Dear Friends,

Please see the below e-mail received from Dr. Ayyaz (Quality & Reliability) regarding the pattern of
midterm exam. Please note that the sample question is only for the purpose of understanding as it is
an example from Operations Management subject. I hope it will be clear to everyone.
Mail of Dr. Ayyaz:
The midterm will cover all the contents which we covered in the class. The exam as we discussed in
the class will be more on conceptual side and will be relevant to our discussions in the class. There
will be only short questions and basically it will be the extraction and application of knowledge. So all
the slide will serve as a guidelines where as you are free to study from any source you like bcz more
or less they say the same thing in different wordings. A sample question from may help you to
understand the nature of questions
Q; How learning curves can help the organization to measure the individual learning?
This question is extraction and application of learning curve theory which we discussed from different
view points in Operations Management class.

Quality
Assurance

Quality Control

QA is a set of activities for ensuring quality in

the processes by which products are developed.

Definition

Focus on QA aims to prevent defects with a focus on the

process used to make the product. It is a
proactive quality process.

QC is a set of
activities for
ensuring quality in
products. The
activities focus on
identifying defects
in the actual
products produced.
QC aims to identify
(and correct)
defects in the
finished product.
Quality control,
therefore, is a

Quality
Assurance

Quality Control

reactive process.
The goal of QA is to improve development and
test processes so that defects do not arise when
Goal the product is being developed.

How

Establish a good quality management system

and the assessment of its adequacy. Periodic
conformance audits of the operations of the
system.

The goal of QC is to
identify defects
after a product is
developed and
before it's released.
Finding &
eliminating sources
of quality problems
through tools &
equipment so that
customer's
requirements are
continually met.

Prevention of quality problems through planned The activities or

and systematic activities including
techniques used to
documentation.
achieve and
What
maintain the
product quality,
process and service.
Everyone on the team involved in developing the Quality control is
product is responsible for quality assurance.
usually the
responsibility of a
Responsibility
specific team that
tests the product for
defects.
Verification is an example of QA
Example

Validation/Software
Testing is an
example of QC

Quality
Assurance

Quality Control

Statistical Tools & Techniques can be applied in

both QA & QC. When they are applied to
processes (process inputs & operational
parameters), they are called Statistical Process
Statistical
Control (SPC); & it becomes the part of QA.
Techniques

When statistical
tools & techniques
are applied to
finished products
(process outputs),
they are called as
Statistical Quality
Control (SQC) &
comes under QC

Quality Assurance (QA) refers to the process used to create the

deliverables, and can be performed by a manager, client, or even a third-party
reviewer. Examples of quality assurance include process checklists, project
audits and methodology and standards development.

Quality Control (QC) refers to quality related activities associated with

the creation of project deliverables. Quality control is used to verify that
deliverables are of acceptable quality and that they are complete and correct.
Examples of quality control activities include inspection, deliverable peer
reviews and the testing process.

Quality control is about adherence to requirements. Quality assurance is

generic and does not concern the specific requirements of the product being
developed.

Quality assurance activities are determined before production work begins

and these activities are performed while the product is being developed.
In contrast, Quality control activities are performed after the product is
developed.
It is important for an organisation to agree on what the meanings ofQuality Assurance (QA) and Quality
Control (QC). Both form an integral part of the organisation's quality management plan, and the
effectiveness of delivery teams relies on the differences being well understood by all stakeholders,
including management.
Effective quality systems can contribute enormously to the success of projects, but the counterpoint is
that, when poorly understood, the quality systems are likely to be weak and ineffective in ensuring that the
delivered system is delivered on time, built by the team within their allocated budget, and satisfies the

customers requirements.
This article considers the difference between Quality Assurance and Quality Control. The concepts are
investigated by looking at guidance from key industry players.

Introduction
How many times has it struck you that many practitioners involved in the ICT field lack an understanding
of the difference between Quality Assurance and Quality Control? Often you will hear someone talk about
QA, when what they actually mean is QC.
This ambiguity consistently throws up problems and is a sure way of undermining a project. Projects are
negatively affected as it tends to lead to strained conversations and makes reaching consensus difficult.
Although QA and QC are closely related concepts, and are both aspects of quality management, they are
fundamentally different in their focus:

QC is used to verify the quality of the output;

QA is the process of managing for quality.

