Glossary

We have put together a short glossary, which we hope you will find useful for reference. This
can be expanded if there are terms that you feel we have missed.

Allele

A version of a gene; a gene can have multiple alleles and most

genes have at least 2 alleles
acetylation (protein)
The addition of a acetyl group to a protein, carried out by
acetylase enzymes and reversed by deacetylase enzymes.
adenocarcinoma
Cancer which develops from glandular epithelium lining tubes
adjuvant treatment
A treatment which is given together with, or following, another
treatment. Commonly refers to chemotherapy after surgery.
aerobic
In the presence of oxygen.
aflatoxin
A type of mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus moulds.
amino acids
The building blocks of proteins. The sequence of the gene
encoding a protein determines its amino acid sequence. The
physical and chemical properties of the amino acids determine
the functions of the protein.
amplification (of gene)
An increase in the number of copies per cell of a gene.
Angiogenesis
The formation of new blood vessels (Latin 'angio' - vessel;
'genesis': formation)
angiogenesis
New blood vessel formation.
antibody
A protein produced in response to a specific antigen.
antigen
A foreign substance which induces an immune response in the
body, in particular the production of antibodies
Apoptosis
A type of controlled cell death (derived from the Greek for
'falling leaves')
Autophagy
A type of cell death by lysosomes
Bases
Chemical structures which contain nitrogen and form part of
the DNA
benign
Tumour which does not have the ability to migrate away from
site of origin.
bioinformatics
A computer science discipline aimed at creating algorithms to
analyse and interpret complex biological data.
biological or targeted therapy A type of drug used to treat cancer which specifically targets
molecules needed for cancer development rather than
targeting all fast-growing cells.
biomarker
A molecule which can be measured and which correlates with
the presence of particular types and sub-types of cancer.
biopsy
Using needles or surgery to remove a small part of a tumour in
order to analyse it.
bone scans
Nuclear scan to look for abnormalities in bone, such as cancer.
cancer
Clinical disease characterised by the presence of one or more
neoplastic tumour growth.
University of Bath

cancer cell or tumour cell

cancer genomics
cancer stem cell
capillaries
carcinoembryonic antigen
Carcinogens
carcinoma
case control study
catabolism
causation
cell division
cell line
checkpoint
chemotherapy
chromatin
chromosome

clonal evolution

clone
c-Myc
codes for a protein
codon

combination therapy
connective tissue
constitutively active
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A cell in which mutations have arisen to allow it gain some
hallmarks of cancer.
The study of the cancer genome
A cell within a cancer which can both self-renew, and give rise
to the other cells in the cancer.
Very narrow blood vessels in the tissues.
A cancer biomarker.
Any agent that can cause cancer
A cancer from epithelial cell origin.
Study that compares patients who have a disease with controls
who do not have the disease.
The metabolic breakdown of complex molecules to produce
smaller molecules and energy.
A linking between a cause and an effect e.g. smoking and lung
cancer.
The division of a cell into 2 daughter cells, after it has
replicated its DNA.
Cells which are able to keep dividing indefinitely in culture.
They are commonly used in scientific research.
A control mechanism allowing cells to check for DNA damage
and other parameters before continuing with the cell cycle.
A class of cancer treatment drugs which stops rapidly dividing
cells from multiplying and causes them to die.
The components of chromosomes, ie: DNA and associated
proteins and RNA.
Structures within the cells nucleus that contain the cells DNA
bound to proteins (mainly histones); package the cells DNA
into a small volume.
A multistep process through which cells accumulate mutations,
and cells with mutations that are favourable for growth
become dominant in the cell population. One model of how
cancer develops.
A population of cells derived from one single cell, so that every
cell is genetically identical.
A gene that encodes a transcription factor (controller for other
genes)
See transcription and translation
A group of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA or RNA which
can code for one amino acid; the basic unit of the genetic
code.
The use of more than one treatments together to treat cancer.
Usually refers to a mix of chemotherapies.
Supportive tissue - includes bone, cartilage, fat, blood vessels,
and fibrous tissue.
Active all the time, not subject to normal regulation

Contact inhibition
CT or CAT scan
curative treatment
cytology
cytotoxic
deacetylation
diagnosis
differentiation

