Plodders, Pragmatists, Visionaries and Opportunists

Career Development International
Plodders, pragmatists, visionaries and opportunists: career patterns and employability

Marilyn Clarke
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Marilyn Clarke, Margaret Patrickson, (2008),"The new covenant of employability", Employee Relations, Vol.
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Jon P. Briscoe, Lisa M. Finkelstein, (2009),"The new career and organizational commitment: Do
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CDI
14,1
Plodders, pragmatists,
visionaries and opportunists:
career patterns and employability
8
Received 13 April 2008
Revised 8 July 2008
Accepted 28 September
2008
Marilyn Clarke
Business School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore individual approaches to career and employability
through the career stories of a group of mid-level to senior managers in career transition. Career
patterns are identified and then compared with traditional, boundaryless and protean models of career.
The study aims to consider the extent to which individuals in this group had adopted behaviours
supportive of future employability as opposed to behaviours more in line with traditional careers.
Design/methodology/approach The research adopted an interpretive and qualitative approach.
In-depth interviews were conducted with people currently going through a career transition program.
The interviews were recorded and then transcribed, coded and analysed using NVivo, a qualitative
research software tool.
Findings Career patterns appeared to be shifting away from traditional careers and more towards
protean and boundaryless models. There was evidence of increased responsibility for career
self-management and of behaviours supportive of ongoing employability. Self-perceived employability
could be linked to degree of job mobility and having a future career orientation.
Research limitations/implications Despite the small sample size and the subjective nature of
self-reported career histories the study provides insights into the relationship between career patterns
and employability. Both organisations and individuals need to work towards developing attitudes and
behaviours supportive of employability such as flexibility, adaptability and a future career orientation.
Practical implications Individual level career management will need to focus more on the
development of attitudes and behaviours appropriate to contemporary employment relationships than
on the development of formal career plans. At an organizational level support can be provided by
encouraging flexibility through activities such as job rotation, short-term projects and opportunities
for both internal and external networking.
Originality/value The study provides empirical evidence of how careers are being managed
within contemporary employment relationships.
Keywords Careers, Career development, Employment
Paper type Research paper
Career Development International

Vol. 14 No. 1, 2009
pp. 8-28
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1362-0436
DOI 10.1108/13620430910933556
Introduction
Perspectives on careers have changed. The traditional organisational career, once seen
as the norm, is now regarded by many as more relevant to the last century (Inkson and
Arthur, 2001; Baruch, 2004a; Kuijpers and Scheerens, 2006). Models, such as the
boundaryless career (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), protean career (Hall, 1996b),
portfolio career (Handy, 1994), post-corporate career (Peiperl and Baruch, 1997) and
intelligent career (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994) have been presented as models for a
future in which careers are more likely to be characterised by flexible employment
contracts, multiple employers, lateral job moves and multiple career changes. An
underlying theme of these models is that, increasingly, an individuals job security
will be anchored not in a particular organisation but in their own portable skills and
employability (Mallon, 1998, p. 363). Thus individuals are encouraged to embrace
career self-management (Clarke and Patrickson, 2008; Sturges et al., 2008) and to see
measures of career success in terms of psychological success at an individual level, (for
example personal accomplishment or feelings of pride and achievement) rather than
more objective measures such as progression through the organisation hierarchy with
its associated status markers (Hall, 1996a; Arthur et al., 2005).
Over the last decade two models have dominated thinking and research within the
careers literature; the protean career (Hall, 1996b; Mirvis and Hall, 1996; Baruch, 2004b;
Briscoe et al., 2006) and the boundaryless career (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996; Briscoe
and Hall, 2006; Sullivan and Arthur, 2006). Both models link career success to a flexible
and adaptive approach to career in which the emphasis is on maintaining
employability through inter-organisational moves, life-long learning, a transactional
psychological contract and career self-management (Inkson, 2006). While the idea of
protean or boundaryless careers is appealing in terms of matching the career needs of
individuals with the workforce needs of organisations, it is still unclear to what extent
individuals are adapting to contemporary employment relationships or how they are
managing careers for future employability.
The aim of this article is to explore individual approaches to career and
employability by reflecting on the career stories of a group of mid-level to senior
managers in career transition. The study considers the extent to which individuals in
this group had adopted behaviours supportive of future employability, such as lifelong
learning, flexibility, and career planning, as opposed to behaviours more in line with
traditional careers, such as a short-term focus on current job requirements and the
development of organisation or industry specific skills. Different career patterns are
identified through individual career stories and then compared with traditional,
boundaryless and protean models of career.
Careers old and new
An early definition of career describes it as a succession of related jobs, arranged in a
hierarchy of prestige, through which persons move in an ordered, predictable
sequence (Wilensky, 1960, p. 554). The traditional career was seen as taking place
within the confines of organisational boundaries (Hind, 2005). Metaphors for career
progression included terms such as climbing the ladder, working your way through
the ranks or moving up the hierarchy; career success was evidenced by increasing
status, responsibility and monetary rewards (McDonald et al., 2005). The psychological
contract underpinning the employment relationship was premised on a reciprocal
relationship characterised by commitment, loyalty and trust (Morrison and Robinson,
1997). Individuals who offered hard work and loyalty could anticipate that they would
be rewarded with an organisationally managed career which included training,
development, promotion and long-term job security (Baruch and Hind, 1999; Baruch,
2003).
The question currently under debate is whether or not the traditional career still
exists, and if so, to what extent? Some contend that the traditional career is alive and
well, and that organisational careers are still a preferred option for those who are
seeking stability and structure (Guest and McKenzie-Davey, 1996; Collin, 1998; Jacoby,
1999; Ackah and Heaton, 2004). They argue that careers are undergoing certain shifts
and transitions (Baruch, 2006, p. 127) rather than a complete restructuring of
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traditional career paths, and that although there is a much greater emphasis on taking
personal responsibility for career development traditional career paths are still offered
in certain organisations and sectors such as the public sector (McDonald et al., 2005).
There is also debate as to whether individuals are wanting careers which offer
independence more than employment security (Clarke and Patrickson, 2008), career
self-management (Maguire, 2002; Sturges et al., 2002), and the new transactional
psychological contract instead of the old relational psychological contract (Baruch,
2006).
Regardless of this debate, much of the current careers literature is premised on the
belief that traditional careers are giving way to new patterns of career that reflect the
uncertain environments in which both organisations and individuals now operate (e.g.
Pringle and Mallon, 2003; Arthur et al., 2005; Baruch, 2006). Contemporary careers are
more likely to include periods of work and non-work, lateral, spiral and vertical
progression, and intra-organisational as well as inter-organisational career shifts. As a
consequence individuals can no longer rely on the organisation for career management,
or anticipate life-time employment in the one job, the one organisation or the one
industry. Essentially, the concept of job security has been replaced by the concept of
employability (Baruch, 2004a).
Thijssen et al. (2008, p. 167) define employability very broadly as the possibility to
survive in the internal or external labor market but what this means in practice
remains a contentious issue. For example, employability can be seen as a
psycho-social construct embodying individual characteristics that facilitate
adaptive behaviours necessary to remain employable (Fugate et al., 2004, p. 16). It
can also be seen in terms of labour market context, either internal or external (Forrier
and Sels, 2003), or as an employment outcome in which possessing and demonstrating
employability related characteristics leads to actual employment (Hillage and Pollard,
1998). Berntson et al. (2006, p. 9) see employability as an individual perception which
reflects the perceived possibility of acquiring (new) employment whereas McQuaid
(2006) suggests that employability is highly dependent on personal circumstances and
an individuals capacity for job flexibility and mobility. van Dam (2004) stresses the
importance of employability orientation, or an employees response to organisational
interventions designed to maintain individual employability and organisational
flexibility. In a similar vein, van der Heijden and Thijssen (2003) link employability
with HRD interventions designed to promote and maintain skill development,
flexibility and adaptability to change. How employability should be managed has also
engendered debate. Ideally employability should be a joint responsibility between
employer and employee with organisations offering a range of developmental activities
and processes designed to prepare employees for their next job (Waterman et al., 1994;
Benson, 2003; ODonoghue and Maguire, 2005). However, to a large extent it would
seem that responsibility for employability has now been transferred from the
organisation to the employee (Van Buren, 2003; McQuaid and Lindsay, 2005). Fugate
et al. (2004, p. 15) claim that, rather than a joint responsibility, the onus is on
employees to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs)
valued by current and prospective employers in order to maintain employability in
both current and future employment contexts. Against this background career models,
such as the protean and boundaryless career, provide new ways of defining career and
new approaches to career management.
The protean career