Achieving success in a project requires both QA and QC. If we only apply QA, then we have a set of
processes that can be applied to ensure great quality in our delivered solution, but the delivered solution
itself is never actually quality-checked.
Likewise, if we only focus on QC then we are simply conducting tests without any clear vision for making
our tests repeatable, for understanding and eliminating problems in testing, and for generally driving
improvement into the means we use to deliver our ICT solutions.
In either case, the delivered solution is unlikely to meet the customer expectation or satisfy the business
needs that gave rise to the project in the first place.

Understanding the Difference Between QA and QC

So, what exactly is the difference between Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)?
A good point of reference for understanding the difference is the ISO 9000 family of standards. These
standards relate to quality management systems and are designed to help organisations meet the needs
of customers and other stakeholders.
In terms of this standard, a quality management system is comprised of quality planning and quality
improvement activities, the establishment of a set of quality policies and objectives that will act as
guidelines within an organisation, and QA and QC.
In the ISO 9000 standard, clause 3.2.10 defines Quality Control as:
A part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality requirements
Clause 3.2.11 defines Quality Assurance as:

A part of quality management focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be
fulfilled
These definitions lay a good foundation, but they are too broad and vague to be useful. NASA, one of the
most rigorous software engineering firms in the world, provides the following definitions
(www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codeq/software/umbrella_defs.htm):
Software Quality Control:
"The function of software quality that checks that the project follows its standards, processes,
and procedures, and that the project produces the required internal and external (deliverable)
products"
Software Quality Assurance:
"The function of software quality that assures that the standards, processes, and procedures are
appropriate for the project and are correctly implemented"
Simply put, Quality Assurance focuses on the process of quality, while Quality Control focuses on the
quality of output.

Quality Assurance: a Strategy of Prevention

QA is focused on planning, documenting and agreeing on a set of guidelines that are necessary to assure
quality. QA planning is undertaken at the beginning of a project, and draws on both software
specifications and industry or company standards. The typical outcomes of the QA planning activities are
quality plans, inspection and test plans, the selection of defect tracking tools and the training of people in
the selected methods and processes.
The purpose of QA is to prevent defects from entering into the solution in the first place. In other
words, QA is a pro-active management practice that is used to assure a stated level of quality for an IT
initiative.
Undertaking QA at the beginning of a project is a key tool to mitigate the risks that have been identified
during the specification phases. Communication plays a pivotal role in managing project risk, and is
crucial for realising effective QA. Part of any risk mitigation strategy is the clear communication of both the
risks, and their associated remedies to the team or teams involved in the project.

Quality Control: a Strategy of Detection

Quality Control, on the other hand, includes all activities that are designed to determine the level of quality
of the delivered ICT solutions. QC is a reactive means by which quality is gauged and monitored,
and QC includes all operational techniques and activities used to fulfil requirements for quality. These
techniques and activities are agreed with customers and/or stakeholders before project work is
commenced.
QC involves verification of output conformance to desired quality levels. This means that the ICT solution
is checked against customer requirements, with various checks being conducted at planned points in the
development lifecycle. Teams will use, amongst other techniques, structured walkthroughs, testing and
code inspections to ensure that the solution meets the agreed set of requirements.

Benefits of Quality Management

The benefits of a structured approach to quality management cannot be ignored.
Quality Control is used, in conjunction with the quality improvement activity, to isolate and provide
feedback on the causes of quality problems. By using this approach consistently, across projects, the
feedback mechanism works towards identifying root-cause problems, and then developing strategies to
eliminating these problems. Using this holistic approach ensures that teams achieve ever higher levels of
quality.
As a consequence of formulating and executing a quality management plan the company can expect:

Greater levels of customer satisfaction, which will very likely result in both repeat business, as
well as referral business

A motivated team that not only understand the policy objectives of the quality management plan,
but who also actively participate in executing the plan

Elimination of waste by eliminating rework arising from either the need to address bugs, or to
address gaps in the solutions ability to meet customer requirements

Higher levels of confidence in planning, since the tasks arising from unplanned rework will fall
away

Financial rewards for the company, which are a consequence of new projects from existing and
referral clients, as well as through the reduction of monies spent on rework tasks.

The terms quality assurance and quality control are often used interchangeably
to refer to ways of ensuring the quality of a service or product. The terms, however,
have different meanings.

Assurance: The act of giving confidence, the state of being certain or the act of
making certain.
Quality Assurance: The planned and systematic activities implemented in a quality
system so that quality requirements for a product or service will be fulfilled.
Control: An evaluation to indicate needed corrective responses; the act of guiding a
process in which variability is attributable to a constant system of chance causes.
Quality Control: The observation techniques and activities used to fulfill
requirements for quality.

