:

cannot penetrate film or layer / does not pass

through to detector / stopped by paper - AW (1) ;

one mark for each correct species

Tl

The particle emitted is strongly

deflected in an electric field.

204
81

Type of
radiation
(, or )

The particle emitted has a mass of

four units.

The particle emitted results in the

atomic number increasing by one.
Radiation of a very short
wavelength
The particle emitted has a negative
charge

Expected Answers

23

one
mark
each

Marks

Additional Guidance

June 2009

not ionising/not deflected

wrong type of decay/any additional species scores zero

numbers on right con mark(once) symbol must be correct e.g. not PB

(missing electron scores 2 max)

do not allow e-

allow words (alpha etc)

Mark Scheme

iii

ii

Question

2850

82

82

82

lead-206

lead-207

lead-208

126

125

124

Number
of
neutrons

82

82

82

Number
of
electrons

mass of lead= 100-59.5(40.5 scores both marks) (1) ;

mass of tin = 0.5 x 119(59.5) (1) ;

Number
of
protons

Isotope

(207.3-scores all four)(1); ecfs on first two marking

points (207.2 on own 3)

four sig figs(1) ;

divided by 100(1) ; (207.28);

added(=20728)(1) ;

isotope mass x abundance(1) ;

sample inlet(1) ;

ionisation chamber(1) ;

magnetic field(1) ;

electric field(1) ;

one each correctly labelled; i.e. going anticlockwise

from top right

Expected Answers

25

one
mark
for
each
row

Marks

Additional Guidance

June 2009

ecf on second mark

sf mark is a stand alone providing it follows from previous

calculation and is correct. Look for 207.2 wrong

ignore answers with no working unless correct

Mark Scheme

ii

Total

causes an increase in reactivity / get more reactive

down group (ORA)(1) ;

electrons held less tightly/attraction to nucleus less

/lost more easily (AW)(1) ;

on going down group, outer electrons further from

nucleus / more electron shells / more
screening/shielding(1) ;

2/ Same number of outer electrons / formation of 2+

ion (result in similar reactivity)(1) ;

Reactivity depends on outer (shell) electrons /

electrons lost from outer shell / outer shell implied(1);

free / delocalised electrons move / flow / carry the

charge through structure / between cations AW (1) ;

Looking for two rows of cations

minimum for regular array

regular array / AW(1) ;

cations / positive metallic residue, NOT atoms or

nuclei(1) ;

delocalised / free electrons (must be within structure)

(1) ;

Expected Answers

Question

2850

26

22

Marks

Additional Guidance

allow mixture of Pb2+ and Sn2+

allow regular array mark from diagram

allow +/ e(-) or just (-) as labels

allow (mobile) sea of electrons

Mark Scheme

June 2009

ii

Question

2850

7C + 3O2 + 15H2

1 mole of bond broken(1) ; in gaseous state(1) ;

bond enthalpy is enthalpy change that occurs when

volume = 13.51 x 24 (320/324/324.3/324.32) (1) ;

moles of Ca(OH)2= 1000/74(13.51) (1) ;

formula mass of Ca(OH)2 = 74(1) ;

therefore less disordered(ORA)/fewer ways of

arrangement/fewer ways of arranging energy/less
random(1) ;

27

-1141 (-355 scores 1 no multiples)(+1141(2) 1141(1))

correct answer with sign(1) ; ecfs as appropriate

correct answer scores 3

ecfs possible after 74

not particles or atom on first mark

{(7 x -242) + (-224)} (7 x -111)} (777-1918)

do not allow multiples/halves for balancing mark

allow correct balancing if O and H instead of O2 and H2

allow co-ordinate bond

correct numbers(1) ;

decrease in moles/molecules (of gas)(1) ;

June 2009

neither of last two marking points score if formulae incorrect

ss stand alone for recognisable species

Additional Guidance

first mark of latter three marks is process mark

Marks

sum of products minus sum of reactants(1) ;

formulae of elements(1) ; balancing(1) ;

elements:

pair of electrons both come from the oxygen

atom(1) ;

dative (covalent bond) (1) ;

formulae(1) ;

balancing(1) ;

3C(s) + H2O(g) + O2(g) 3CO(g) + H2(g) ss(1) ;

Expected Answers

Mark Scheme

ii

Question

2850

Total

ON bonds formed(1) ;

specify types of bond NN triple OO double(AW)(1) ;

NN and OO bonds break(1) ;

Expected Answers

28

20

Marks
con intramolecular

Mark Scheme
Additional Guidance

June 2009