Hall and colleagues (Hall, 1996a, 1996b; Hall and Mirvis, 1996; Hall and Moss, 1998)
proposed the protean career as a viable and attractive alternative to the traditional
career. Named after the Greek god Proteus, the protean career is one in which
individuals are willing and able to rapidly reshape and reform themselves in response
to changing environmental circumstances (Inkson, 2006). While the traditional career
takes place within organisational boundaries, the protean career is enacted across
multiple organisations. It is characterised by a values-driven attitude (individual
values rather than organisational values), and a self-directed attitude towards career
management (Briscoe et al., 2006, p. 31). The person who adopts a protean orientation
towards career will welcome the chance to explore new possibilities and will seek
psychological success through lateral or spiral career moves. He or she will continually
seek opportunities to learn new things and will see career as a series of learning cycles
(Hall and Mirvis, 1996). Two meta-competencies have been identified as underpinning
a successful protean career; adaptability and identity (or self-awareness) (Hall, 2004,
p. 6). Hall (2004) argues that a true protean careerist will develop both of these
meta-competencies which facilitate self-evaluation followed by adaptive responses.
This adaptability helps the individual to survive and prosper within turbulent
environments while still maintaining personal values.
The boundaryless career
According to Arthur and Rousseau (1996, p. 6), the boundaryless career is
characterised by independence from, rather than dependence on, traditional
organisational career arrangements. In pursuing a boundaryless career the focus
shifts from climbing the corporate ladder to a career that is enacted via a series of
lateral, vertical and spiral moves (Currie et al., 2006). These moves provide
opportunities for learning and development thus increasing the likelihood that skills
and work experiences will remain current and marketable and that the individuals
employability will be enhanced. As with the protean career, the boundaryless career
requires the capacity for flexibility, adaptability and self-assessment in order to
successfully navigate career transitions. The locus of responsibility is transferred
from the organisation to the career actor (Arthur, 1994, p. 304).
The boundaryless career has been described as one in which the individual moves
from job to job, or from organisation to organisation thus transcending physical
boundaries (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996; DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996; Gunz et al., 2000).
More recently there has also been an increased focus on boundarylessness in terms of
both physical mobility, or actual movement between jobs, firms, occupations and
countries and psychological mobility, or the capacity to move as seen through the
mind of the career actor (Sullivan and Arthur, 2006, p. 21). Psychological
boundarylessness may manifest itself as the belief that it would be relatively easy
to move across organisations, or that extra-organisational networks have created
working relationships that support current or future employment. Incorporation of
psychological boundarylessness takes into account the fact that a person could
embrace a boundaryless mindset, yet rely on one organisation to develop and foster his
or her career (Briscoe et al., 2006, p. 32). That is, physically individuals may remain
within a single organisation but perceive their career to be boundaryless if there are
many career opportunities yet to be explored, or if the organisation has encouraged
Plodders,
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horizontal career moves as well as vertical moves, or if the individual is supported by