Difference between QA and QC

As we've talked in a previous post about the Definition of Quality, with these 2 terms exist
the same issue where every single person/organization defines Quality Assurance (QA)
and Quality Control (QC) in a bit different way. Also, many people including HHRR (Human
Resources) and quality professionals do not know what QA and QC really means, and what
the difference is between both terms. For those reasons, these concepts areoften used
interchangeably, and in some organizations one department performs the activities of
both.
The truth is that both terms have strong interdependence; QA relies mostly on the QC
feedback and both work to deliver good quality products/services; but they are different
processes.
Next table shows the differences between them.

QA

vs.

Definition from ASQ.org

Assurance: The act of giving
confidence, the state of being certain or
the act of making certain.
QA: The planned and systematic
activities implemented in a quality
system so that quality requirements for
a product or service will be fulfilled.

QC
Definition from ASQ.org
Control: An evaluation to indicate
needed corrective responses; the act
of guiding a process in which
variability is attributable to a constant
system of chance causes.
QC: The observation techniques and
activities used to fulfill requirements
for quality.

Other definition
Other definition
QA is a failure prevention system that
predicts almost everything about
product safety, quality standards and
legality that could possibly go wrong,
and then takes steps to control and
prevent flawed products or services
from reaching the advanced stages of
the supply chain.

QC is a failure detection system that

uses a testing technique to identify
errors or flaws in products and tests
the end products at specified intervals,
to ensure that the products or services
meet the requirements as defined
during the earlier process for QA.

QA department develops all the

planning processes and procedures in
order to try to make sure that the
products manufactured or the service
delivered by the organization will be of

As some process parameters cannot

be controlled, QC
department checks the products or
services for defects that happen due
to these parameters, trying to achieve

good quality.

the overall QC objective of providing a

defect-free product or service to the
customers.

QA defines the standards/methodology QC ensures that the defined

to be followed in order to meet the
standards are followed at every step.*
customer requirements. *

* This is done by conducting various tests and checks. Based on them, the QC
prepares regular reports that act as an input to the QA department which then
reviews the same and decides on the corrective and preventive
actions required in the processes.
In general, the QA activities are done
before the product is manufactured or
the service delivered (proactive
approach).

The QC activities are done

during the manufacturing process and
once the product is manufactured.

QA is process oriented.

QC is product oriented.

QA makes sure you are doing the right

things, the right way.

QC makes sure the results of what

you've done are what you expected.

QA tasks are conducted by managers,

third party auditors, and customers. *

QC tasks are executed by experts

who are directly involved with the
design, or manufacture of a product
on the shop floor such as engineers,
inspectors, etc. *

* For this reason, one person cannot perform both activities (QA and QC)
because will result in a conflict of interest.
Examples
- A QA audit would focus on the
process elements of a project. e.g.: Are
requirements being defined at the
proper level of detail?
- Process documentation

Examples
- A QC review will focus on product
elements. e.g.: Are the defined
requirements the right requirements?
- Performing inspections
- Preforming testing

- Establishing standards
- Developing checklists
- Conducting internal audits
Example
- QC detected a recurrent problem with the quality of the products. QC provides
feedback to QA personnel that there is a problem in the process or system that
is causing product quality problems. QA determines the root cause of the
problem and then brings changes to the process to ensure that there are no
quality issues in future.

NOTE 1: Quality Assurance AKA Quality Guarantee

NOTE 2: QA/QC are not limited to the manufacturing field, they can be applied to any
business or non-business activity such us services, software, banking, transportation, office,
education, etc.
CONCLUSION
Both departments are essential to maintain good quality of the deliverables.
And keep in mind no matter how you define QA and QC, the goal is: to delivery
good quality.
Defining Quality
Quality assurance relies on a strict definition of what is acceptable and not acceptable from
a product or service. If a customer has ordered a widget from your company that is to be cut
into three-inch pieces, then a four-inch piece does not meet the quality standard. A cleaning
service may have a standard that calls for bathroom mirrors to be cleaned free of smudges;
a fingerprint left behind falls outside of the standard.
It is your responsibility to your company's success to make sure that every employee
understands the quality definitions and how he is to make certain those standards are met.
Related Reading: What Is Quality Assurance in Terms of Value for Money?

Measuring Quality
Measuring the quality that is delivered is critical for consistent results. Managers and
supervisors should check an employee's work as it relates to quality standards. When quality
falls short, supervisors are responsible for making the change required to bring quality back
to the proper standard.