DNA

DNA base
DNA damage

DNA polymerase
DNA repair
dominant
dose response
Dysplasia
E-cadherins
ECM

efficacy
EGFR
endocrine therapy
endogenous
enzyme

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Contact inhibition is an anti-cancer mechanism, in which a cell
stops dividing when it comes in contact with another cell
Computerised tomography. A series of X-rays are computerised
to show the inside of the body.
A type of treatment which aims to remove cancer from the
patient, so that the patient is cured from cancer.
The analysis of samples of cells from a tumour.
A type of drug which kills cells. Often refers to chemotherapy
drugs.
Removal of acetyl group, opposite of acetylation
Determining whether a patient has cancer and, if so, which
type and sub-type.
The process through which a non-specialised cell changes into
a specialised cell type (e.g. progenitor blood cell changing into
a mature B-lymphocyte).
Deoxyribonucleic acid - a chemical carrier of genetic
information found in almost all cells (except certain viruses).
Structurally resembles a twisted ladder and contains the sugar
(deoxyribose), phosphate and bases (4 types: thymine,
adenine, guanine and cytosine)
A nucleotide. A single component of the DNA code. Can be A,
T, G, or C.
Damage to the cells DNA, can include single or double
stranded breaks. Can be repaired or can result in mutations or
even cell death.
Enzyme which synthesizes DNA from constituent molecules.
Repair of damaged DNA by a series of enzyme and molecules.
A genetic condition in which only one mutated copy is required
to be inherited for an individual to display symptoms.
Effect of a drug on an organism at different concentrations.
The process of abnormal expansion of a cell type during
development
Type of membrane bound protein
Extracellular matrix - mixture of polysaccharides and proteins
that fills the spaces between cells and gives support to a
tissue
Measure of a drugs ability to produce the desired effect.
Cell surface receptor for the EGF growth factor; mutated EGFR
can act as an oncogene.
Therapy which modulates hormone levels or activity in order to
treat hormone-dependent cancers.
Produced from within.
A protein or other molecule produced by a cell that catalyses a
chemical reaction; examples include proteases, kinases, and
methylases.

epidemiology
Epigenetics

epigenome
epithelium
estrogen receptor
estrogen/oestrogen
exon

extracellular
extracellular matrix

familial
free radicals
G1 phase
G2 phase
gain of function
gene
gene expression
genetic counselling

genetically engineered
genome
genomics
genotoxic agent
germ-line

Germ-line cells
glycolysis
grade
University of Bath

The study of how often diseases occur in a population and
why.
Physical changes to DNA that do not involve a change in the
DNA base sequence (i.e. the order of ATCGs); e.g. addition of a
methyl group to a cytosine
The total of all epigenetic modifications in a cell.
A type of tissue which lines most of the internal and external
surfaces of the body
Steroid receptor for estrogen. Estrogen can only act by binding
to the receptor.
Female sex hormone, released from the ovaries, which
stimulates growth of the breast epithelium.
Parts of the genome that remain in mature RNA after
transcription and RNA processing steps including intron
removal. Includes but is not limited to protein-coding regions.
Out of the cell
The structural mesh of proteins, glycoproteins and
proteoglycans which is produced by cells, and which surrounds
cells within a tissue.
Inherited
An uncharged molecule with an unpaired electron. Highly
reactive. Reactive oxygen species are a type of free radical.
Gap1 (pause in cell division before DNA replication)
Gap 2 (pause in cell division after DNA replication)
A mutation which gives a gene/protein a function which the
wild-type does not have.
A DNA sequence which codes for a functional RNA. Usually this
RNA will code for a protein.
The frequency at which the DNA from a gene is being
transcribed into mRNA and protein.
Process by which individuals are given information about an
inherited condition, risks of recurrence, therapy and
prophylactic measures.
Organism in which the DNA sequence has been altered
specifically.
All the chromosomes of an individual.
The study of the genome.
Chemical which can damage the genetic material within a cell.
Relating to reproductive cells. Any changes in a reproductive
cell (egg or sperm) will be passed on to the offspring
originating from that cell.
Sperm cells and egg cells.
The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate,
NADH, and ATP (energy), occurs in the cytoplasm.
A measure of the appearance of cancer cells.