strong internal and external networks.
Method
The research used a qualitative methodology. This approach, in which data was
gathered through semi-structured interviews, was considered the best means of
exploring career histories while encouraging individual voice in the sense-making
process (Weick, 1995). Interviews have been shown to be an effective tool in
researching careers, providing a rich source of data as individuals reflect on career
choices and decisions, and the implications and outcomes of those choices (Arthur et al.,
1999; Cohen and Mallon, 2001; Sullivan and Mainiero, 2007). In this study personal
career histories offered insights from which to inductively generate new ideas about
how individuals view their careers and employability as well as comparing actual
careers with theoretical models (Sekaran, 2000).
The study was conducted in a private outplacement firm located in a large
Australian city. The organisation specialised in the outplacement of mid-level to senior
managers whose redundancy package had included between three and six months of
outplacement support. By targeting clients from this organisation the study provided
an opportunity to explore careers at a critical point, that is, during a period of career
transition (Hall and Chandler, 2005). Arnold (1997, p. 594) suggests that transitions
expose the fragility of subjective careers, thus forcing people to rethink their career
stories, to re-evaluate their career success and to re-assess their current employability.
It was anticipated that people in mid-level to senior management would have
interesting stories to tell about their work history and the way in which their careers
had evolved over time, particularly given that managerial careers have been
significantly affected by the loss of traditional hierarchical career paths and by the
shift in responsibility for career from the organisation to the individual (Adamson et al.,
1998). The researcher was also interested to know how managers, who are normally
expected to provide career support and direction to their subordinates, had managed
their own careers within a rapidly changing career context.
Various sampling techniques were used to identify a suitable group of people
beginning with a relatively passive approach. Initially an information brochure was
placed at the reception desk in the hope that clients would volunteer to participate in an
interview, however, this resulted in very low response rates so after several weeks
reception staff were asked if they would approach clients directly when they came for
their weekly consultants meeting. At this point the sampling became more purposeful
in an attempt to find an adequate number of people to interview as well as ensuring a
relatively balanced sample in terms of age, gender, organisation type, professional
background and level of seniority (Neuman, 2006). Although this raises the issue of
bias, particularly in terms of the organisation perhaps selecting participants with a
more positive outlook on the outplacement process, purposeful sampling is regarded as
appropriate to qualitative research in which the aim is to identify information-rich
cases for study in depth (Patton, 1990, p. 169). In this instance the resultant sample
included people from a diverse range of backgrounds with varied employment
experiences and at different stages in their careers but all in the process of career
transition. The sample group comprised seven women and thirteen men aged between
30 and 60 years of age. Previous employment had been across a range of industries
including banking and finance, pharmaceutical goods, or service industries, and in
both public and private sectors. Their redundancy had resulted from mergers,
restructuring or completion of fixed term contracts.
Interviews commenced with a sample of ten people. The interviews, which lasted
between 60 and 90 minutes, were conducted in a meeting room provided by the
outplacement firm. Using a semi-structured interview guide they began with a
discussion of career history to date and then explored how careers had been managed,
perceptions of how careers had changed over time, perceptions of what it means to be
employable and how individuals rated their current employability. The interviews
were digitally recorded and then transcribed into Microsoft Word to allow for a
preliminary analysis of the data. This analysis involved reading through the
transcripts to gain an overall feel for the data followed by coding of responses
according to topics that reflected the primary focus of the research, that is, the extent to
which individuals had adopted behaviours supportive of career self-management and
future employability as opposed to behaviours more in line with traditional careers.
Coding and analysis of the data was facilitated by the use of NVivo (QSR, 1997), a
software program in which data is coded and indexed by emergent themes and key
words under coding nodes. This type of software is particularly useful where large
amounts of qualitative data have been collected. Once the data has been coded it is a
relatively simple process to cross reference themes and explore patterns in the
transcripts by analysing node data or comparing data in different nodes (Richards,
2005). For example, by coding key words or phrases in relation to career management,
(such as networking, career planning, career development), as well as phrases
describing career stories and career decisions at critical points in time, categories and
combinations of categories began to emerge from the data. At this stage some patterns
were evident but it was felt that a larger sample would provide a more detailed picture
and thus facilitate more useful research findings. Purposeful sampling was again used
to identify another ten people to be interviewed. After twenty interviews it appeared
that no new themes were emerging and thus the researcher decided that it was not
necessary to recruit further participants. This data was then transcribed and coded.
Although all the coding was undertaken by the researcher each transcript was coded
twice to check for reliability and consistency and to ensure that no significant issues
had been overlooked in the initial coding (Richards, 2005).
Research findings
Four distinct career patterns emerged from the data; the traditional individual career,
the traditional organisational career, the boundaryless career and the protean career.
These patterns reflected the extent to which individuals had adopted behaviours
associated with career self-management and employability (King, 2004; Rothwell and
Arnold, 2007). Career self-management was measured in terms of career planning, or
the setting of clearly defined career goals and plans (Sturges et al., 2002; Briscoe and
Hall, 2006; Barnett and Bradley, 2007); job mobility, was assessed as the individuals
willingness, capacity and flexibility to move across jobs and organisations (Kossek
et al., 1998; Briscoe et al., 2006; Kuijpers and Scheerens, 2006; Feldman and Ng, 2007);
and career orientation, as either an internal focus (current job, current organisation) or
an external, future career focus (Sturges et al., 2008; van Veldhoven and Dorenbosch,
2008). In the following section these career patterns are demonstrated through the work
histories of individuals who typified these key behaviours (see Table I).
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Plodders
The four plodders had pursued a traditional career in which they had anticipated job
security as long as they worked hard and remained loyal to the company. There was
little indication that their careers had been planned or that they had considered where
each step would lead in the future. Their focus was very much on short-term individual