Improving Quality
The old expression, "There is always room for improvement," rings true when it comes to
quality assurance. To keep your business on the cutting edge, you should always be asking
the question, "How can we make this better?" By tweaking the process here and there or by
raising standards a small bit each year, you will see your overall business quality improve to
levels greater than you ever imagined.

Introduction
Quality is an important factor when it comes to any product or service. With the high market
competition, quality has become the market differentiator for almost all products and services.
Therefore, all manufacturers and service providers out there constantly look for enhancing their
product or the service quality.
In order to maintain or enhance the quality of the offerings, manufacturers use two techniques,
quality control and quality assurance. These two practices make sure that the end product or the
service meets the quality requirements and standards defined for the product or the service.
There are many methods followed by organizations to achieve and maintain required level of
quality. Some organizations believe in the concepts of Total Quality Management (TQM) and some
others believe in internal and external standards.
The standards usually define the processes and procedures for organizational activities and assist
to maintain the quality in every aspect of organizational functioning.
When it comes to standards for quality, there are many. ISO (International Standards Organization)
is one of the prominent bodies for defining quality standards for different industries.
Therefore, many organizations try to adhere to the quality requirements of ISO. In addition to that,
there are many other standards that are specific to various industries.
As an example, SEI-CMMi is one such standard followed in the field of software development.
Since standards have become a symbol for products and service quality, the customers are now
keen on buying their product or the service from a certified manufacturer or a service provider.

Therefore, complying with standards such as ISO has become a necessity when it comes to
attracting the customers.

Quality Control
Many people get confused between quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA). Let's take a
look at quality control function in high-level.
As we have already discussed, organizations can define their own internal quality standards,
processes and procedures; the organization will develop these over time and then relevant
stakeholders will be required to adhere by them.
The process of making sure that the stakeholders are adhered to the defined standards and
procedures is called quality control. In quality control, a verification process takes place.
Certain activities and products are verified against a defined set of rules or standards.
Every organization that practices QC needs to have a Quality Manual. The quality manual outlines
the quality focus and the objectives in the organization.
The quality manual gives the quality guidance to different departments and functions. Therefore,
everyone in the organization needs to be aware of his or her responsibilities mentioned in the
quality manual.

Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance is a broad practice used for assuring the quality of products or services. There
are many differences between quality control and quality assurance.
In quality assurance, a constant effort is made to enhance the quality practices in the organization.
Therefore, continuous improvements are expected in quality functions in the company. For this,
there is a dedicated quality assurance team commissioned.
Sometimes, in larger organizations, a 'Process' team is also allocated for enhancing the processes
and procedures in addition to the quality assurance team.

Quality assurance team of the organization has many responsibilities. First and foremost
responsibility is to define a process for achieving and improving quality.
Some organizations come up with their own process and others adopt a standard processes such
as ISO or CMMi. Processes such as CMMi allow the organizations to define their own internal
processes and adhere by them.
Quality assurance function of an organization uses a number of tools for enhancing the quality
practices. These tools vary from simple techniques to sophisticated software systems.
The quality assurance professionals also should go through formal industrial trainings and get them
certified. This is especially applicable for quality assurance functions in software development
houses.
Since quality is a relative term, there is plenty of opportunity to enhance the quality of products and
services.
The quality assurance teams of organizations constantly work to enhance the existing quality of
products and services by optimizing the existing production processes and introducing new
processes.

Conclusion
When it comes to our focus, we understand that quality control is a product-oriented process. When
it comes to quality assurance, it is a process-oriented practice.
When quality control makes sure the end product meets the quality requirements, quality assurance
makes sure that the process of manufacturing the product does adhere to standards.
Therefore, quality assurance can be identified as a proactive process, while quality control can be
noted as a reactive process.

Quality Assurance Activities

Quality Assurance Activities or QAA is designed for product evaluation and process monitoring. They also assure that
the product development and associated processes are correctly carried out as per the process control plan.
Products are monitored for conformance to standards and operations are monitored for conformance to procedures.
Quality Assurance Activities not only assure the existence of clear and achievable standards but also evaluate the
compliance of the products to the established standards.