growth factor
hallmarks of cancer
HER2
heritable
heterogeneity
histology
histone
Homeostasis
hyperplasia
hypertrophy
hypoxic / hypoxia
Imatinib (gleevec)
immunogenic
immunohistochemistry
immunosuppression
immunosuppressive
in situ
incidence
inflammation
Integrins
intercalating agent
interphase
intracellular
ionising radiation
karyotyping

leukaemia
ligand

local treatment
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A protein which binds to specific receptors on target cells and
stimulates growth and proliferation.
Characteristic alterations of normal cell function which must
occur in order for a cell to become cancerous.
Receptor for EGF, a growth factor involved in cancer.
A characteristic which is passed on from parent to offspring.
The state of being heterogeneous, i.e. consisting of dissimilar
parts rather than multiple identical parts.
Microscopic study of the anatomy of tissues and cells.
Protein around which DNA packs, affecting its ability to be
transcribed.
Control of internal conditions, maintaining them at a stable
level.
An increase in the number of cells.
An increase in the size of cells.
Low or lack of oxygen.
A drug used to treat multiple cancers. The first example of a
tyrosine kinase inhibitor as a targeted cancer therapy.
Likely to trigger activation of the bodys immune system
defences.
A laboratory technique that uses antibodies to detect a
particular protein of interest in a tissue sample.
Suppression of immune system responses.
Suppresses the activity of the bodys immune system.
Situated in place of origin.
The number of new cases in a population over a defined period
of time.
Protective response of the body against harm.
A receptor protein that attaches the cell to its surrounding
A type of chemotherapy. See Chemotherapy article in week 4
for detailed description and examples.
Stage of the cell cycle where the cell prepares for cell division
by duplicating its DNA
Within the cell
Radiation with high energy particles which can ionise the
tissue they travel through.
Examination of the chromosomes to look for large-scale
mutations. Usually performed at metaphase stage of the cell
cycle.
Cancer of the blood.
A molecule that specifically binds to a receptor. For example,
each growth factor is the ligand for a specific growth factor
receptor.
Treatment which only affects an area of the body. Opposite of
systemic treatment.





Small bodies located along the lymph vessels which drain
interstitial fluid.
lymphadenectomy
Removal of one or more lymph nodes by surgery.
lymphatics
Vessels which carry lymph fluid to the lymph nodes and
eventually back into the blood circulation.
lymphatics (lymphatic vessels) The parts of the circulatory system that carry lymph, which is a
plasma-like fluid containing white blood cells.
lymphoma
Cancer of the lymph nodes.
M phase
Mitosis phase (cell cycle)
malignancy / malignant
Cancer which has spread from the primary site to secondary
disease
sites.
mass spectroscopy
A scientific technique which allows determination of the
chemical components of a sample.
mastectomy
Surgical removal of one or both breasts.
melanoma
Tumour of melanin forming cells, a type of skin cancer.
metabolism
The chemical reactions occurring within a living cell or
organism; made up of anabolism and catabolism
metaphase
Stage of cell division during which the chromosomes become
attached to the spindle fibres.
metaplasia
The reversible process of replacement of one differentiated cell
by another mature differentiated cell
Metastasis
Spread of cancer cells to a different location (Greek - to
change or transit)
methylation (DNA or protein) The addition of a methyl group to DNA or protein, carried out
by methylase enzymes and reversed by demethylase enzymes.
microenvironment
The immediate small-scale environment of a cell or tumour.
micrometastases
Very small metastases which cannot yet be detected or
visualised.
miRNA
Micro RNA
mismatch repair
Cellular system which corrects wrong bases inserted e.g.
during DNA replication.
missense mutation
A single nucleotide change in DNA, which alters the amino acid
sequence of the encoded protein. A type of point mutation.
Mitosis
Process of cell division, which results in one cell splitting into
two daughter cells.
MMP
Matrix metalloproteinases - enzymes that digest proteins in
the ECM
modality of therapy
A type of therapy
Molecular genetics
The study of genes are the cellular and molecular level using
microscopy or molecular biological methods
molecular pathology
The science of analysing diseased tissue using molecular
techniques such as PCR or transcriptomics.
monoclonal antibody
A protein produced by immune cells that recognises and bind
to only one specific target. Can be produced artificially and are
used as therapies because of their specificity.