outcomes. Personal development was linked to their profession or their current
position.
Alison (early 50s)[1] completed an undergraduate degree and then worked in
industry for two years before being asked back to the university as a tutor. For 11 years
she worked in both academic and administrative roles until she was replaced in her
teaching role by a postgraduate student:
I think I paid far too much attention to my job rather than the political environment and I
failed to complete a PhD. So when a PhD student came along and needed a job, even though
they didnt have any experience in a particular area they were given that position.
Dissatisfied with her ongoing administrative position she began to look around for a
new job. Through industry contacts she was offered a job in an organisation in the food
industry where she remained for the next 16 years. Over this period she was active in
her professional association which offered training in areas such as presentation skills,
time management and performance coaching. She had also undertaken a large number
of industry related training courses to ensure that she remained up to date with her
industry. She believed that she had made significant contributions to the day-to-day
operations as well as the future directions of the organisation, however, when advised
that she was to be made redundant it had not been a surprise:
For me that was pretty much the writing on the wall. Jobs in my area are very few and far
between so I suspected that if an opportunity came around I would be made redundant.
In addition, she recognised that she lacked political savvy and the capacity to influence
managers at a higher level. While colleagues networked and actively participated in
politics she had remained focused on her immediate job which she felt had caused her
to be overlooked for promotion. She had also failed to re-direct her career despite the
fact that her long-term prospects were becoming increasingly limited. In the last
sixteen years she had applied for two jobs but had been unsuccessful for one and had
withdrawn from the other because her husband did not want to leave his job and
relocate overseas.
Adam (mid-30s) had joined the public sector after completing an Honours degree.
For the next 11 years he had worked across various government departments in project
based work. To a large extent his public sector career had evolved as a result of the
government policies of the day. That is, on several occasions policy changes had led to
the closure or downgrading of projects or functions in which he had been involved thus
Table I.
Career patterns and
employability
Career self-management
Job mobility
Career orientation
Employability (self-perceived)
Plodders
Pragmatists
Visionaries
Opportunists
Unplanned
Stable
Present
Low
Semi-planned
Stable
Present
Low
Planned
Flexible
Future
High
Semi-planned
Flexible
Future
High
forcing him to look for an alternative position. Over this period he had completed an
MBA as well as undertaking various short courses associated with his current project.
Following his marriage he had relocated interstate where he found a position as a
public policy manager in a private sector organisation. After four months his contract
was terminated as a result of interpersonal conflicts with his manager.
As he reflected on his career he noted the lack of planning and his failure to think
about how todays decisions might affect tomorrows career options:
I think one of my greatest criticisms of my own career is that it probably wasnt as well
managed as I should have made it. I think that there was probably a point a few years ago I
could have gone down one path and I chose not to. . .and it was just because I was saying, oh
look, Im bored with this place, theres an opportunity, lets go there, and I didnt necessarily
think where that step might take me in the next five years.
Having moved out of the public sector he now realised that he had failed to develop the
type and level of skills that would make him attractive to a private sector employer:
The general nature of my history doesnt necessarily lend itself to the more specific skill sets
that are in demand by employers who are employing at a level that I might like to enter the
private workforce at.
In particular, he lacked managerial experience which he now realised was expected for
the salary level that he was seeking. He also realised that he had not developed good
networks and so was struggling to know where to look for a job and how to tap into the
hidden employment market. Throughout the interview he continually reflected on
the way in which his career had evolved with comments such as:
I think that my CV, well I could have been more thoughtful about the development of my
career up till now.
Pragmatists
The four pragmatists had actively pursued traditional careers within an organisational
framework because they believed the organisation could offer security and stability as
well as variety and professional development. Career decisions had been made in the
light of opportunities within the organisation, which had allowed for both horizontal
and vertical career moves.
Lee (late 40s) had worked in a bank for almost thirty years before being made
redundant. He had progressed through a very structured organisational career:
Im an organisation type of person I suppose. I left school in 1977 at the end of year eleven. I
went out proactively by myself, managed to get a job with the bank and that was it for the
next 2912 years.
He had gained experience in all aspects of banking, gradually moving up through the
organisational hierarchy to managerial positions. He had never undertaken any formal
tertiary education but had regularly participated in company sponsored training and
development programs. When reflecting on how careers had changed over his working
life he noted that in the early days the bank had looked after individual career
development through training, mentoring and internal promotions. His personal career
strategy had involved:
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. . . waiting until some opportunity arose and then you moved into that position by
demonstrating how good you were in your current position.
However, over time he had realised that by adopting a more proactive approach to
career management he could engineer his next career move. For example, at one
point he had used his networking skills to move from an administrative position to a
quasi-legal role, a role which he found very challenging and rewarding. The range of
opportunities available in such a large organisation had enabled him to pursue a varied
and interesting career until downsizing and restructuring had begun to limit future
options. His decision to accept redundancy had been based primarily on the fact that in
order to remain with the bank he would have had to accept a position at a lower level
and lower salary than his current job.
John (early 50s) joined an insurance company after completing an undergraduate
degree. He had expected to remain with the organisation until he retired but after
thirty-two years he had been made redundant. Although he had only worked for one
employer, his career had included a wide variety of positions in both Australia and
New Zealand, each job lasting no more than three to four years. Shortages in his
profession meant that he had been well looked after. His career had evolved within a
secure and comfortable organisational environment:
There was always work; I never had to apply for any of the roles when I was asked to do
something else. They looked after me well. It was quite easy, if you did a good job there
wasnt any hassle.
He had regularly participated in organisationally sponsored training and development