In Quality Assurance Activities, audits are the key technique used to perform product evaluation and process
monitoring. At the same time, they also assure that appropriate steps to carry out the process are being followed.
Moreover, management plan review ensures that appropriate methods are regularly supplement to these processes.
Audit report to management consists of the findings and recommendations to bring the development into
conformance with standards and/or procedures. QAA assures that:

All the operation and production activities are performed in

accordance with the quality plans, standards and procedures.
Configuration control is maintained in critical phases of testing,
acceptance and delivery.
Authentication is established by a series of reviews that exhibit
the performance required by the standard or contractual specification.
Verification and validation activities are done by monitoring
technical reviews, inspections and walkthrough.
Formal testing is done in accordance with plans and procedures.
Requirements are complete, testable and properly expressed.

How do I Write a Quality Control/Quality Assurance

Plan?
Quality assurance plans evaluate the effectiveness of company procedures.

Related Articles

About Call Center Quality Assurance Programs

Quality Assurance Management Techniques
How to Build a Quality Assurance Program
Quality Assurance Vs. Audit
Quality Assurance Process & Procedures
Definition of Quality Assurance in Customer Service

Quality assurance evaluates and modifies an organization's procedures to make sure they
provide the desired results. A quality assurance plan includes an organizational structure,
details on each employee's responsibilities, and the qualifications an employee needs to
fulfill those responsibilities. It looks at production to verify that the suppliers, and the
materials they ship, correspond to the requirements for the product. It specifies adequate
product testing, and feeds back test results and customer complaints to solve problems and

encourage improvements throughout the organization. Small businesses use quality

assurance to increase efficiency and improve customer satisfaction.
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Organization
An organization chart with detailed job descriptions is a basic requirements of quality
assurance. To include one in your quality assurance plan, write job descriptions that include
the qualifications and training required to carry out the specified tasks. The plan must
include a requirement for documentation on the actual training and qualifications of the
person holding the position. The position of the person responsible for quality assurance
must include the required training, documentation that the holder of the position has the
training and a reporting path directly to upper management.

Work Verification
Your quality assurance plan must not only detail who is responsible for carrying out a
particular task, but it also must specify who is responsible for checking the work. In small
businesses, it is OK for the person doing the work to also check it, but he has to carry out
the verification as a separate task, according to separate procedures. In larger organizations,
employees in the same department can check each other's work. But the quality assurance
plan often specifies that, for critical tasks, work verification must be carried out by someone
especially qualified or with extensive experience.
Related Reading: About Call Center Quality Assurance Programs

Material Receiving
Another requirement of quality assurance is that the material used for production must meet
the specifications for manufacturing a product of the desired quality. The quality assurance
plan should specify the characteristics of the purchased materials. The plan assigns the task
of verifying incoming material and details the inspection that is required. Material that
doesn't meet the requirements is returned.

Supplier Qualification
While inspectors can verify the adequacy of basic materials, the testing of complicated
pieces of equipment upon receipt is often not possible. Instead, your quality control plan has
to specify the standards that prospective suppliers must meet before they can bid on a

contract. For example, you might specify an external standard such as ISO 9000, or require
that your organization performs an audit on each potential supplier to ensure that
procedures considered critical for the success of the quality plan are in place. In either case,
the quality control plan should have a list of qualified suppliers.

Quality Feedback
While a quality assurance plan tries to ensure that the procedures in place result in a quality
product, companies derive full benefits from such an initiative via the feedback mechanism.
Your quality assurance plan implements feedback through investigation of customer
complaints and the correction of non-compliance issues. Specify that the person responsible
for quality assurance receives copies of all customer complaints, then checks to see if they
are the result of non-compliance with the quality assurance plan. Internally, if a person
responsible for a task notices that a process is not in accordance with the applicable
procedures, he has to issue a non-compliance report. The non-compliance reports are the
feedback used to track quality issues back to their origin.

Corrective Action
The corrective action plan is the key to solving quality problems and specifies how to deal
with them. Your quality assurance plan must specify that the person responsible for quality
assurance verifies how the non-compliance originated when he receives a non-compliance
report or creates one himself. Since the quality assurance plan documents responsibility for
all tasks and actions, it is possible to identify the persons responsible for the noncompliance.
In the quality assurance plan, you must specify that a group -- including a representative
from quality assurance, the person who did the work and the person who checked it -- try to
find a solution that will prevent the non-compliance from recurring. The fact that the person
responsible for quality assurance reports to upper management ensures that the group has
access to the required resources. Sometimes the solution includes improvements to the
quality assurance plan. Often it addresses gaps in the quality controls or procedures. When
the company applies such feedback consistently, the result is a continuous improvement in
company performance.

http://www.thecqi.org/Knowledge-Hub/Resources/Factsheets/Total-qualitymanagement/