lymph node

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mortality
MRI scan
mRNA
mutagens
mutation
myc
ncRNA
necrosis
neo-adjuvant therapy
neoplasia
neoplasm/tumour
next-generation sequencing
non-curative
nucleic acids
nucleosome
nucleus
oncogene
Oncogenes

oncologist
oncology
oxidation
oxidative phosphorylation
p53
palliative treatment

pap smear
pathology
PDGF
PET scan

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The death rate.
Magnetic resonance imaging. Uses powerful magnets to
generate an image of the inside of the body.
Messenger RNA (see transcription)
Any agent (chemical or physical) which causes DNA mutations
A change in the the normal DNA sequence.
An important oncogene; a transcription factor.
Non-coding RNA, all types of RNA that are not directly
involved in protein synthesis. Includes microRNA etc.
A type of cell death, involves cell lysis (bursting open)
Treatment to reduce tumour size before surgery.
An abnormal mass of tissue of which cancer is one type.
Abnormal growth of a mass of tissue
Technologies that can sequence an entire cell genome in a few
days
Tumour or cancer which cannot be cured with current available
therapies.
DNA and RNA.
A unit of a chromosome, including the DNA and its associated
histone proteins.
The membrane-bound organelle within a cell which contains
the genetic material.
A gene which can induce cancer.
Genes that can cause cancer. They are usually mutated
versions of normal genes called proto-oncogenes, which ensure
that a cell divides at the right time. Hence mutant protooncogenes are called oncogenes.
A medical professional specialising in cancer management and
treatment.
The study and treatment of cancer.
A particular type of chemical reaction, often involving oxygen.
The metabolic reactions that occur within the mitochondrion in
the presence of oxygen to produce ATP.
An imporant tumour suppressor gene; a transcription factor.
Treatment for a cancer which cannot be cured. The aim of the
treatment is to ease pain and symptoms and prolong life, but
not to cure the cancer.
A sample of cervical epithelium cells is taken and analysed to
look for the very early stages of cervical cancer.
The science of analysing diseased tissue.
Platelet derived growth factor (a protein factor that controls
cell division, especially during angiogenesis).
Positron emission tomography. Produces detailed 3-D images
of the body, and can show how effectively some parts of the
body are functioning.

phase I, II and III trials

phospholipid
phosphorylation (protein)

Photon beam
placebo
Point mutations
polymerase (RNA and DNA)
precursors
prevalence
prevalence ratio
primary cancer
progenitor cell
progesterone
prognosis
prognostic
proliferation
Promoter

promoter (of gene)

prophylactic
proteasome
protein
proteomics
proton
proto-oncogene
quality adjusted life year
(QALY)
quality adjusted life years
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Clinical trials, carried out in humans, which test the safety and
efficacy of a new drug candidate.
A type of lipid (fat) that is especially important in making cell
membranes.
The addition of a phosphate group to a protein, carried out by
protein kinase enzymes and reversed by protein phosphatase
enzymes.
A high energy X-ray beam. The dose given is measured in units
called Grays (Gy).
A dummy drug, used as a control in clinical trials.
Mutation of a single base pair (nucleotide) (see DNA base).
Enzyme which allows DNA to be copied (DNA polymerase) or
transcribed to RNA (RNA polymerase).
Cells which are more differentiated than stem cells but can
differentiate into more mature cells.
The proportion of people affected in a population at any given
time.
The number of people with a specific cancer divided by those
who were risk of it
The initial tumour or site where the cancer originated.
A cell which can give rise to many other types of cells; a stem
cell.
A female sex hormone release from the ovary.
A prediction about the clinical outcome for the patient.
Predictive
Cell multiplication.
Part of the DNA sequence that lies ahead of the gene
sequence. This is where some proteins called transcription
factors bind, in order to start the process of transcription (see
transcription).
The DNA sequence that controls the transcription of a gene,
usually found near the start of the gene.
Preventative.
A complex of proteases which selectively destroy proteins in
the cell.
A chain of amino acids, which is encoded by mRNA.
The study of all the proteins in a sample.
A sub-atomic particle, part of all atom nuclei.
The normal cellular version of a gene which, when mutated, can
become an oncogene.
A measure of disease burden, including both the quality and
the quantity of life lived. Used in assessing the value for money
of a medical intervention.
A measure of disease burden, based on both the number of
years of life expected, and the quality of life of those years.