workshops. He had been actively involved in his professional association to ensure that
he kept up-to-date with market changes. He had also completed postgraduate
qualifications in Management and Marketing. Over the years he had sometimes
considered moving to another organisation but had always decided that he was better
off where he was:
Occasionally something would sound interesting, youd go off to an interview, but nothing
ever appealed enough for me to leave.
In hindsight he realised that perspectives on careers had changed in recent years:

Nowadays theres far more talk about your career being your overall career but not
necessarily in the same company. So you might go elsewhere to get experience and so on but
(for me) as long as you had experience with (the company) on your CV it was fine.
Both Lee and John recognised that even though their careers had been interesting and
varied, their lack of mobility would be seen as a negative by potential employers thus
hampering future employability.
Visionaries
Three people described their career to date as something that had been carefully
planned and executed. There had been a conscious attempt to make career choices that
would build a long-term career trajectory rather than making short-term job choices.
They had been willing to change jobs within or across organisations and to physically
relocate to take up a new and challenging career opportunity.
Mike, (aged in his early 50s), had completed a business degree before moving into
accounting and finance roles in industry. He remained in these roles for the first ten
years of his career but with a clear goal of branching out into general management
when he had gained sufficient experience. The next twenty years were spent in
management roles of ever increasing complexity in large international companies
where he eventually attained a general manager position. Although he had only
worked for four different companies he had changed roles or organisations every three
to four years or when he felt bored with his current role. He had built up extensive
networks and gained experience on company boards. He had updated qualifications
through regular management development programs and was currently completing an
MBA. He described his approach to career in the following terms:
It was important for me that the roles that I had, they were progressive in terms of adding
both depth and breadth of general management experience. And there were some roles that I
declined because I thought they were going the wrong way. Ive always taken a lot of pride in
my career and taken a lot of pride in thinking about, well, whats the next step in my career.
At this point in his career he had opted for redundancy rather than take on a new
contract with his previous organisation believing that he needed to make the transition
to his last big role before age became a barrier. Having achieved many of his career
goals he was now looking for a new challenge that would allow him to combine his
interests in community development and professional development:
What Im looking for now is something different to what Ive done before. I mean, I just dont
want to go back and do pretty much the same stuff that Ive done before with a different
employer. I just want to do something a bit different.
Alistair (aged in his early 40s) had also worked for four organisations. After leaving
school he had held finance and accounting roles in the banking industry before shifting
to multinational companies in the manufacturing, pharmaceuticals and snack foods
industries. He had completed a business degree and professional accounting
qualifications part-time while working full-time. He had worked in organisations
across Australia and the USA, his most recent position with a multinational company
in the USA. For family and lifestyle reasons he had now decided to return to Australia.
Reflecting on his career he noted that in all the multinational companies in which he
had been involved there had been a strong emphasis on individual responsibility for
careers:
I found that in multinationals they will provide training programs. When they say its your
responsibility, its like you really own your own career, well do it together, theres programs
in place and theres performance appraisals, career discussions but its your responsibility to
own it and help find which way you want to go.
Alistair recognised that ongoing employability was dependent on maintaining his

brand:
It was always made quite clear that the career development is up to you and the only way you
earn the right to succeed again comes back to being a brand and to deliver the goods.
He had made clear career choices in order to prepare for future roles and future
activities and to retain control over his own career. His most recent employer had
offered him a position in Asia which he had rejected because he did not believe that it
would take him down the path that he wanted to go.
Plodders,
pragmatists,
visionaries
17
CDI
14,1
18
Opportunists
Opportunists comprised the dominant group in this study. The nine people who could
be categorised in this way displayed a protean approach to career. Their interviews
were frequently punctuated by the words opportunity and change. They had
pursued varied career paths within a range of jobs and organisations, seeing each
move as a chance to learn new things and gain different experiences.
After leaving school Tom (mid 50s) had enrolled in a commerce diploma which gave
him entry into the accounting profession:
I started basically as a clerk and built up my skills through moving around with companies
and also at times moving between companies.
His career had been extremely diverse. Over a thirty-six year period he had worked for
nine different companies in a range of industries that included construction,
manufacturing and banking. He had held positions in accounting, finance, consulting,
and project management. He had worked in Australia, Asia and across the South
Pacific. In describing his career he commented:
My career, its been a bit chameleon like; Ive re- invented myself a couple of times.
He regarded himself as a product whose skills would be marketable as long as he had

something of value to offer an employer. To remain marketable he had sought to
continually take on new challenges, to update his expertise and to adopt a flexible
attitude. He had upgraded his qualifications (including completing an MBA) as well as
undertaking in-house training and development programs. In terms of career planning
he had consciously looked for ways to expand his skills portfolio by learning about one
area or industry and then moving on to another:
I worked for a mix of companies, spent quite a bit of time, about five or six years in the
construction industry and then right, I know that industry, Ive got to learn other thing. So I
got into manufacturing to understand the manufacturing industry from an accounting point
of view and also the importing etcetera attached with that.
He noted that while some potential employers regarded his employment history as
unstable others recognised that he had built up broad knowledge and expertise in
divergent industries. His general approach to career had been one of change which he
summarised as, by changing you keep flexible.
Sarah (late 30s) began her working life in her final year of school. Her three
part-time jobs included her own small window cleaning business which had helped
fund her university studies. Having completed a commerce and marketing degree she
joined a large bank in their graduate program. Her decision to take this path was based
on the fact that at that stage she was unsure which direction to go with her career:
I think the main reason for doing the graduate program is I just didnt really know what I
wanted to do, I had no sense of working in a commercial environment, I had no sense of what
area of marketing I wanted to focus on.
She saw the graduate program as providing the opportunity to gain experience in
many areas within the organisation and hopefully enable her to discover her strengths
and main interests. On completion of the graduate program she moved into the area
responsible for organisational change, working on projects that included changing
business processes and changing organisational culture. At this point she realised that
many of the changes within the bank were being driven by technology but that she had
lacked knowledge or experience in this area. To overcome this deficit she asked to stay
with one particular project which involved the implementation of technology through
user interface design so that she could strengthen her expertise and gain a broader
understanding of the relationship between people and technology.
After seven years with the bank her next career move was again driven by the
realisation that she lacked knowledge of the operational side of technology and what
that fundamentally meant to business on a day-to-day basis. Her new job provided
broad exposure to a range of operational functions as she moved from business
analyst, to project manager to business change manager. However, after another seven
years an organisational restructure led to her position becoming redundant. Following
a short holiday she had recently begun working three days a week as a consultant
while preparing to move to Canada where her partner had moved with his job.
Samantha described her career as unplanned, yet she had constantly sought to make
the most of opportunities to learn new things, to gain further experiences and develop
new skills. Her move to Canada was another opportunity to do something she had
never done before:
Ive never had that, I never worked overseas, never had that sort of different perspective on
things, and it just seemed like an appropriate time to do it, because I dont really have any
commitments and Im really looking at well, how can my life be quite different.
Discussion
Given that organisations are operating in increasingly unstable environments, to what
extent have individuals responded to these changes by becoming more proactive with
regard to career management and employability? In this study results were mixed.
There was some evidence that at an individual level people had responded to changing
career contexts and had recognised the need to be self-aware and adaptable, to plan,
and to take control of their own careers. Yet, it was also clear that the traditional,
organisationally bounded career was alive and well. Both the plodders and the
pragmatists had continued to pursue traditional careers despite signs that this style of
career was becoming less secure and less viable. Both groups believed that traditional
careers offered valid career pathways, varied job opportunities, personal development
and career progression but their approach to career management differed markedly.
The plodders had seen their careers from a very narrow, short-term, individual
perspective. Their careers were characterised by relative stability even though their
work history may have spanned several organisations in different, but related,
occupational categories. There was little evidence of planning, networking, or political
awareness. Although they had participated in on-going training and development they
had tended to focus on the short term or on their current industry and profession rather
than looking for developmental opportunities that might prepare them for the future
(Baruch, 2004b). Career moves had been forced on them, rather than initiated by them.
Their careers had been characterised by limited physical mobility as well as low
psychological mobility (Sullivan and Arthur, 2006). Overall, there was little evidence of
behaviours supportive of ongoing employability such as adaptability and career
identity, or of the creative use of human and social capital (McArdle et al., 2007).
Alisons physical mobility had been constrained by her partners preference not to
relocate even though an international posting would have greatly enhanced her career
Plodders,
pragmatists,
visionaries
19
CDI
14,1
20
development. Her psychological mobility had been constrained by the tendency to