Quiescence
radiation oncology
radiotherapy dose
randomized control trial
receptor
recessive
recurrent disease
remission
replication (of DNA)
retinoblastoma
ribosomal proteins
Ribosome

RNA

RNA microarray

rRNA
S phase
sarcoma
screening
secondary cancer
senescence

side effect
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A term used to describe non-dividing cells
The use of ionising radiation to treat cancer. Also referred to as
radiotherapy.
The total amount of radiation applied to tumour or normal
tissues.
A scientific study to help determine whether a drug has real
benefit.
A protein, usually at the cell surface, which binds to specific
signals from outside the cell, such as growth factors.
A genetic condition in which two mutated copies are required
to be inherited for an individual to display symptoms.
Disease which returns after it has been reduced or has
completely disappeared due to treatment.
A cancer is said to be in remission if the symptoms and lump
reduce or disappear.
The duplication of DNA during mitosis to allow cell division to
occur correctly.
Cancer which develops from the immature cells of the retina.
Proteins which, along with rRNA are involved in translation of
mRNA to protein.
A complex cellular factory that synthesizes proteins in a cell.
Made of a type of RNA and proteins to form a complex
structure.
Ribonucleic acid - a single-stranded polymer that contains the
sugar (ribose), phosphate and bases (4 types: uracil, adenine,
guanine and cytosine) the sugar ribose; made through the
process of transcription; three primary types exist, and all
three function in the interpretation of the information stored in
DNAed ladder.
A scientific technique allowing determination of the RNA
components of a sample. DNA and protein arrays are also
available.
Ribosomal RNA, a type of RNA that is part of the ribosome (see
ribosome).
Synthesis phase (DNA replicates during cell cycle).
Malignant connective tissue tumour.
A programme aimed at diagnosing cancer before any signs and
symptoms have appeared.
A tumour that has spread from a primary site to a different site
or organ.
A resting state, where cells remain viable, but no longer
progress through the cell cycle and lose their ability to
replicate.
Effect of a drug which is not the main desired effect.

signalling cascade
single nucleotide
polymorphism
somatic
Somatic cells
sporadic
stage
stem cell
stromal cells

targeted therapy
tissue microarray
topoisomerase I and II
Transcribed

transcription
transcription factor
transcriptional target
transcriptome
transcriptomics
Translated

translation
translational research
translocation

transporters

tRNA
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A series of chain reactions used to amplify and transmit a

signal within a cell. Also called a signal transduction pathway.
SNP, a single base pair mutation found in the population.

Relating to the cells of the body, as opposed to relating to

germ line (reproductive) cells.
All cells except sperm cells and egg cells.
Not inherited.
Measure of how invasive a cancer has become.
A progenitor cell which can self-renew, and generates all other
cell types in a particular tissue.
The cells (such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells and immune
cells) and their associated extracellular matrix, that support a
tissue or tumour
See biological therapy.
Many small tissue samples arranged so that they can be
analysed in multiple different experiments at once.
An enzyme which unwinds DNA, and a target for
chemotherapy.
In the cellular context, this refers to the process when the
genetic message on DNA (the order of ATCGs) is copied to a
new molecule called messenger RNA.
The synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template.
A protein which binds to DNA and regulates the transcription
of a gene.
A gene whose transcription is affected positively or negatively
by the gene or protein in question.
The total of all RNA molecules expressed in a particular cell
type.
The study of all the RNAs in a sample.
In the cellular context, this refers to the process when a
protein is synthesized using the transcribed message from the
messenger RNA. A 3-letter sequence on mRNA (codon) makes
one amino acid, and a string of amino acids joined together
make a protein.
The synthesis of protein from an mRNA template.
Research which bridges basic science and clinical applications.
The rearrangement of parts of chromosomes, which results in
fusing together sections of DNA that would not normally be
adjacent.
Proteins that transport specific molecules (e.g. drugs,
metabolic intermediates) either into / out of the cell, or into /
out of particular compartments (organelles) within the cell.
Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that is vital for synthesis of
proteins. Acts as a key adaptor molecule.

tumour
tumour microenvironment
tumour suppressor gene
tyrosine kinase

ubiquitination
vasculature
VEGF

University of Bath

A lump formed from cancer cells.
The cells, molecules, and blood vessels that surround a tumour
cell.
A gene which slows cell proliferation, and when inactivated,
increases the chances of cancer developing.
An enzyme that adds a phosphate group to tyrosine residues
on target proteins, altering their function. Often involved in
growth factor signalling pathways.
The addition of a ubiquitin protein to another.
Blood vessels.
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (protein factor that
promotes angiogenesis (see angiogenesis).