focus on her job and her profession rather than exploring wider career options. She
now believed that she would eventually find another job but was not confident that it
would be at the same level as her previous position or that it would be a full-time,
permanent position. On several occasions Adams position on a project team had
disappeared as a result of political or policy changes but as new roles had always
emerged he had never felt the need to explore jobs outside the public sector. He had
enjoyed the comfort zone of the familiar. When he did move to the private sector it had
been because his partner had taken a job in another city, not because he was pursuing a
career plan. He was now struggling to know what type of job to look for or what type of
organisation would best suit his qualifications and experience. On reflection both
Alison and Adam realised that their lack of career planning and low level of job
mobility now impacted on their future employability in the external labour market.
The pragmatists careers had also been enacted in large organisations but they had
taken a broader organisational perspective which involved making the best use of
opportunities to progress in their organisation. Their careers had been relatively stable
but there was evidence of some degree of planning. They had identified closely with
their organisation and their industry. They had enjoyed their work and the
relationships that they had developed with peers and external stakeholders. Over time
they had built up significant expertise which contributed to feelings of satisfaction and
achievement. From time-to-time they may have considered moving to another
organisation but had chosen to stay because their current employer had offered job
security as well as task variety and opportunities for growth, indicating a current
rather than future career orientation. Despite their lack of job mobility people in this
group described their career in terms that reflected characteristics of boundaryless or
protean careers. For example, John had worked for the same organisation for 32 years
but in that time he had moved from job to job, department to department and country
to country. Although his career may have been physically bounded within a single
organisation he spoke about his career history in words more indicative of a
psychologically boundaryless career (Sullivan and Arthur, 2006). However, the
experience of career transition had made the pragmatists realise that by focusing on an
internal organisational career they had failed to maintain their employability in the
external labour market and that their options for the future were now quite limited.
In keeping with the contemporary careers literature, the visionaries and
opportunists had demonstrated flexible and adaptable behaviours towards careers
and employability (Baruch, 2004a). There was evidence of responsiveness to
environmental changes, of physical and psychological boundarylessness, of reshaping
to meet changing environments, and a life-long learning approach to work and career
(Hall and Moss, 1998; Arthur et al., 2005). The visionaries had pursued careers that
were planned and flexible and which reflected characteristics of the boundaryless
career. In some instances their careers had largely evolved within a few organisations
yet they expressed a strong sense of both physical and psychological
boundarylessness (Inkson, 2006; Sullivan and Arthur, 2006). They were actively in
control of their careers which involved planning for the next career move, thinking
where that move might lead in the longer term and whether or not that would fit with
their overall career plans. At times they had declined a seemingly good offer because
they did not believe that it would take them to where they wanted to go in the future, an
indication of a strong future career orientation. They were confident in moving across,
as well as within, organisations and in taking lateral, as well as vertical, career shifts.
Mike had always planned a senior position in general management. He had taken jobs
that contributed to his ongoing development and that provided foundations for his
next career move. He had displayed high levels of physical and psychological mobility
and as a consequence was now very confident in his own employability in the external
labour market (King et al., 2005).
The opportunists had taken a semi-planned and flexible approach to careers. Their
careers had included many twists and turns as they embraced opportunities to develop
new skills, acquire new knowledge and gain experience in different organisations and
industries. Their careers were protean in nature, reflecting both a capacity and a
willingness to rapidly reshape and reform themselves in response to their current
circumstances (Hall and Moss, 1998; Hall, 2004). They displayed a life-long learning
attitude towards their careers, highly developed self-assessment skills and an
awareness of what was happening in the internal and external environment (Hall and
Mirvis, 1996). Their careers had been values driven and self-directed (Briscoe et al.,
2006). They demonstrated a high level of job mobility (in both internal and external
labour markets) and a strong future career orientation. For example, Sarah had looked
for opportunities to expand her skills portfolio by taking on new projects, accepting
lateral career moves and pursuing personal interests. She had strong work-related
values in terms of only wanting to pursue jobs that would provide satisfaction,
challenge and opportunities for growth.
Using career assets
In addition to career planning and career flexibility, career patterns reflected how
people made use of their career assets (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996). Inkson and Arthur
(2001) describe career assets as three ways of knowing. Knowing why refers to the
sense of purpose, motivation and identification with our work that we bring to our
careers. Knowing how includes the skills, expertise, tacit and explicit knowledge
accumulated over time, while knowing whom describes the attachments,
relationships, reputation, sources of information and mutual obligations that we
gather as we pursue our careers (Inkson and Arthur, 2001, p. 51).
The plodders demonstrated a strong sense of knowing how and knowing why but
had poorly developed skills in the area of knowing whom. Thinking about their careers
to date, they realised that lack of political networking had hampered their career
progress and had meant that they tended to be overlooked for internal promotions in
favour of colleagues who were able to make the right connections. Although they had
good professional knowledge, skills and experience they were unsure of their
employability in the external labour market due to their limited personal networks.
The pragmatists, who identified closely with their organisation and their profession,
were strong on knowing why. They also had high level organisational skills and
expertise (knowing how) and good internal networks (knowing whom) but their
external networks were generally weak. Having worked for many years in the same
organisation they recognised that they were now labelled by potential employers as
institutionalised which was likely to limit their future employment prospects.
The visionaries were characterised by a strong sense of knowing why. They were
motivated to succeed and had a clear sense of purpose about their career choices.
However, they also demonstrated the capacity for knowing how and knowing whom.
Their approach to career had ensured that they had built up very marketable career
Plodders,
pragmatists,
visionaries
21
CDI
14,1
22
assets that supported a high level of employability. They were confident that they would
be able to make yet another transition relatively easily. The opportunists had focused on
knowing how but unlike those pursuing traditional careers they had looked for ways to
enhance their generic skills portfolio for current as well as future employability. This
approach to career was evident in their capacity for change and their desire for
continuous learning and development. They not only understood how the employment
market operated but were aware of what they could offer a potential employer.
Responses to change
This sample comprised people whose careers had spanned the turbulent decades of the
1980s and 1990s when many organisations had undergone significant structural
change in response to environmental pressures (Reitman and Schneer, 2003; Feldman
and Ng, 2007). The experience of career transition, as well as the self-assessment
activities that they had undertaken as part of the outplacement process, had led to a
re-evaluation of their careers to date and a re-assessment of their perceived
employability. In reflecting on their career histories, many commented on the
fundamental changes that had occurred in the nature of careers and career
management over time. They were well aware that career success, once associated with
loyalty, hard work, and organizationally specific skills and experience, was now
associated more closely with a proactive approach to career management (which
included a high degree of self-awareness), the capacity and willingness to be flexible
(physically or psychologically), and responsiveness to change (in both the internal and
external labour markets). Some noted that while organisations continued to offer a
degree of support for careers there had been a marked shift towards career
self-management (Quigley and Tymon, 2006).
Choice of career pattern did not appear to be directly linked to age or gender,
although as expected older people were more likely to have experienced long-term
employment with one organization while younger people had changed jobs and
organizations more frequently. Those who now perceived themselves as having a high
level of current employability indicated that throughout their careers they had been
aware of, and responsive to, what was happening in their environment. They had
maintained a future career orientation with a focus on upgrading skills, networking,
looking for opportunities and rejecting career moves that might lead to a dead end.
They had embraced physical flexibility by moving across, or within, jobs, projects and
organisations which, as King et al. (2005, p. 986) suggest, facilitates regular updating,
because it increases the range of skills and knowledge acquired. Thus both
intra-organisational and inter-organisational career moves may stimulate
psychological flexibility by encouraging skill updates, life-long learning and a more
resilient response to change (van der Heijden, 2001). From an external viewpoint
careers may appear to be relatively stable (enacted within a single organisation) yet be
characterised by behaviours such as a willingness to learn new things, to take on new
projects or to adapt to new systems and processes, behaviours normally associated
with flexible career patterns. Those who perceived they had a high level of
employability had also demonstrated a willingness to engage in some form of career
planning, either long term strategic or shorter term, but with view to building and
using career assets. Those with a more boundaryless mind-set had made strategic
career decisions that involved lateral as well as vertical job shifts and regular
self-assessment. The protean careerists had been less strategic but had seized
opportunities to prepare themselves for the next step in their career thus continually
enhancing their career assets. By contrast, those who had pursued relatively stable
traditional careers perceived their current employability to be quite low. They
acknowledged that they had either not noticed the ways in which careers were
changing, or had noticed, but not responded appropriately. They had continued to
work hard, to maintain the skills required for their current job and to build internal
networks yet had failed to prepare for future employability.
Conclusion and implications
Patterns of career and employment have changed and, no doubt, will continue to
change in response to organizational factors and individual choices (De Vos and
Dewettinck, 2008). In this dynamic environment the challenge for researchers is to
continually re-examine existing career models and then to evaluate their usefulness in
the light of actual career behaviours (Arthur et al., 2005). Reflecting on the ways in
which different career patterns influence individual outcomes, such as the likelihood of
becoming employed or remaining employed in current labour markets, enhances our
understanding of how best to manage careers for ongoing employability.
The findings of this exploratory study indicate that despite significant changes to
organizational and career structures some individuals have remained locked in a
traditional career mindset in which the focus is on current roles and maintenance of
existing skills rather than preparing for an uncertain future through ongoing
self-assessment, environmental scanning and skill development. At the same time,
there is evidence that others are pursuing boundaryless or protean career paths, while
for some people career consists of an interweaving of all three models. That is, in this
study some had followed quite traditional careers, working for a single organization
until they had been made redundant, yet they had demonstrated a psychologically
boundaryless attitude and a proactive, adaptive approach to change. When assessing
perceived employability the critical issues did not seem to be whether careers had been
unplanned, semi-planned or planned but the extent to which individuals had exhibited
both job mobility and a future career orientation. Those with experience across a range
of roles and organizations, as well as a focus on developing themselves for the future,
were more confident in their employability and more optimistic about the future. This
finding is significant for older workers. Research suggests that there is generally a
negative relationship between age and employability and that the degree of
employability indeed decreases with the age of the employee, especially where the
transition to a new job field, or to a higher job is concerned (van der Heijden, 2002, p.
58). While there is significant evidence that age stereotypes impact on employment
options for older workers, in this study there were indications that the effects of age
could be moderated by prior career patterns. In terms of career success, it would seem
that the critical issue was not which model was adopted, but whether or not individuals
adopted behaviours and mind-sets generally associated with boundaryless or protean
careers in which the individual accepts responsibility for career management, seeks
opportunities for personal and career development, and is willing to continually adapt
and change. Mind-sets and behaviours, such as lifelong learning, flexibility,
adaptability, self-awareness, networking and career planning, help build career
assets and thus support ongoing employability and long-term career success. They
also offer a good fit with the shift towards more transactional employment
relationships.
Plodders,
pragmatists,
visionaries
23
CDI
14,1
24
To some extent these findings are limited by the fact that self-reported career
histories are by nature highly subjective and thus may not accurately measure
objective career success. Self-perceived employability is also highly subjective. In this
study individuals tended to base their current employability on previous labour market
experiences which may not provide a realistic evaluation given volatility in the labour
market as well as the impact of individual factors such as increasing age and degree of
skill maintenance. Self-perceived employability is also dependent on how individuals
evaluate characteristics such as adaptability, flexibility and life-long learning, and
whether or not they are able to realistically self-assess. However, self perception is
important because it indicates that individuals are engaging in the self-assessment
processes required to evaluate current employability and manage employability for the
future (Kossek et al., 1998; Rothwell and Arnold, 2007).
The findings may also be limited by the size of the sample and the focus on
managerial level employees. Nevertheless, this study provides useful insights into how
people view their career histories and their career choices and decisions at a significant
point in their lives (Gibson, 2004). These times of reflection are important in the study
of careers as they have the potential to stimulate a more critical evaluation of both
objective and subjective career success, particularly when job loss is accompanied by
formal career transition processes. It was evident that the experience of job loss had
prompted a re-thinking of how career had been managed to date and how this now
impacted on their employability. An extension of the research to incorporate people at
different levels or in different professions would indicate whether these approaches to
career management are generally applicable or only applicable to those at a managerial
level.
As career patterns continue to evolve the ability to adapt and change will be critical
to individual career success as well as to organizational performance. Career
management at an individual level will need to focus more on the development of
attitudes and behaviours supportive of employability, such as job mobility and a future
career orientation, than on formal career planning. At an organizational level the shift
to an employability mindset can be supported by providing opportunities for career
enhancing activities such as job rotations, short-term projects and internal and external
networking. Career management and employability may now be considered primarily
an individual responsibility yet organisations have much to gain by encouraging more
flexible attitudes and behaviours and helping prepare their employees for the future.
Note
1. Interviewees have been given pseudonyms to protect their anonymity.
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About the author
Marilyn Clarke is a Senior Lecturer in the Business School at the University of Adelaide where
she teaches Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Management. Prior to commencing
an academic career she worked in Business Planning, Marketing and HRM for a large Australian
organization. Her research interests include the individual experience of job loss, particularly in
the context of voluntary redundancy, changing patterns of careers, career transitions and
employability. She is currently involved in a study of career pathways for the aged care industry
which will explore ways to make aged care a more attractive profession.
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Plodders, pragmatists, visionaries and opportunists: career patterns and employability

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The protean career

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horizontal career moves as well as vertical moves, or if the individual is supported by

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He had regularly participated in organisationally sponsored training and development

In hindsight he realised that perspectives on careers had changed in recent years:

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Alistair recognised that ongoing employability was dependent on maintaining his

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He regarded himself as a product whose skills would be marketable as long as he had

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development. Her psychological mobility had been constrained by the tendency to

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